Reading List

Anwar, Raja, The Tragedy of Afghanistan, (Verso, London, 1988).

Arney, George, Afghanistan, (Mandarin, London, 1990). Arnold, Anthony, Afghanistan's Two-Party Communism, Parcham

and Khalq, (Stanford University Press, California, USA, 1983).

Borovik, Artyom, The Hidden War, (Faber, London, 1991). Bradsher, Henry S., Afghanistan and the Soviet Union, (Duke

University, USA, 1985). Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Kabul, DRA, Undeclared War, 1984. Dupree, Louis, Afghanistan, (Princeton, USA, 1980). Ghaus, Abdul Samad, The Fall of Afghanistan, (Pergamon­

Brassey, London, 1988). Gupta, Bhabani Sen, Afghanistan, Politics, Economics and Society,

(Frances Pinter, London, 1986). Isby, David, War in a Distant Country, (Arms and Armour Press,

London, 1989). Klass, Rosanne, ( ed.), Afghanistan, The Great Game Revisited,

(Freedom House, New York, 1987). Majrooh, S. B. and Elmi, S. M., The Sovietization of Afghanistan,

(Afghan Jehad Works Translation Centre, Peshawar, 1986).

Malik, Hafeez, Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan, (Macmillan, London, 1987).

Metge, Pierre, L'URSS en Afghanistan, (CIRPES, Paris, 1984). Prokhanov, Alexander, A Tree in the Centre of Kabul, (Progress,

Moscow, 1983). Roy Olivier, Islam and resistance in Afghanistan, (Cambridge,

1986). Saikal, Amin and Maley, William, (eds), The Soviet Withdrawal

from Afghanistan, (Cambridge, 1989). Social Sciences Today, USSR, special issue 1981, on Afghan­

istan.

269

270 Reading List

Tapper, Richard, (ed.), The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan, (Croom Helm, London/St. Martin's Press, New York, 1983).

Urban, Mark, War in Afghanistan, (Macmillan, London, 1988).

Appendices

Appendix A People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA)

LIST OF INFLUENTIAL FIGURES IN THE PDPA, IDENTIFIED BY FACTION AND POSTS HELD, 1983.

PARCHAM FACTION Babrak Karma!, President (P) Nur Ahmad Nur, Vice-President (P) Sultan Ali Keshtmand, Chairman

Council of Ministers; Prime Minister (P)

Maj. Gen. Mohammed Rafi, Deputy Chairman, Council ofMinisters (P)

Dr Najibullah, Chief of Secret Police (P)

Mahmud Baryalai, Secretary (P} Lt. Gen. Yasin Siddiqui, Director

General, Political Affairs (P) Dr Khalil Ahmad Abawi, Deputy

Chairman, Council Shah Mohammet Dost, Minister

Foreign Affairs Suleiman Layeq, Minister Tribes and

Nationalities Sarwar Mangal, Minister Higher

Education

* P indicates 'Politburo member'

KHALQFACTION Abdurrashid Aryan, Vice President Dr Saleh Mohammad Zeary (P) Dastigir Panjsheri (P) Mohammad Danesh, Minister Mines

and Industries (P) Professor Guldad, Deputy Chairman

Council Maj. Gen. Sayed M Gulabzoi,

Minister Interior Lt. Col. Sher Jan Mazdooryar,

Minister Transport

NEITHER FACTION­NATIONALIST Lt. Col. Mohammad Aslam

Watanjar, Minister Communications (P)

Lt. Gen. Abdul Qader, Minister Defence (P)

Mohammad Khan Jalalar, Minister Commerce

NEW AFGHAN CABINET PRESENTED TO WOLASI JIRGA, 21 MAY 1990

Fazl Haq Khaleqiar, Prime Minister Mahmud Baryalai, Deputy Prime

Minister Dr Abdol Wahed Sorabi, Deputy

Prime Minister and Minister of Planning

Dr Nametollah Pazhwak, Deputy Prime Minister

Abdol Qayum Nurzay, Deputy Prime Minister

Sarwal Mangal, Deputry Prime Minister

273

274 Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-91

Mahbobollah Koshani, Deputy Prime Minister

Masoma Esmati Wardak, Minister of Education and Training

Prof. Gholam Mahaynodin Darez, Minister of Justice

Prof. Mehr Mohammad Ejazi, Minister of Public Health

Abdol Wakil, Minister of Foreign Affairs

Raz Mohammad Paktin, Minister of Internal Affairs

Saleha Faruq Etemadi, Minister of Social Security

Mohammad Hakim, Minister of Finance

Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, Minister of Defence

Gholam Faruq Yaqubi, Minister of State Security

Mohammad Sediq Saylani, Minister of Islamic Affairs and Endowment

Gholam Mayhodin Shabaz, Minister of Central Statistics

Sarjang Zazi, Minister of Border Affairs

Mohammad Ghofran, Minister of Agriculture [and Land Reform]

Dr Mohammad Anwar Dost, Minister of Light Industries and Foodstuffs

Dr Faqir Mohammad Nekzad, Minister of Construction Affairs

Abdol Samad Salah, Minister of Mines and Industries

Hamidollah Tarzi, Minister of Civil Aviation

Sayed Nasem Ulowi, Minister of Communications

Mir Abdol Ghafur Rahim, Minister of Water and Electricity

Abdol Bashir Roygar, Minister of Information and Culture

Dr Prof. Mohammad Anwar Shamas, Minister of Higher and Vocational Education

Fateh Mohammad Tarin, Minister of Returnees Affairs

Hayatollah Azizi, Minister of Roads and Rural Development

Khalilollah, Minister of Transport Nur Ahmad Berits, Minister without

Portfolio Dr Faqir Mohammad Yaqubi,

Minister without Portfolio Dr Shah Wali, Minister without

Portfolio Sayd Ekram Paygir, Minister without

Portfolio

Appendix B Afghan Opposition Parties

1. PAKISTAN-BASED PARTIES

Seven Sunni Muslim parties were grouped in a loose alliance

Fundamentalists/Islamists Leaders

Hizb-i-Islami (Islamic Party) Gulbuddin Hekmatyar Hizb-i-Islami (Islamic Party) Yunis Khalis Jamiat-i-Islami (Islamic Society) Burhanuddin Rabbani Ittihad-i-lslami (Islamic Union for Abdul Rab Rasul Sayaf

Liberation of Afghanistan)

Conservative/Nationalists Leaders

Mahaz-i-Melli (National Islamic Sayyid Ahmad Gailani Front of A(~hanistan)

Jabha-i-Nejat-i-Melli (National Sibghatullah Mujaddidi Liberation Front of Afghanistan)

Harakat-i-lnqilab-i-Islami Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi (Islamic Revolution Movement)

275

276 Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-91

2. IRAN-BASED PARTIES

Eight Shi'a Muslim parties were grouped in a Council in 1988, at the time of the UN-sponsored Geneva Accords. Only three were really significant in the guerrilla war against the PDPA government.

