appendices the following general information is given in the978-94-009-5301-7/1.pdf · appendices...
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APPENDICES
The following general information is given in the succeeding pages:
Appendix
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
Appendix 8
Appendix 9
Appendix 10
Appendix 11
Appendix 12
Appendix 13
Appendi x 14
Conversion of units
Physical properties of some solid materials
Physical properties of some building and insulating materials
Physical properties of some liquids
Physical properties of some liquid met als
Physical properties of saturated water
Physical properties of saturated steam
Physical properties of some gases
Physical properties of dry air at atmospheric pressure
Freezing points of aqueous solutions
Properties of typical refrigerants
Storage capacities
Properties of some promising latent-heat thermal energy storage materials
Solubility behaviour of candidate salts for salt-gradient solar pond.
609
APPENDIX 1
CONVERSION OF UNITS*
S1 units are now generally employed in all calculations. The following relations ~tween one system of units to another will be used in calculations.
(i) Length m
1 yard = 3 ft = 36 inches = 0.9144m 1 m = 39.3701 inch = 3.280839 ft = 1.093613 yd
= 1650763.73 wavelength 1ft = 0.3048m; 1 in = 25.4 mm 1 angstrom = 1.000 x 10-8 em 1 mile = 1.609344 km 1 fathom = 1.828 8m 1 chain = 20.116 8m 1 fur long = 201.168m 1 micron = 10-6m= 10.Ji-cm =104 Ao 1 mil = 2.54 x 10-3 cm 1 links = 0.201 2m
(ij) Area m2
1yd2 = 0.836 m2 ; 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
, . 2 2 2 . ln = 6.452 cm = 0.000 645 16m
1 cm 2 = 10-4m2= 10.764 x 10~4ft2 = 0.1550 inch2 = 1024 barns
1 acre = 4046.86 m2 = 0.404686 ha = 43560 ft2.
1 mile 2 = 2.58999 km 2 = 640 acres 1 ha (hectare) = 104 m2 = 2.47 acres
610
APPENDIX 1
( iii) Vol um e m 3
ft 3 0.028 32m 3 28.3168 1 = =
1 in 3 16.39 3 1 .639 10- 2 1 = em = x
1 yd 3 0.764 555m 3 7.646 102 1 = = x
1UK gallon = 4.54609 1
1 US gallon = 3.7851 = 0.1337 ft 3
UK pint = 0.568 2611 = 0.00568m 3
bushel (bu) = 0.036 369 m3 = 8.000 UK gallons 3 1 barrel = 42.000 US gallons = 0.1590 m •
3 6 3 12 1 m = 100~0 x 10 em = 2.642 x 10 US gallons= 1.000 x 10 1
1 acre foot = 1233 m3
1 1 = 10-3 m3
1 quart = 1.136 x 10-3 m3
fluid ounce = 28.41 em 3
(jv) Mass Kg
1 kg = 2.20462 lb = 0.068 522 slug
1 ton (short) = 2000 lb (pounds) = 907.184 Kg.
1 ton (long) = 1016.05 Kg
1 dr am = 1 0772 g
lb = 16 oz (ounces) = 0.4536 Kg
1 tola = 10.66g
1 oz = 28.3495 g
1 slug = 14.59 Kg
1 stone = 6.350293 Kg
1 hundred weight (ewt) = 50.802345 Kg
1 maund = 40 seers = 37.32 Kg
quintal = 100 Kg
1 grain = 0.0648 g
1 carat = 0.2 g
611
612 APPENDIX 1
(V) Density and specific volumes kg/m 3 , m3 /kg
J lb/ft 3 = 16.0185 kg/m 3 = 5.787 x 10-4 lb/in 3
oz/ft 3 = 1 kg/m 3
slug ft 3 = 515.4 kg/m 3
g/cm 3 = 10 3 kg/m 3 = 62.43 Ib/ft 3
1 lb/ft 3 = 0.016 g/cm 3 = 16 kg/m 3
ft 3 (air) 0.08009 Ib = 36.5 gm at N.T.P.
1 l(air) = 1.2982 9 at N.T.P.