Three major Shi'a parties Leaders

Harakat-i-Islami (Islamic Ayatollah Mohsini Movement)

Sazman-i-Nasr (Organisation for Shaikh Abdul Karim Khalili Victory)

Pasdaran-i-Jihad-i-Islami Regional leaders inside (Guardians of Islamic Holy Afghanistan War)

Smaller Shi'a parties, with Regions regional followings

Nahzat-i-Islami (Islamic Jaghori, Hazarajat Movement of Afghanistan)

Da'wat-i Ittehad-i lslami Angora, Ghazni province (Invitation to Islamic Unity)

Niru-i-Islami (Islamic Force) Behsud, Jowzjan Hizb-i-lslami Rad-i-Afghanistan Qari Ahmad

(Party of Islamic Thunder) Jebh-i-Mutahed (United Front) party formed in 1988

Afghan Opposition Parties 277

3. OTHER OPPOSITION PARTIES

Shi'a parties independent of Regions, remarks Iran, operating in central

Afghanistan

Shura-i-Inqilab-i-Itefaq-i-Islami Sayyid Ali Beheshti, Ghazni (Council of Islamic Revolutionary Alliance)

Sazman-i-Mujahidin-i-Mustazafin secular-oriented mainly Shi'a (Organization of Warriors of party, active Ghazni and Oppressed) Bamiyan

By the mid 1980s, defunct or inactive Afghan parties included various regional fronts, Afghan Mellat, SAMA, (Afghan People's Liberation Front), Fedayan Islam.

SOME KEY GUERRILLA COMMANDERS INSIDE AFGHANISTAN

Ahmad Shah Massoud, (Tajik), Jamiat-i-Islami. Northeast provinces

Abdul Haq, (Pushtun), Hizb-i-Islami (Khalis). Kabul province

Ismail Khan, (Tajik), Jamiat-i­lslami. Herat

Sayid Jaghlan, (Hazara), Shura. Hazarajat

Jalaluddin Haqani, (Pushtun), Hizb­i-Islami (Khalis). Pakhtya

Engineer Bashir, (Pushtun), Hizb-i­lslami (Hekmatyar). North

Ghulam M Aryanpur, (Tajik), Jamiat-i-Islami. North

Qari Taj Mohammad, (Pushtun), Harakat. Ghazni area

Anwar, (Hazara), Harakat (Muhsini). Kabul area

Haji Abdul Latif, (Pushtun), NIF A. Kandahar area

Appendix C Shabnamah (night letter) of Kabul Opposition, summer 1980

THE SOCIETY OF REVOLUTIONARY WOMEN

Oh Babrak - oh you Russian puppet! Do you remember- have you got in your dirty memory that eternal day of sehum-i-aqrab (25 October 1965, when a Kabul demonstration of students urged on by Babrak Karmal was shot at by troops)? That day when you were shouting about 'the cowardly killing of the martyrs of sehum-i-aqrab, and about their slayer [General] Sardar W ali, and the black reaction using weapons against our penholding youth'.

Yes - you were uttering these words to deceive people - but damnation be upon you! You yourselfused guns, tanks, machine guns and helicopters against schoolgirls who had no weapon but their headscarves and against boys who had nothing but books and pens. You killed hundreds of them (in demonstrations against the Soviet takeover in Kabul in 1980), filling up your prisons with this courageous youth, leaving thousands offamilies in sorrow and anguish. But Babrak, be afraid of the tears of the sorrowing, suffering mothers! These tears will turn into a rebellious flood which will wash away you and your [Russian] masters.

The fate of Amin and Taraki - your comrades in crime - is awaiting you too, but more ominous and more terrible. If they killed at midnight, you kill by full daylight - you, with your impudence, which is a part of your low nature - damnation upon you, shameless one!

Your bloodthirsty face shows what you are, you henchman of Russian colonialism, with cleaver in hand. Your true bloodthirsty face hides behind the mask of democracy which your masters designed for you. You reached power by fawning like a

278

Shabnamah (night letter) of Kabul Opposition, summer 1980 279

dog, rubbing your nose like a dog in front of the Kremlin's doors. The good hearted youth, not knowing your servile mentality, thought you still had some patriotism left in you. But when you were sent to Kabul on thousands ofRussian tanks, your barbaric actions showed themselves one after another - you loudspeaker of Brezhnev!

The truth has become as clear as the light of the sun, that you have no fate in front of you but your self-destruction. You mild, good-natured, docile cow - you chief of the secret police, you who filled the prisons ....

The epic of the girls of our country make the red dragon [Soviet Union] waver! Oh motherland! Your girls have become women ... [Here allusions are made to two powerful sources of Afghan popular culture - ( 1) the Persian epic Shah nama of Firdausi, and (2) national history, in the form of a heroine of the second Anglo-Afghan war.] These girls are as if they have marble bodies, which are completely indestructible. The martyred girls have become heroines- stars, brighter by far than galaxies!

Mallali - that lioness of Maiwand [battle of 1880, in which British forces were defeated], she took her bloodstained chador [veil] like a banner of freedom, and fought beside our Afghan men against the British invaders. Here example lightens the way forward.

You lioness girls, students of the lycees of Kabul, fighting beside your brothers the courageous students, who for the free­dom of your country broke the talisman of silence. Giving your pure blood you will never be forgotten in the memory of the suf­fering motherland, which will, no doubt, be freed again one day.

Now the Parchamis and Khalqis and Russians are all trying to destroy our culture; HEROIC GIRLS! with your soft hands you are not rocking a baby's cradle, but shaking the foundations of the Kremlin palace!

ABOUT THE REVOLUTIONARY WOMEN'S SOCIETY

It is organised by progressive and socially aware women. Its eventual aim is to secure the rights of women in Afghanistan. But it believes the liberation of our oppressed women is not separate from the salvation of our suffering nation. The essential

280 Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-91

thing must be freedom and regaining our independence from the Soviet Union.

So the Society puts at the centre of its duty the coordination of its activities with the struggles of the entire nation - peasants, workers, students, civil servants and small traders. If we desire the freedom of women, first we must have freedom from the Russian grip, and the tyranny of their servants. After gaining genuine independence ... we shall continue our basic struggle to obtain women's rights in Afghanistan.

The organisation of the women's society is totally secret, through local cells connected by link-officers. It tries to help the families of martyrs [those killed in the struggle] as best it can.

(Translated from Persian)

Appendix D Land Reforms

Decree no. 8 of 28 November 1978 stated the aims (Article I)

Elimination of the feudal and prefeudal relations from the socio-economic system of the country.

2 Popularisation, consolidation and deepening of the unity of workers and peasants for the purpose offurther strengthening the unity of the people of Afghanistan for the building of a society without hostile classes and free of exploitation of man by man.

3 Raising the volume of agricultural products for the purpose of supplying sufficient and a variety of food for the people, provision of raw materials for expanding exports of agricul­tural and industrial products of the country.

(There was a long-term aim to form cooperatives of small farmers.)

OPPOSITION STATEMENTS ON LAND REFORM

Manifesto of the National Islamic Front of Afghanistan (NIFA), led by Sayyid Ahmad Gailani (nationalist/secular oriented) s. 14;

The existing land reform is null and void- the expropriate or confiscated land shall, upon presentation of legal documents, be restored to the rightful owner. This equally applies in as far as it is feasible in the case of all those whose movable or immovable property has been expropriate after the coup d'etat of April 1978.