1 gallon lb = 0.010 cm 3 /kg
(vi) Pressure Pa
1 Ib/ft 2 = 4.88 kg/m 2 = 47.88 Pa
1 Ib/in 2 = 702.7 kg/m 2 = 51.71 mm Hg = 6.894 757 x 10 3 Pa (Pascal)
= 6.894 757 x 10 3 N/m2
1 atm = 1.013 x 10 5 N/m2 = 760 mm Hg=101.325 kPa
1 in H2 0 = 2.491 x 10 2 N/m2 = 248.8 Pa=0.036 Ib/in 2
bar = 0.987 atm = 1 .000 x 10 6 dynes/cm
1 .020kg f/cm 2 14.50 lb f / in 2
= =
= 10 5 N 2 (Newton/m ) = 100 K Pa
j torr (mm Hg.OD[)= 133 Pa 2
Pascal (Pa) =1 N/m = 1.894 76 kg
1 inch of Hg = 3.377 K Pa = 0.489 Ib/in 2
(vii) Velocity m/s
1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s
2
1 mi le/h = 0.447 m/s = 1.4667 H/s = 0.8690
1 knot = 0.5144 m/s = 1.6878 ft/s
'1 km/h 0.2778 m/s
1 ft/mi n = 0.005 08 m/s
knots
APPENDIX 1 613
(viij) Force N
(j x)
5 1 N (Newton) = 1 x 10 dynes = 0.22481 lb wt= 0.224 81 Ibf
1 pdl (Poundal) = 0.138 255 N (Newton) = 13.83 dynes = 14.10 gf
1 lbf (Leo wt of 1 lb mass) = 4.448 222 N = 444.8222 dynes
1 ton = 9.964 x 103N
1 kgf = 9.8065 N
1 bar = 10 5 Pa (pascal)
1 ft of H2 0 = 2.950 x 10-2 atm =
1 mm H2 0 = 9.806 65 Pa
1 in H2 0 = 249.089 Pa
3 2 9.807 x10 N/m •
1 mm H2 0 = 133.322 Pa
1 dyne = 1.020 x 10-6 kgf = 2.2481 x 10-6 1bf
= 7.2330 x 10- 5 pdl
= 10 - 5N
1 mm of Hg = 133.3 Pa
1 at = 1 kgf/cm 2 = 98.0665 k Pa
1 atm= 101.325 k Pa
1 Pa (Pascal) = 1 N/m2
3 Mass flow rate and discharge kg/s, m /s
1 lb/s = 0.4536 kg/s
1 lb/min = 7.56 x 10-3 kg/s 3 -4 3 1 ft /mjn = 0.47201/s = 4.179 x 10 m /s
1 m3 /s = 3.600 x 10 6 1/h
1 Yd 3 /minute = 12.741/s
1 gm/cm3 = 103 kg/m 3
1 lb/h ft2 = 0.001 356 kg/s m2
1 Ib/ft3 = 16.2 kg/m 2
1 cfm/ft 2 = 0.3048 m3 /mjn m2
614
1 g pm/ft 2 = 0.0407 m3 /min m2 •
1 gal/mjn = 6.309 x 10- 5 m3/s
1 CUsecs (ft 3/s) = 0.028 32 m3/s
1 cumecs (m 3/s) = 1 m3/s
1 lHre/s (1/s) = 10-3m3/s
APPENDIX 1
(x) Energy J
1 cal = 4.187 (Joules) 1 K -4 103 J . cal = 3.97 Btu = 12 x 10 kWh = 4.187 x
1 watt = 1.000 J/S
1 Btu = 0.252 keal = 2.93 x 10-4 kWh=4.187 x 103J
1 hp = 632.34 kcal = 0.736 kWh
1 therm = 1.055 x 10 8 J
1 ehu = 1.9 x 103 J
1 Kwh = 3.6 x 10 6 J 7 -3 1 ft Ib f = 1.356 x 10 ergs = 1.286 x 11 Btu
1 ft Ibf = 1.356J = 3.241 x 10-4 keal
1 J(Joule) = 2.390 x 10-4 kcal = 2.778 x 10-4Wh
1 kWh = 860 keal = 3413 Btu -7 -7 1 erg = 1.00 x 10 J = 1.00 x 10 Nm=1.00 dyne em
1 J (Joule) = 1 ws = 1 N m
(xi) Power Watt (J/s)
1 Btu/h = 0.293071 W = 0.252 keal/h
1 Btu/h = 1.163 W = 3.97 Btu/h
1 ton refr. = 3.516 85 kW / -3 1 w = 1.000 J S = 1.341 x 10 hp
= 0.0569 Btu/min =0.014 33 Keal/min
1 hp (F.P.S) = 550 ft Ibf/s = 42.41 Btu/min
= 746 W = 596 keal/h = 1.015 hp (M.K.S)
APPENDIX 1 615
1 hp (M.K.S) = 75m kgf/s = 0.17569 kcal/s
= 735.3 W
w/ft2 = 10.76 W/m2
(xli) Specific Heat kJ/kgOC
1 Btu/lboF = 1.0 kcal/kgOC=4.187 x 103J/kgOC
1 8tu/lb = 2.326 kJ/kg.