281

282 Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-91

It is significant of a mood of realism that already by April 1979, distributed copies of the original manifesto had this passage crossed out, with only the remaining portion of section 14.

The NIF A advocates strengthening the agricultural sector by providing various forms of credits and agricultural equipment to the farmers at reduced prices with the aid of government subsidies.

Compared to the Front, the fundamentalist Muslim Hizb-e­Islami led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar appears more muddled in its approach to the land question, its manifesto betraying signs of policies incompatible with stated ideals-extract from Chapter V of the manifesto:

Agriculture: 1 Unauthorised possession of land shall be nullified 2 Usurped properties shall be returned to their actual

owners 3 Fair distribution ofland with a view to offer it to those who

do not possess any 4 Introduction of the Islamic land-cess 5 Distribution of the land will be based on basic requirements

of every family.

Afghan exile circles frequently exaggerated the tendency of agrarian reforms- as in a published speech of 6 June 1980 in Paris, by Mohammad Habib, member of Federation des etudiants afghans a l'etranger (6 heures pour !'Afghanistan, booklet, Paris 1980) - my translation:

... In studying the decree no. 8 concerning agrarian reform, we state that the basic aim of this so-called reform was to promote the creation of big state cooperative farms to meet the interests of the Soviet economy.

Appendix E Chronology

1839-42 1878-80 1880-1901

1893

1901-19

1919

1919-29

1929

1929-33 1933 1947

1947-52

1953-63

1950/ 1955/1961-63 1963

1964

First Anglo-Afghan war. Second Anglo-Afghan war. Amir Abdur Rahman's consolidation by 'inter­nal imperialism'. Durand Line fixed boundaries of political con­trol of Push tun and Pathan lands. Amir Habibullah, maintaining good relations with India; 'Young Afghan' or Constitutional movement. Third Anglo-Afghan war (of only 1 month) Peace Treaty provides for full independence in foreign relations. King Amanullah's attempts to reform Afgha­nistan. Period of civil war and brief rule of Bacha-i­Saqao. King Nadir Shah, founder ofMusahiban family. King Zahir Shah reigns - the royal uncles rule. Birth of Pakistan renews Afghan irridentist claims on Pathan lands. 'Awakened Youth' liberal movement began and ended. Mohammad Daoud takes over as Prime Minis­ter. Development schemes flourish in Cold War competition.

Pakistan borders crises - severe disruptions. Daoud's resignation, followed by Constitutional period. New Constitution ushers in the 'new democracy'.

283

284 Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-91

1965

1965-67

1969-73 1973

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981 onwards

1986

1988 1989

1990

Free Press encourages new parties, among which PDPA; 25 October demonstration brings down Yusuf government. Maiwandwal government- nationalist and left­wing groups thrive - Khalq, Parcham, Shula-i­Jawed and Setem-i-Meli. Decline of the new democracy. Coup overthrows Zahir Shah, Daoud declares Republic, himself President, with support of Parchami elements. Two rival factions of PDPA, Khalq and Par­cham, reunite. 27 April, Saur Revolution - military coup places PDPA in power, with Nur Mohammad Taraki as President. Parchamis lose out. Civil war. September - Taraki killed and Hafizullah Amin rules until 'Christmas Coup' by Soviet army places Babrak Karmal in office. Opposition intensifies and most of Afghan Army disintegrates. Afghan refugees shelter in Pakistan and Iran, and border relations are seriously strained by guerrilla warfare. Warfare and destruction cause millions of refugees to flee. Babrak Karma! replaced as Secretary General of PDPA Central Committee, Dr Najibullah succeeds. Karmal resigns as president DRA. UN-sponsored Geneva Accords finally signed. Completion of withdrawal of Soviet troops. Failure of mujahidin offensive to take J alalabad. Attempted coup within Afghan armed forces, led by Defence Minister General Shahnawaz Tanai.

Notes

CHAPTER 1

l. 01afCaroe, The Pathans (1985) p. 25. 2. H. K. Kakar, Government and Society in Afghanistan (Austin, USA, 1979)

for a full study of Amir Abdur Rahman's reign. 3. Major-General Sir H. Rawlinson, England and Russia in the East ( 187 5,

new edition 1970) p. 355. 4. See further J. Spain, The Way of the Pathan ( 1962). 5. Hans Kohn, The idea of Nationalism (1944), E. Kedourie, Nationalism

( 1960) and R. Emerson, From empire to nation (USA, 1960), with biblio­graphies.

6. Among sources consulted are J. Anderson and R. Strand (eds), Ethnic processes and intergroup relations in contemporary Afghanistan (New York, 1978) and F. Barth, 'Pathan Identity and its maintenance', in F. Barth ( ed.), Ethnic groups and boundaries ( 1970).

7. R. Canfield, Faction and conversion in a plural society (Michigan, USA, 1973) pp. 117-19.

8. Eugene Schuyler, Turkistan (1877) in G. Wheeler's revised edition (1966') p. 87.

9. Xavier de Planhol, The world of Islam (Cornell, USA, 1970) p. 82. 10. I rely here on published material, but also private information. Compare

L. Dupree, Afghanistan ( 1973) ch. I 0 for settlement patterns. 11. Victor Segesvary, Afghanistan among the least developed of developing

countries, mimeo. report, UNDP office, Kabul, dated June 1977. 12. A stimulating review by Dr Neville Goodman, 'Health services in Afgha­

nistan, Iran and Turkey', in Royal Society of Asia journal (RSAJ), vol. LJJI (June 1966).

13 Afghanistan Council of the Asia Society (ACAS), USA, paper by A. Shalinsky, 1979, and paper no. 15, by T. Barfield, 1978.

14. J. Baljon, in A.J. Arberry (ed.), Religion in the Middle East, vol. II (1969). 15. Fazlur Rahman, Islam, 1966, p. 158. 16. See L. Dupree's fascinating chapters 8 and 9 on folk religion in op. cit.

(1973). I 7. Reliable statistics are all the more difficult to obtain with the civil war

upsetting patterns, by bombings and refugee problems. A useful German study attempts this, though - K-H. Rudersdorf, Afghanistan-cine Sowjet­repu'blik? (Rowohlt, 1980).

18. See further Dupree (1973) pp. 153-64. 19. R. Canfield, op. cit. (1973) p. 52.

285

286 Notes

20. L. Dupree, The new republic of Afghanistan, special paper of ACAS, USA, spring 1976.

CHAPTER 2

I. Peter Levi, The Light Garden of the Angel King ( 1972) p. 36. 2. V. Gregorian, The Emergence of modern Afghanistan (Stanford, USA, 1969)

pp. 345-68. 3. An illuminating account is Hasan Kakar's 'The Fall of the Afghan

monarchy in 1973', in International journal of Middle Eastern Studies, (IJMES) vol. 9, 1978.

4. See L. Dupree, op. cit. (1973), ch. 22 and R. T. Akhramovich, Concerning the recent stages in Afghanistan's social history (Moscow, 1967).

5. As in the subcontinent and other largely illiterate societies, groups of men would gather in public places to hear literates read the newspapers, and to discuss the news.