(xiii) Temperature,OC and K used in 51
to C = 5/9 (tOF+40) - 40;tOF = 9/5(tOC+40)-40;
to R = 460 + tOF; TOK = 5/9ToR; TOR =9/5ToK;
~toc = ~toF/1.8 = 5/9 X~tOF
(xiv) Rate of heat flow per unit area or heat flux W/m2
1 Btu/ft2 h 2.713 kcal/m 2h 3.1552 W/ m 2 = =
1 pcu/ft 2h 4.878 2 = kcal/m h
1 2 0.3690 Btu/ft 2h 1 .163 kcal/m h = =
= 27.78 x 10-6 calls cm
1 cal/cm 2 min = 221.4 Btu/ft 2h
1 W/ft2 = 10.76 W/m2
1 W/m2 0.86 kcal/h m 2 0.23901 = = = 0.137 Btu/h ft2
1 Btu/h ft = 0.961 28 W/m
(xv) Heat transfer coefficient W/m2 C
= 5.678 W/m2t
1 kcal/m2 hOC = 0.2048 Btu/ft 2 hOF;
= 1.163 W/m 2 C
2
x
W/m 2
10-4 calls 2 cm
616 APPENDIX 1
(x vi)
/ 2 -5. 2 1 W m K = 2.3901 X 10 c~l/cm s K.
= 1.7611 X 10-1 Btu/ft 20 F
= 0.86 kcal/m 2h'C
cal/cm 2 soC = 7.3686 X 10 3 Btu/ft 2 h"F
= 36 000 kcal/m 2 hoC
= 4. 1 87 X 1 04 W / m 2 ·C
= 4.1 W/m cm 2 °C
1 pCU/ft 2 hDC = 4.878 kcal/m 2hoC
Thermal conductivity W/m ~
Btu/ft h F = 1.488 kcal/m hOC;
= 1. 7 3 0 73 W / m °c 1 kcal/m h Cc = 0.6720 Btu/ft h of;
= 101631 W/mcC
1 Btu in/ft 2 h D F = 0.124 kcal/m hOC;
= 0.144 228 W/m"C
Btu / i n h' F = 17. 8 8 k c a 1/ m h °c cal/cm soC = ~.187 X 10 2 W/m'C
= 242 Btu/h ft'F
1 W/cm'C = 57.79 Btu/h ftD F
(xvii) Viscosity coefficient, Pa S = N s/m2 = kg/m s
1 lb/ft s = 14.88 g/cms = 1.488 kg/ms
lb/ft 2 = 4.882 kg/s/m 2 = 47.88 kg/m s
= 478.8 poises
P (poise) = 0.1 kg/ms = 0.1 N s/m2
= 1.020 X 10- 2 kg s/m2 = 2.088 x 10-3
lb f s/ft 2
j lb m/ft h = 4.134 X 10- 4 Ns/m 2
1 lb fh/ft 2 = 1.723 69 x 10~ Ns/m 2 =0.1724 M Pa s
1 slug/ft s = 4.788 x 10 Ns/m 2
1 CP (Centipoise )=10- 3 Pa s=2.42 lb/hft=3.60 kg/h m.
APPENDIX 1 617
(xviii) Angle, rad
1 r ad = 360 degrees 1 degree = 0.017 453 3 rad = 60 mjnute
1 min ut e = 0.290 888 x 10:-3 rad = 60 seconds
second = 4.848 14 x 10-6 rad
(xix) Illumination
2 Ix (lux) = 1.000 1m (lumen)/m 2 Im/ft = 1.000 foot candle
foot candle = 10.7639 Ix
(xx) Time h
(xx i )
(xxii)
1 week = 7 days =168 h = 100 80 minute=604 800 s 1 mean solar day=1440 minute = 86 400 s
1 calender year =365 days = 8760 h=5.256 x 10 5 minutes
1 tropical mean solar year = 365.2422 days sidereal year = 365.2564 days (mean solar)
1 s (second) = 9.192 631 770 x 10-9 Hertz(Hz)
Concentration kg/m 3 and g/m 3
gil = 1 kg/m 3
Ib/ft 3 = 6.236 kg/m 3
grains gal = 4.25 g/m 3
Diffusivity m2/s
CST (centistoke) = 10-6 m2/s
ft2/h = 25.81 x 10-6 m2/s
m2/h = 2.7778 cm 2 /s
m2/s = 104 cm 2/s
* Adapted with permission from H.P. Garg (1982), 'Treatise on Solar Energy' John Wiley and Sons,
England
APPENDIX 2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME SOLID MATERIALS
Material Density Temp erat ure Therm al Speci fic Thermal 3 DC Conduc- heat D iffu-kg/m tivity KJ/kgDC s iv it y
w/mk x 103 2 m /hr
NON-METALS
Alumina 3800 20 2.9 0.800 Aluminum Foil 20 50 0.047 Asbestos Fibre 470 50 0.110 0.816 1. 04 Asp halt 2110 20 0.697 2.093 0.57 Brick, masonr y 800 to 20 0.23 to
1500 0.29 Cellotex 215 20 0.047 Chalk 2000 50 0.093 0.879 1. 91 Clinber 1400 30 0.163 1.675 0.41 Coal 1400 20 0.186 1 .424 0.41 Concrete 2300 20 1.279 1 .130 1.77 Cork, Sheet 190 30 0.042 1.884 0.42 Fi re-br i ck 550 100 0.140 Glass 2500 20 0.744 0.670 1.60 Gr ave I 1840 20 0.360 Ice 920 0 2.249 2.261 3.89 Leather 1000 30 0.159 Marb-Ie 2700 90 1.302 0.419 4.15 Mi ca 290 o. ~81 0.879 8.20 Mineral wool 200 50 0.047 0.921 0.91 paraffin 920 20 0.267 Plaster 1680 20 0.779 Perspex 1190 50 0.200 1 .500 Rubb-er 1200 0 0.163 1.382 0.353 Sand,dry 1500 20 0.325 0.7% 9.85 Sand,wet 1650 20 1.127 2.093 1.77 Slate 2800 100 1.488 Snow 560 0.465 2.093 1.43
618
APPENDIX 2 619
Sojl dry 1500 0.138 Sojl wet 1700 0-.657 2.010 0.693 Teflon 2200 20 0.250 1.050
METALS
Alumjnjum 2670 0 203.403 0.921 328.0 Brass 8600 0 85.429 0.877 95.0 Copper 8300 0 383.559 0.381 412.0 Iron 7220 20 62.764 0.502 62.5 Lead 11400 0 34.869 0.1298 85.0 Sjlver 10500 20 419.0 0.235 0.5 Solder (50Pb/50Sn)9000 0.176 Stajlness Steel (18 Cr/8Nj) 7930 20 150.0 0.510 Steel,mjld 7860 63.0 0.420 Tjn 7300 20 65.0 0.226 139 ljnc 7140 20 111 .0 0.385 148
APPENDIX 3
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME BUILDING AND INSULATING MATERIALS
Material Temperature Density Thermal Thermal Specific
3 Diffusi- Conduc- heat