6. L. Dupree, Leftist movements in Afghanistan, American Universities field staff (AUFS) report 44 of 1979, p. 5.

7. Nake Kamrany, Peaceful competition in Afghanistan (Washington, USA, 1969) p. 51.

8. See further L. Dupree, op. cit. (1973) ch. 23. 9. Types of MiGs, tanks and other weapons provided were often the latest

models, instead of older ones out of service with Warsaw Pact armies. Useful comparisons of Soviet handling of Afghan arms contracts can be found in publications of SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute), The arms trade with the Third World (1971), esp. pp. 501-5, and Pelican abridgement 1975. For a detached Arab view of Soviet arms trade and strategy for influence in the Middle East, see Mohamed Heikal, Sphinx and Commissar (London, 1978).

10. Hasan Kakar, op. cit. (1978) p. 212. II. L. Dupree, A note on Afghanistan, 1971, AUFS, 1971, p. 23. 12. N. Kamrany, op. cit. (1969) pp. 90--1. 13. See Dr Heider Dawar, Die Bedeutung der Zollpolitik (Berlin, 1975). 14. Maxwell Fry, The Afghan Economy (Brill, Leiden, 1974) p. 48, and for

causes of idle capital for investment, ch. 8 of this volume. 15. I have found very useful reports by Victor Segesvary, esp. Afghan Foreign

Trade in 1356 (dated August 1978), copy in UNDP office, Kabul. Also confidential information.

16. M. Fry, op. cit. (1974) pp. 241-3. l 7. The implications of corruption in Asian societies have been analysed in

Gunnar Myrdal's Asian Drama, (1968) and abridgement by Seth King, (1972) ch. 14.

18. For a vivid picture, see L. Dupree, op. cit. ( 1973) pp. 654-8.

CHAPTER 3

I. The whole range of problems is analysed m A. Lamb, Asian Frontiers, Studies in a continuing problem ( 1968) p. 62.

Notes 287

2. Ibid., p. 86, and see ch. 4. 3. Afghanistan files of the period in the India Office are eloquent. 4. V. Lenin, in The national liberation movement in the East (Moscow, 1969)

p. 242. 5. L. Adamec, (Germany third Power) in G. Grassmuck and L. Adamec

(eds), Afghanistan; some new approaches (Ann Arbor, USA, 1969). 6. L. Poullada, Reform and Rebellion in Afghanistan 1919-1929 (Cornell,

USA, 1973). 7. Quoted by F. Kazemzadeh, 'The Imperial Dream', New York Times Book

Review, January 1980. 8. L. Poullada, op. cit. ( 1973) ch. XI, nb. pp. 25 7-66. Two distinguished

Afghan historians also attribute Amanullah's downfall to his own aliena­tion of the Afghan people, rather than British plots, Ghulam Muhammad Ghobar, and recently H. K. Kakar, in Government and Society in Afgha­nistan (Texas, 1979) pp. 252-4.

9. Munshi Sultan Mahomed Khan (ed.), The life of Abdur Rahman Amir of Afghanistan, voi II (1900) p. 212.

10. Reysner's article 'Afghanistan', quoted in Central Asian Review, vol. IX (London, 1967) pp. 310-15.

11. The American specialist Selig Harrison has written on this theme widely, e.g. Foreign Affairs (USA, Fall, 1978).

CHAPTER 4

1. Estimate from Ministry of Planning, Survey of Progress 1961-62, Kabul, Table 4, p. 50.

2. See L. Dupree and Albert, Afghanistan in the 1970s (Praeger, USA, 1974) pp. 60 ff.

3. L. Dupree, op. cit. (1973) p. 562. Ch. 24 covers the constitutional reforms exhaustively.

4. H. Kakar, in IJMES (1978) p. 201. 5. From a short biography ofNoor Mohammad Taraki (Kabul, 1978) p. 12. 6. H. Kakar, in IJMES (1978) p. 213. 7. Although Dari was long established as the literary language, Pashto was

deliberately being pushed by Pushtun-dominated governments. Thus each paper had to print Pashto pages, regardless of public demand, because Pashto was a national language by Article 35 of the Constitution.

8. Even now the influence of Setem-i-Meli is shadowy, though its opponents both on the right and left credit it with strength among Tajiks, Uzbeks, Hazaras, and with a real hold on northern regions.

9. L. Dupree, op. cit. ( 1971) AUFS, treats this in detail. 10. See Baqui Yousefzai, 'Kabul University students- a potential political

force?', in L. Dupree and Albert (eds), op. cit. (1974). II. A cogent study of problems facing Prime Ministers is also in R. Newell, The

Politics of Afghanistan (Cornell, USA, 1972). 12. Republic of A(~hanistan; statements, messages and Press interviews, no. I,

p. 2. In spite of these harsh words, some continued to view it as a quarrel within the Mohammadzai family, rather than a new era. Daoud sent a

288 Notes

large monthly allowance to Rome for the expenses of the exiled royal family -and a similar 'pension' had been agreed with ex-King Amanullah by his usurping cousins.

13. L. Dupree has much valuable information in AUFS 1979, no. 44, Leftist movements in Afghanistan.

14. Ibid., note 53. 15. Ibid., p. 10. 16. Language disputes played a large part in University politics, because of the

difficulties caused by foreign teachers' programmes - in English, German and French medium translated into Dari (often defectively) in the various faculties.

17. The Times, 27 July 1973.

CHAPTER 5

I. A detailed account in L. Dupree, AUFS, 1980, The accidental coup, or Taraki in Blunder/and.

2. An intimate account by an Afghan is in F. Missen, Le Syndrome de Kaboul­un Afghan racconte (Edisud, France, 1980).

3. A short information about the Peoples Democratic Party, Kabull978. The synonymous term 'scientific socialism' was also avoided.

4. Die Zeit, 9 June 1978, cited inK-H. Rudersdorf (1980) p. 47. 5. For an incisive treatment see L. Dupree, AUFS 1980, Part III. 6. Kabul Times, 3 October 1978. 7. Kabul Times, 27 February 1979. 8. L. Dupree, AUFS 1980, Part III. 9. One of the early moves of the Babrak Karma! government was to offer a

deal on this core point; 'land-holders possessing less than 5 acres of first­class land or the equivalent thereof are entitled to buy at just rates extra pieces formerly belonging to them' (up to 15 acres). From Karmal's speech of 26 February 1980.

10. Lenin's view is quoted in preface to English edition of Mother (Moscow, 1974).

II. In MERIP report no. 89,July/August 1980 (USA). 12. Kabul Times, 24 February 1979. 13. Kabul Times, 3 April 1979. 14. This travesty of the facts was presented even in the otherwise authoritative

essay in the Chatham House review for 1980 (RIIA). 15. B. Jazani, Capitalism and Revolution in Iran (1980) pp. 132-3. 16. Kabul Times, 18 and 27 March 1979. 17. Kabul Times, 20 March 1979.