°C Kg/m vHy tivHy KJ/Kg K
x1O) x 103 .., w/mK mL. /hr
Alumina 3800 2900 Aluminium 50 20 46.5 foil Asbestos, -50 470 1.04 110.5 0.816 fi b-r e Asbestos, 30 770 0.71 116.3 0.816 sheet 81' ick, 20 800- 233- 0.840 masona,y 1500 291 CarbQrun- 1000 6.00 11281 0.678 dumbd ck Cardboard, 64.0 corrugated Chalk 50 2000 1. 91 930.4 0.879 Clinker: 3D 1400 0.41 .'162.8 1.675 Coal 20 1400 0.37 186.1 1.306 Concrete 20 2300 1.77 1.279 1.130 Cork, 20 45 38.4 granulated Cork, sh-eet 30 190 0.42 41.9 1.884 Earth,dry 1500 138.4 Earth,wet 1700 0.69 657.1 2.010 F i b-r e plate20 240 48.9 Glass 20 2500 1.60 744.3 0.67 Glass wool 20 200 1 .00 37 .2 0.67 Gravel 20 1840 360.5 Gypsum 1650 290.8 Leather 3D 1000 159.5 Magnesia 100 (85~6 pow-der)
216 67.5
Marble 90 2700 4.15 1303 4.187 Mi ca 200 8.20 581.5 8.792 Mi n.eral 50 200 0.91 46.5 0.921 wool Paraffin 20 920 267.5
620
APPEKDIX 3 621
Perspex 1190 200.0 1.500 Plaster 20 1680 77 9.2 Polyethy- 920 2.300 lene P'orcelej n 95 2400 1.43 1035 1 .089 Portland 30 1900 o . 51 302.4 1.130 cement Quartz, 0 2500- 12.00 7211 0.837 across 2800 grajn Refractory 450 1845 1 .86 1035 1.089 Clay Rubber 0 1200 0.35 162.8 1 .382 Sand,dry 20 1500 9.85 325.6 0.796 Sand,wet 20 1650 1.77 1128 2.093 Saw dust 20 200 69.8 Slag wool 100 250 69.8 Slate 100 2800 1489 Teflon 2200 250 1.050 (PTFE) Wool felt 30 330 52.3 Wood,Oak 700 150
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0.0
10
8
o • D
O 9
2
"'-
tv ..,. ~
.."
.." '" Z o ><
AP
PE
ND
IX
6
PH
Y S
ICA
L
PR
OP
ER
TI[
S
OF
SAT
UR
AT
ED
W
ATF
R
----
Tem
pera
ture
D
en
sity
S
pecif
jc
Th
erm
al
Th
erm
al
Vis
co
sit
y
Kin
em
a!: i
e
Pra
nd
tl
°C
3 h
eat
Co
nd
ucti
-D
Hfu
sj-
X10
2 v
isco
sit
y
Nu
mb
er
Kg/
m
KJ/
Kg
oC
v
ity
X
10Z
v
ity
X
104
X~06
w/m
K
m2
/hr
Kg
/hr
m
m /s
ee.
0 9
99
.9
4.2
1 Z
5
5.0
93
4
.71
6
44
.09
3
1.7
89
1
3.6
7
10
9
99
.7
4.1
91
5
7.4
18
4
.94
4
69
.81
'8
1.3
06
9
.52
2
0
99
8.2
4
.18
3
59
.85
9
5.1
6
36
1.8
92
1
.00
6
7.0
2
,0
99
5.7
4
.17
4
61
.71
8
5.3
5
28
8.6
68
0
.80
5
5.4
2
40
9
92
.2
4.1
74
6
3.3
45
5
.51
2
35
.60
2
0.6
59
4
.31
0
, 5
0
98
8.1
4
.17
4
64
.74
0
5.6
5
19
7.7
71
: 0
.55
6
3.5
4
'"' <J.
60
9
83
.2
4.1
78
6
5.9
02
5
.78
1
16
9.3
05
0
.47
8
2.9
8
70
9
77
.8
4
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7
66
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6
5.8
7
14
6.3
70
0
.41
5
2.5
5
80
97
1 .8
4
.19
5
67
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13
5
.96
1
27
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4
0.3
65
2
.21
90
9
65
.3
4.2
08
6
7.9
95
6
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1
13
.50
7
0.3
26
1
.95
1
00
9
58
.4
4.2
20
6
8.2
27
6
.09
1
'01
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0
0.2
95
1
.75
11
0
95
1.0
4
.23
3
68
.46
0
6.1
'3
93
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5
0.2
72
1
.60
1
20
9
43
.1
4.2
50
6
8.5
76
6
.16
8
5.4
48
0
.25
2
11. 4
7
13
0
93
4.8
4
.26
6
68
.57
6
6.1
9
78
.74
4
0.2
33
1
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1
40
9
26
.1
4.2
87
6
8.4
60
6
.21
7
2.4
75
0
.21
'7
1 .2
6
15
0
91
7.0
4
.31
2
68
.34
3
6.2
2
66
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2
0.2
03
11
.17
Ap
pen
dix
6
Co
nt.