CHAPTER 6

I. The Dubs shooting gave rise to many theories of responsibility other than that of parties directly involved. The most interesting is probably the theory which claims that the entire operation was a Parchami plot,

Notes 289

mounted so as to discredit and embarrass the Khalq government by rupturing its relations with the USA (see F. Missen, Le Syndrome de Kaboul (Paris, 1980) pp. 154-74. The least likely, but certainly the most cynical, 'theory' is from the Soviet side, in radio broadcasts for Asia, which in a strident expose of CIA involvement in the Afghan civil war stated that Adolph Dubs' assassination was, 'also the work of CIA operatives. This crime was perpetrated for the sole purpose of placing the blame for the American Ambassador's death on the Taraki Government, and using this as an excuse to break off diplomatic relations with Afghanistan and cancel all agreements of economic aid to the country.' (Radio Peace and Progress, 23 February 1980).

2. Eyewitness accounts told to me in March/April 1979. 3. Karma} speech of 21 April 1980. 4. Da Saur Enqalab and Kabul Times, 5 April 1979. 5. Kabul Times, 9 April 1979. 6. Another Dari language competitor started up on 8 April, VOA (Voice of

America), with half-hourly daily broadcasts at 11 p.m. Kabul time -joining Deutsche Welle, Soviet stations, China and other regional states.

7. Kabul Times, 4 April 1979. 8. As noted in the excellent set of reports by Salamat Ali for Far Eastern

Economic Review, Hong Kong. 9. The Czechs signed a further agreement on 9 April 1979, for the expansion

of cooperation in TV film-making, linked to a wider cultural exchange. 10. Kabul Times, 3 May 1979 and Asiaweek, 17 November 1978. 11. Details gathered from Afghan political prisoners. Already in summer 1978

five men slept to a cell of3 X 3 metres. See my article, 'Afghan Intelligentsia 1978-81 ', in Index on Censorship, no. 2, 1982.

12. Amnesty International reports, September 1979 and October 1980. 13. See F. Missen, op. cit. (1980) pp. 96--7. 14. K-H. Rudersdorf, Afghanistan-eine Sowjetrepublik? (1980) pp. 68-75. Lists of

'missing persons' supplied by Amin's Ministry of the Interior in November 1979 provided only some of the answers. Many Afghans are convinced that at least 25,000 people were killed by the end of 1979. Three amnesties in 1979 were, contrary to official statements, not for political prisoners at all, but for common criminals, of whom about 3,000 were freed.

15. Extract from letter to BBC, dated Kabul, 12 December 1978 (translation by Andrew Goodson).

16. My article in the Round Table, July 1979. 17. The Taraki cult aroused hostility from within PDPA ranks too, expressed

in shabnamah ('nightletters'), pamphlets distributed covertly during curfew hours in summer 1979.

18. K-H. Rudersdorf, op. cit. (1980) p. 33. While the practice of nepotism, like corruption, seems to be endemic in many countries- developed and underdeveloped, socialist and capitalist­nepotism tends to be more prominent perhaps in states where power is held by rulers with a narrow base of political support; suffice it to point to Syria, where the embattled Ba'ath socialist party (representing the minority Alawi Shi'a sect) is dominated by the family of President Hafez al-Asad, his deputy being his own brother General Rifaat al-Asad.

290 Notes

CHAPTER 7

I. As reported in Asiaweek, 15 June 1979. 2. 'Voice of Nuristan', October 1979, quoted m 6 heures pour Afghanistan

(Paris, 1980). 3. Details of this atrocity circulated in the region, and refugees from Kerala

were interviewed on tape in summer 1979 by the A(~han nationalist Ghulam Zamarlwal, though the world press only became aware of it in February 1980, via the Christian Science Monitor.

4. From Chapter 2, p. 14 of booklet, Aims of Hi;:.b-i-lslami (Peshawar). 5. The best short debunking of this attitude known to me is by Meredith

Townsend, '"Fanaticism" in the East', in Asia and Europe (1901) pp. 315-22.

6. For much of this information I am grateful to Nick Downie and Peter Jouvenal, who are experienced observers of the scene.

7. E.g., Gerard Chaliand, the guerrilla war specialist, in the New Statesman, December 1980.

8. Thanks to Ulf Andenaaf of Aflen Posten, Norway. 9. D. Khalid, 'A(~hanistan's struggle for national liberation', in Internation­

ales Asienforum (West Germany, 1980) vol. 2, p. 206. 10. See further my article in Asian Affairs, October 1980. 11. F. Halliday, Arabia without Sultans (1974) p. 333. It is ironic to note that

Fred Halliday's more recent writings on Afghanistan tend to identify with the official line of Kabul, and therefore follow the blinkered view he himself had noted above - though there is much of interest in his articles in New Left Review, 1978 and 1980.

12. Le Monde, Mike Barry's article, 'L'Afghanistan crucifie', III, May 25/26, 1980.

13. Quoted from a statement by the Ittehad's leader Wali Baig, August 1979. 14. Information from A(~han nationalists and D. Khalid, op. cit. (1980). 15. D. Khalid, op. cit. (1980) p. 214. 16. In the Guardian, 29 July 1980.

CHAPTER 8

I. Confidential information in letters from Kabul, June 1979. 2. A(~han report compiled for International PEN (World Association of

writers), West German branch, dated June 1979. 3. Eyewitness account given to me by an Afghan resident of Kabul. 4. Confidential information. 5. From an English source working in Kabul at the time. 6. J. Erickson, in interviews broadcast 1980, and see Spectator, 26 January

1980. 7. Sunday Times, 6 July 1980.

Notes 291

CHAPTER 9

I. N. Cumming-Bruce in MEED, 30 June 1978. 2. Le Monde, series in October 1978. 3. Statement from Moscow Narodny Bank, July 1980, quoted MEED,

I August 1980. 4. Asiaweek, 16 May 1980. 5. J. Erickson, 'Soviet strategic emplacement', Asian Affairs, February 1981. 6. Boris Meissner, 'Soviet foreign policy and A(~hanistan', in Aussenpolitik

(Hamburg, March 1980). 7. The Times, 21 January 1980. 8. The Times, 15 January 1980. 9. The Times, 20 May 1980.

10. Observer, 10 February 1980. II. Tehran radio, 9 and l3July 1980- SWB.

CHAPTER 10

I. Financial Times, 18 February 1980. 2. Le Monde, I March 1980. 3. Kabul New Times, 27 February 1980. 4. See further Nancy and Richard Newell, The Struggle for Afghanistan

(Cornell, 1981). 5. The Times, 13 June 1980. 6. The Times, 22 September 1980. 7. SWB, 12 September 1980. 8. The Economist, 15 August 1980. 9. The Times, November 1980.

10. Pravda, 17 August 1989. II. New Statesman, 4 April 1980, updated by John Fullerton's article in the

Daily Telegraph, 22 October 1981. 12. The Sunday Times, 16 November 1980. 13. The Times, 9 January 1981. 14. The refugee problems have been studied in a series of newsletters by ARIN

(Afghan refugee information network), London, UNHCR and other agencies.

15. Guardian, 19 November 1980. 16. Afghan information centre, Peshawar, special bulletin no. I, May 1981.

CHAPTER]]

I. The progress of the Afghan struggle has been charted in a number of regular publications, notably in: - monthly bulletin of the Afghan Information Centre, Peshawar -Afghan Realities, Afghan Information & Documentation Centre, Peshawar - AFGHANews, Jamiat-i-Islami, Peshawar - Les Nouvelles d'Afghanistan, Afrane, Paris

292 Notes

- Letter from Bureau International Afghanistan, Paris - A(~hanistan Info, Swiss Committee, Neuchatel, Switzerland - Central Asian Survey, Oxford/London.

2. See for example, Sandy Gall, Behind Russian Lines and Afghanistan: Agony of a Nation, (The Bodley Head, London, 1988).

3. This and other quotes here are from Kabul Radio, Summary of World Broadcasts series, BBC, The Kabul Times and other publications of Kabul.

4. Among official publications from Kabul were (Foreign Affairs Ministry), 'Achievements of the April Revolution in Afghanistan,' 1984, and 'White Book: Pakistan's Subversive Activities against the Afghan Revolution,' 1984, and 'Undeclared War', 1984, besides (PDPA Central Committee), '20th Anniversary of the People's Democratic Party of A(~hanistan', 1985.

5. On this and other themes see further the excellent special issue on 'A(~hanistan: The Last Thirty Years', of the Journal Central Asian Survey, Oxford/London, 1988, vol. 7, 2/3, containing papers from the CEREDAF Conference in Paris.

6. Tariq Ali, Can Pakistan Survive? (Penguin, London, 1983).

CHAPTER 12

I. See Henry Bradsher, Afghanistan and the Soviet Union, Chapter 12, (Durham USA, 1985) and Bhabani Sen Gupta, Afghanistan: Politics, Economics and Society, London 1986. Vivid individual accounts by Western journalists or writers who travelled with mujahidin inside Afghanistan include: - Edward Girardet, Afghanistan, The Soviet War, 1985. - Peregrine Hodson, Under a Sickle Moon. A Journey through Afghanistan,

1986. - Sandy Gall, Afghanistan, Agorry of a Nation, 1988. - Radek Sikorski, Dust of the Saints, 1989. -Nick Danziger, Dan;:_iger's Travels. Beyond Forbidden Frontiers, 1987. -Jan Goodwin, Caught in the Crossfire, 1987.

2. Studies of the wider impact of the war upon A(~han society are in The Cultural Basis of Afghan Nationalism, eds Ewan Anderson and Nancy Hatch Dupree, (London 1990); The Tragedy of Afghanistan, eds Bo Huldt and Erland Jansson (London, 1988); Afghan Resistance: The Politics of Survival, eds Grant M. Farrand John G. Merriam (Boulder, USA, 1987).

3. S. B. Majrooh, 'Education in Afghanistan, past and present', in The Sovietization of Afghanistan, eds S. B. Majrooh and S. M. Elmi, (Peshawar, 1986).

4. Human Rights abuses are detailed in a series of UN reports by Dr Felix Ermacora and by Barnett Rubin and Jeri Laber, from Helsinki Watch Committee of USA.

5. See Afghanistan, a country study, edited by Richard Nyrop and Donald Seekins, (Washington DC, 1986), and Pierre Metge, L'URSS en Afghanistan, (Cirpes, Paris, 1984).

6. See further John Schroder and Abdul Tawab Assifi, 'Afghan Mineral

Notes 293

Resources and Soviet Exploitation', in Afghanistan, The Great Game Revisited, ed. Rosanne Klass, (New York, 1987).

7. The most detailed picture is by Olivier Roy, Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan (Cambridge, 1986).

8. The geopolitical implications of the A(~han war are analysed by Mahnaz Ispahani, The Politics of Access in the Borderlands of Asia. 1989.

9. Quoted from Agha Shahi in Afghanistan Today, (introduction, p.v.), ed. Dr M. S. Siddiqi, (Peshawar, 1987). For a detailed exposition of Agha Shahi's views, see his book, Pakistan's Security and Foreign Policy, ed. Hamid Kizilbash (Lahore, 1988).

10. See further David Isby, War in a distant country, 1989, and Mark Urban, War in Afghanistan, 1989.

11. For the impact of Glasnost upon Soviet reporting of the war and on Soviet society, see Anthony Hyman, Glasnost and the Afghanistan War, a booklet published by Article 19, (London, 1991), and Andrew Wilson and Nina Bachkatov, Living with Glasnost (London, 1988), and Borovik, Artyom The Hidden War (London 1991).

12. See further Soviet-American Relations with Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan, ed. Hafeez Malik, 1987, and A. Hyman, 'The Afghan Politics of Exile', Third World Quarterly 9, no. 1, 1987.

13. For the tortuous course of UN negotiations, see George Arney, Chapter 13, Afghanistan, (London, 1990).

14. Quoted from Najibullah speech of 10 July 1989, Radio Kabul broadcast. 15. An attempt has been made by the author in, 'Reading A(~han Public

Opinion: Voices from the Camps', in Central Asian Survey, no. 4, (London, 1990).

16. See further articles by Pierre Centlivres and Micheline Centlivres-Demont, in Les Nouvelles d'Afghanistan, no. 47, (Paris, April 1990) and Migration World, val. xv, (New York, December 1987).

Index

Abdur Rahman Khan, Amir, 5, 24, 141

Afghan Doctors Society, 188, 207 Afghan Information Centre, 143,

233, 262 A(~han Mellat, 57-8, 63, 124 A(~han National Liberation Front,

132-4; see also S. Mujaddidi Afghanpur, Abdullah, 112 al-Afghani, Jamal ad-Din, 43 Agriculture, 9; 23 7, see also land

reforms Ahmadzai, General Shapur, 84 Ahmed, Feroz, 92 Aimak tribes, 140 Air Force, 151, 157, 265 alliances of parties in Peshawar, 124,

185 Amani high school, 44 Amanullah, King, 24, 40-4, 51, 78 Amin, Abdul, 118 Amin, Asadullah, 119, 154 Amin, Hafizullah, 55, 62, 70, 76, 81,

92-4, 97-8, 101-2, 105fT, 110, 116-19, 128, 148, 152fT, 167fT, 176

Amin, M. Anwar, 124-5, 134 Amnesty International, 109, 142, 234 Amu Darya (Oxus) river, 15, 28,

184, 240 Andarab valley, 188 Anis, 90 Arab volunteers, 249, 250 Ariana Afghan Airlines, 193 Army, 27, 83, 94, aid, 29-30, 156;

losses, defections, 138, 14 7, 151-3, 168, 182, 198, 213fT, 230

Aryan, Abdur Rashid, 190 Asadabad, 246 Awami National Party (ANP), 244

BBC Radio Persian and Pashto Services, 103-5, 110, 112, 263

Babrakzai, Omar, 144-5 Bacha-i-Saqao (Habibullah Ghazi),

44, 141 Badakhshan, 59, 99, 122, 125, 137,

185, 209fT Badakhsi, Taher, 55, 59 Badghis, 89, 104 Baes, Badruddin, 99 Baghlan, 89, 153, 210 Bagram airbase, 28, 76, 156, 179 Baig, Wali, 140 Baluch, 45, 67, 86, 135-6, 141 Bamiyan, 139 banking, 34, 241 Baryalay, Mahmud, 81, 190 Basmachis, 121-22 Beheshti, Sayyid Ali, 140, 212 Bhutto, Benazir, 243 Bhutto, Z. A., 66, 67 Brezhnev, Leonid, 154-5 Britain: foreign policy, 25, 38, 40,