16
0
90
7.4
4
.34
6
68
.22
7
6.2
3
17
0
89
7.3
4
.37
9
67
.87
8
6.2
2
18
0
88
6.9
4
.41
7
67
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3
6.2
0
19
0
87
6.0
4
.45
9
66
.94
9
6.1
7
20
0
86
3.0
4
.50
5
66.2
511
6.1
4
22
0
84
0.3
4
.61
4
64
.50
8
5.9
9
24
0
81
3.6
4
.75
6
62
.76
4
5.8
4
26
0
78
4.3
4
.94
9
60
.44
0
5.6
1
28
0
75
0.7
5
.22
9
57
.41
8
5.2
7
30
0
71
2.5
5
.73
6
53
.93
1
4.7
5
62
.20
6
I] .1
!91'
5
8.6
23
0.
1181
5
4.9
76
0
.17
3
51
.92
1
0.1
65
4
9.2
66
0
.15
8
44
.82
3
0.1
48
4
1.3
56
0
.14
1
38
.27
4
0.1
35
3
5.5
96
o
.131
! 3
2.8
35
0
.12
9
1: .1
0
1, .0
5
1i. (
) 0
0.9
6
0.9
3
0.8
9
0.8
7
0.8
7
0.9
0
0.9
7
'" N '" >
."
."
tTl
Z o >< '"
APP
END
IX
7
PHY
SIC
AL
PRO
PER
TIE
S O
F SA
TUR
ATE
D
STEA
M
Tem
per
atu
re
Den
sity
S
pecif
ic
Th
erm
al
Th
erm
al
Vh
co
si t.
y K
inem
ab c
P
ran
dtl
DC
3
heat
Con
duct
.i -
DH
fusj
-V
isco
sity
N
urn b
el'
Kg/
m
KJ/
KgD
C
vit
y
X10
2 v.
it.y
X
103
X10
2 X
i06
2 K
g /h
r m
w
/mK
m
/h
r 2
m /
sec
10
0
0.5
98
2
.13
5
2.37
11
67
.9
4.3
20
2
0.0
2
1.0
8
11
0
0.8
26
2
.17
7
2.4
87
4
9.8
4
.48
7
15
.07
1
.09
1
20
1
.12
1
2.2
06
2
.59
2
37
.8
4.6
13
11
1 .4
6
1.
09
1
30
1
.49
6
2.2
57
2
.68
5
2:8
.7
4.7
57
8
.85
1.
1! 1
1
40
1
.96
6
2.3
15
2
.79
0
22
.07
4
.86
1
6.8
9
1 .1
2
'" tv 1
50
2
.57
2
2.3
95
2
'.8
83
1
7.0
2
5.0
30
5
.47
1
.16
-.
J
16
0
3.2
58
2
.47
9
3.0
10
1
3 .
40
5
.16
2
L3
9
1.1
8
17
0
4.1
22
2
.58
3
3.1
27
1
0.5
8
5.2
76
3
.57
1
. 21
1
80
5
.15
7
2.7
09
3
.26
6
8.4
2
5.4
30
2
.93
1
.25
1
90
6
.39
4
2.8
55
3
.41
7
6.7
4
5.6
04
1
.44
1
.30
2
00
7
.86
2
3.0
23
3
.54
5
5.3
7
5.7
45
2
.03
1
.36
21
0
9.4
88
3
.19
9
3.7
19
4
.37
5
.90
6
1 .7
1
1.
41
22
0
11 .
62
3
.4C
B,
3.8
94
3
.54
6
.05
0
1 .4
5
1.4
7
23
0
13
.99
3
.63
4
4.0
91
2
.90
6
.24
5
1.2
4
1.5
4
24
0
16
.76
3
.88
1
4.2
89
2.
.37
6
.40
9
1 .0
6
1.
61
25
0
19
.98
4
.15
8
4.5
10
11
.96
6.5
64
9
.91
3
1.6
8
26
0
23
.72
4
.46
7
4.8
00
1
.63
6
.77
4
0.7
94
1
. 7
5
27
0
28
.09
4
.81
5
5.1
03
1
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6
.94
8
[l.6
88
1
.82
2
80
3
3.1
9
5.2
34
5
.48
6
1 .1
4
7.1
74
0
.60
0
1.9
0
29
0
39
.15
5
.69
4
5.8
23
0
.94
1
7.4
04
J.5
26
2
.01
3
00
4
6.2
1
6.2
80
6
.26
5
0.7
78
7
.65
4
0.4
61
2
.13
3
20
6
4.7
2
8.2
06
7
.50
9
0.5
09
8
.24
0
0.3
53
2
.50
AP
PE
ND
IX
8
PHY
S IC
Al
PR
OP
[RT
IES
O
f S
OM
[ C
ASE
S
-----
'" a
~n f:."