42-3, 103; aid, 29; wars, viii, 39-40

Bulgaria, 30, 107

CENTO (and Baghdad Pact), 29, 47

CIA, 60, 176 Caroe, Sir Olaf, 4 Carter, President, 170-1 Central Asia, 4, 39, 101, 121-2, 143,

163, 178, 184 Chaliand, Gerard, 185 Charikar, 70 Charkhi family, 44 China, 30, 49, 117, 125, 137-8,

165-6, 239

294

Index 295

civil service, 36-7, 78, 118, 180 Comecon, 108, 162, 163, 207-8 Cordovez, Diego, 253, 255 corruption, 36-7, 118-19 coups: 1973, 64-5; 1978, 75-8, 81,

83-4; 1979, !59, 164ff, I 76 Cuba, 107, 162 Czechoslovakia, 29, 30, 82, 101, 104,

107, 159, 167-8, 202, 239, 240

Daoud Khan, M: political views, 26-7, 53; foreign policy, 27-31; as President, 64-6, 70, 77-8, 79-80, 85, 89, 95, 113

Darra Adam Khel, 135-6 Dubs, Adolph, 99-100, lOOn.!

(215) Dupree, Louis, 61, 87 Durand Line, 44-5, 220 Durrani Pushtuns, 4 Dzirkvelov, Ilya, 169

economy, 10-15, 19-20, 28, 30ff, 63, 71, 162-3, 199ff, 204-9, 237-41 education, 18, 52, 70, 93-4, 181, 193 Egypt, 60, 71, 132, 148 Erickson, John, !59 Ermacora, Dr Felix, 234 exports, 11-13, 34-6

Faizabad, 33, 125, 185 Fange, Anders, 268 Farah, 91, 104 Farand, MY, 199 Farhad, Ghulam M, 57-9 Farhang, M Siddiq, 55, 194 flag, national, I 0 I, 112 foreign aid, 27-31, 33-4; see also

under individual states France, 30, 102, 162

Gahiz, 60 Gailani, Hasan, 145 Gailani, Sayyid Ahmad, 131-2, 145,

185 Gandhi, Indira, 173, 189, 191, 216 Gardez, 70, 151 gas and petroleum, 34, 162-3, 200,

208, 240

Germany, 29, 41, 44-5; West, 30, 69, 10 I, I 08, 162, 189, 193, 239, 248; East, (DDR), 107-8, 193, 201, 215

Ghazni, 130, 133, 139, 184 Ghilzai Pushtuns, 95 Ghobar, Mir Ghulam, 26, 42 Gorbachov, Mikhail, 223, 252,

254 Gorki, Maxim, 92 Gulabzoi, S.M., 154-5, 190, 265 Gulf states, 134, 136, 165, 174,

219

Habibullah, Amir, 24 Halliday, Fred, 139n.11 (290) Haqani, Jalaluddin, 261 Harakat-i-Inqilab-i-Islami, 133,

145, 185,211 Harakat-i-Islami, 135, 234 Hazarajat, 122, 125, 139-40 Hazaras, 8-9, 15, 21, 69, 95,

115-16, 134, 139-41, 148ff, 211-12

Hekmatyar, Gulbuddin, 67, 122, 127ff, 130, 233, 242, 256, 266

Herat, 6, 39, 70, 89, I 00-1, I 04, 178-9, 184, 215, 227

Heywad, 69 Hilmand province, 89 Hilmand river, 28, 49, 100 Hizb-i-Islami: Hekmatyar, 127ff,

143, 145, 211, 219, 229, 242; Yunis Khalis, 122, 133, 211

Housego, David, 1 78 ICRC (Red Cross), 188, 235 Imports, 35-6 India, 24, 30, 71, 189, 216 industry, 19-20, 25, 35, 162-3,

203 Inqilab, 86 intelligentsia, 23-4, 37, 43, 49, 51,

57, 69-71, Ill, 189 I ran, 24-5, 38, 41, 49-50, I 02-3,

134-5, 140, 150, 163, 173, 189, 211, 219-222, 236, 248-9, 259, 263

Islam, I 7-19, 130, 133; see also Sufism, muslim fundamentalists Islamic Conference Organisation,

172, 174, 249

296 Index

Jalalabad, 67, 70, 151, 155, 233, 244, 246, 257

Jama'at-i-Islami of Pakistan, 60, 134 Jamiat-i-Islami, 124-5, 134, 210,

250, 267 Japan, 35, 239 Jazani, Bizhan, 95 Jowzjan, 210-11, 240

KGB, 60-1, 159 Kabul, 20, 23-4, 61, 66-7, 71, 105,

112ff, 133, 149-50, 158, I 77, 179ff, 206

Kabul Times, the, 79-80 Kabul New Times, the, 180, 204, 224 Kakar, Hasan, 29, 54 Kakar, Tajivar, 232-3 Kalakani, Majid, 141-2, 158 Kamrany, Nake, 28, 31 Kandahar, 6, 70, 151, 178, 184, 198,

213, 245, 251 Karma!, Babrak, 55-7, 62, 66, 81,

84-5, 101, 114, 142, 154, 165, 1 76ff, 190-1, 194, 202ff, 224ff; see also Appendix C

Kerala massacre 1979, 126-7 Keshtmand, Sultan Ali, 55, 84, 116,

I 78, 190, 205-6, 25 7 Khad, see secret police Khalis, Yunis, 122, 133, 255 Khalq: newspaper, 57, 85; party, 64,

66, 70, 7 5, 82ff, 92-5, 114ff, 127, 156ff, 168, 190-1

Khomeini, Ayatollah, 140-1 Khorram, Ahmad Ali, 71 Khushal Khan school, 191 Khyber, Mir Akbar, 58, 75, 81 Khyber Pass, 39 Kunar, 69, 124ff, 151, 207, 212,

251-2 Kunduz, 15, 70, 89, 122, 181, 209ff Kuwait, 71

Laghman, 68 land reforms, 65-6, 86-92, 215n.9;

see also Appendix D Lavrentsyev, A., 138 Lawrence, T. E., 43 Layek, Suleiman, 55, 58, 192 Lenin, V., 41, 61, 82, 92, 97, 112, 122

Levi, Peter, 23 Libya, 71 Literacy, 93-4 Logar, 133, 187, 212 Loya Jirgas, 70, 79, 144-5, 223-4

Mahmudi, Dr Abdur Rahman, 26, 59

Maimana, 33, 210 Maiwandwal, M Hashim, 57-8,

62-3, 65 Majrooh, Dr Bahauddin, 143, 233,

262 marriage, 88, 116 Marxism, 54-5, 57-9, 61, 82, 92,

97, 116, 128 Massoud, Ahmed Shah, 198, 211,

197-99, 267 Maudoodi, maulana, 60 Mazar-i-Sharif, 70, 237-8, 246 Mazdooryar, Lt-Col. Sherjan, 154-5 medical services, 14, 188, 207 Mashad, 102, 220 militia, 101-2, 148, 247 Misaq, Abdul Karim, 55, 97, 116 Mohammad, Faiz, 67, 191-2 Mohammadi, M Nabi, 133, 145, 185 Mohmands (Pushtuns), 191 Mongolia, 183, 190 Moussa Shafiq, 49 Mushsini, Shaikh, 135 Mujaddidi family, 60 Mujaddidi, Sibghatullah, 131-2,

145, 185, 211, 249, 259 mujahidin, 135ff, 151, 197ff, 210-13 mullahs, 17-18,61,96,124,145,183 Musahiban family, 24, 32, 44, 79,

95, 142, 214n.l2 Musawat newspaper, 58, 62 muslim fundamentalists: growth,

60-1, 67, 71; as exile parties, 122-4, 127-30

Nadir Shah, King M, 24, 44, 77, 79, 105

Nairn, M, 27, 77, 79 Najibullah, Dr, 215, 225-6, 230,

Index 297

246, 255, 257-8 Naqshbandi order, 60; see also

sufism National Fatherland Front, 191, 194,

199, 204, 224, 230-1 N a tiona! Islamic Front (NIF A), 132;

see also Gailani, S.A. National Salvation Society, 258-9 Niazi, M. 60 Nimroz, 89, 133 Ningrahar, 68, 69, 95, 126, 133 Nomads, 96 non-aligned Conferences, 71 non-alignment, 25, 47, 161 Noorani, A, 216 Nur, Nur Ahmad, 55, 81, 190 Nuristan, 5, 69, 124-5, 148

Ojhri depot, 243 Olympic Games boycott, 1980, 171 opium, 14, 35-6

PDPA, 54-5, 58, 75-6, 81-2, 84, 189-90, 200-4, 225-7, 230-1, 234-5, 255; see also Khalq, Parcham

Paghman, 198-9 Pakhtya, 36, 68, 95, 126, 157,

227 Pakistan: relations, 29, 31, 35, 45-8,

63, 67-9, 71, 86, 103, 158; resistance, 136-8, 173-4, 241-44; refugees, 126, 188-9, 218-20

Panjsher valley, 187-8, 198,211 Panjsher, Dastigir, 55, 154, 190 Paputin, V., 169 Parcham: newspaper, 58, 61; party,

63-4, 66, 70, 81-5, 155, 190-1 parliaments, 25-6, 53-5, 62 Parwan, 69 Pavlovsky, Marshall, 159 Pazhwak, A., 218 Peshawar, 38-9,67, Ill, 122ff, 144,

218, 250, 262 Police, I 08, 192, 215, 24 7 Poullada, Leon, 42 Press, 26, 57-61, 66, 85-6, 201-2 Press Law, 1865, 57 Progressive Democrats, 63 Pukhtunwali code, 6, 128, 192

Pul-i-Charkhi: barracks, 76, 153; prison, 108-11, 158, 180, 234

Pul-i-Khumri, 19, 153 purdah, 51, 128 purges, 78, 81-4, 102, 109-11,

llln.l4 (216), 118, 149, 156, 158, 177, 265

Pushtunistan (Pakhtunistan) issue, 27, 45-8, 6~ 158, 191, 220

Pushtuns, 4-8, 15, 20-2, 43, 128, 214 ch. 4, n.4 Puzanov, A., 106, 157

Qader, Col. Abdul, 76, 81, 83 Qadiriya order, 17, 131 Qizilbash, 10, 150 Quetta, 39, 69, 139-40, 229

Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 67, l23ff, 130

radio, 68-9, 77-81, 85, 90, 103-4, 103n.6 (216), 110, 169-70, 210, 224, 227

Rafi, Lt-Col. M., 84, 190-l Ratebzad, Dr Anahita, 55, 81,

190-1, 225, 227, 228, 230 RAW A, 228-9 and Appendix C Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 5-6 refugees, 126, 158, 186-9, 268 Rishkor, 76, 157 roads, 14, 15, 33, 184 rural society, 9-15, 36, 86-92, 95-7,

191-2 Sadruddin Aghakhan, 236 SAMA, 141-2 SAVAK, 50 Safrontchuk, V., 106 Sakharov, Andrei, 187 Sarwari, Assadullah, 108, 154, 178,

190 Saudi Arabia, 71, 134, 136 Sayaf, Professor, 185, 217 Sazman-i-Nasr, 211-12 secret police (AGSA; KAM; KHAD;

WAD), 52, 108, 154, 157, 177-8, 200, 214, 225, 234-5, 257, 266

Setem-i-Meli, 59, 99, 125 shabnamah (night letters), 66, 179;

see also Appendix C

298 Index

Shafie, Bariq, 57, 61 Shah Mahmud, 26, 79 Shariat Madari, Ayatollah, 102 Shariati, Dr Ali, 116 Shi'as, 8-9, 116,211,220,248-9,259 Shindand airbase, 100 Shu'la-i-Jawed, 59, 125, 141 smuggling, 35-6, 126 Soviet Union: aid, trade, 28-30, 34,

105-9, 16ltT, 207-9; Central Asia, 15, 69; policies, 15, 25, 28, 41, 46, 64, 71, 84-5, 145, 152; 155, 159, 165fT, 187, 199fT, 209; Russian influences, viii, 38

Spain, J., 6 Steele, J., 199 sufism, 17-18, 131fT Suleiman Khel (Pushtuns), 95 Swedish Committee, 232, 268

TV,107 Tajiks, 8-9, 15, 21, 58-9, 95, 122-4,

141 ff, 209, 246 Takhar, 89, 209 Talun, Major, 76, 120, 155 Tanai, Maj-Gen Shahnawaz, 264-6 Taraki, Nur M., 54-7, 75, 81, 85-7,

92, 95, 102, 106fT, 153-5; personality cult, 113-14, 116-17, 117n.l7 (216), 128, 157

Tarzi, Mahmud, 24, 41 Thapar, Karan, 182 Turcomans, 121, 141, 209 Turkey, 24, 27, 29, 42

UNHCR, 189, 222 USA: aid, 28-30; relations, 75-6,

99-100, lOOn.! (215 ch. 6), 105, 168, 171-2, 174, 254

United National Front, 141 United Nations, 26, 30, 94, 103-4,

164-5, 216fT, 236, 253-6 University of Kabul, 16, 26, 57, 62,

67, 92, 181, 193, 232 urban development, 20-1 Uzbeks, 8-9, 15, 21, 121, 141-2,

209, 246

Vietnam, 152, 166 Viratelle, Gerard, 161

W ahhabis, 250fT Wakhan, 125, 185 Wali, General Abdul, 63-4 Wali, Dr Shah, 55, 119 Wardak, 93, 148 Watanjar, M Aslam, 76, 81, 154-5,

190, 265 Wikh-i-Zalmayan, 26 W oollacott, Martin, 144

Yaqubi, G. F., 226 Yepishev, General, 102 Yousuf, Dr M., 53 Yugoslavia, 71, 170, I 72

Zabul, 133 Zadran (Pushtuns), 192 Zahir Shah, King M., 27, 53, 62-4,

69, 79, 90, 95, 113, 117, 132-3, 186, 218, 261, 262

Zeary, Dr Saleh M., 55, 96, 190, 242

Zia ul-Haq, General, 137, 173-4, 242-4, 255