F
orm
ula
H
elt
ing
B
oij
ing
T
her
ma
l D
en
sity
0
Yis
CQ
sit
Yll
Il
eat
of
Sp
ec H
i c
RatI
o
of
tem
pe
-te
mp
e-
co
nd
uc-
:.t
S.
T.P
) X
l 0
-6
,.p
orlz
a-
heat
C
.peci
flc
ra
ture
ratu
re
tl
v j
ty
ti9~
X
104
(It
30~K
) h
ea
t.
Xl0
-4
kg
/m3
Ns
/m2
J/k
g
J/k
gK
W
/no
K
Acety
1e.n
e C
ZH
2 1
92
.4
18
9
18
9
1.1
7 5
9
.35
1
59
0
1.2
6
A J
r ~8
.0~2
83
2
41
1
.91
1
8.3
Z 5
21 .
4
99
3
1.4
02
ZO
-95
0
(JO
OK
) 0-96Mi~c
Am
mon
la
NH
3 1
9 5
. ~3
24
0
21
8
0.77
0 9
.18
1
37
. ,
21
90
1
J 1 0
a-C
arb
on
CO
2 2
16
1
95
1
45
1
.97
7
14
3
6.4
8
45
1
.30
4
tv
djo
xid
e
00
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rbo
n
CO
66
8
1
232
1.
Z5
0
16
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21 .
1
10
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0
1 .4
04
mo
no
xid
e
Ch
lorin
e
C1
2 1
71
.7
2
38
7
2
3.2
14
1
2.9
2
8.1
4
78
1
.35
5
H~'dr a
ge
n
HZ
13
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20
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1
68
4
0.0
90
8
.35
4
5.3
1
43
00
1
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0
Net
ha
ne
CH
4 1
90
.64
1
09
}O
Z
0.7
17
1
0.3
51
.1
2
Z0
0
1.3
13
Nit
ro
gen
"'
2 6
2.7
7
7
24
3
1 .2
50
1
6.7
2
0.9
1
04
0
1.4
04
Ox~gen
°z 54
9
0
24
4
1.4
29
1
9.2
2
4.3
9
18
1
.40
1
',oj a
te r
v
ap
ou
r
H2
O
27
}
37
3
15
8
0.8
00
8
.7
22
6.1
18
!)::
,27
},
i (a
t 3
73
k)
f'reo
n-1
2
CC
l 2F
2 1
18
.2
24
2.6
3
.50
rreo
n-2
2
CH
Clf
2 1
13
.2
22
9.5
4
.20
~ -~------
----------~----------~
APP
END
IX
9
PHY
SIC
AL
PRO
PER
TIE
S OF
DR
Y A
IR
AT
ATM
OSP
HER
IC
PRES
SUR
E
lem
pera
ture
D
en
sjt
y
Sp
ecif
ic
lherm
al
Th
erm
al
Vjs
co
sit
y
Kin
em
atj
c
Pra
nd
tl
DC
K
/ 3
heat
Co
nd
ucti
-D
iffu
sl-
X10
2 V
isco
sit
y
Nu
mb
er
9 m
K
J/K
g
K
vit
y
X10
Z
v~ty
X
102
kg
/hr
m
X10
6
w/m
K
m
/hr
2/
. __
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
m
sec
-50
1
.58
4
1.0
13
2
.03
4
4.5
7
5.2
64
9
.23
0
.72
8
-40
1
.51
5
1.0
13
2
.11
5
4.9
6
5.4
75
1
]0.0
4
0.7
28
-3
0
1.4
53
1
.01
3
2.1
97
5
.37
5
.64
5
10
.80
0
.72
3
-20
1
.39
5
1.0
09
2
.27
8
5.3
8
5.8
22
1
2.0
9
0.7
16
-1
0
1.3
42
1
.00
9
2.3
60
6
.28
5
.90
6
12
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0
.71
2
o 1
.29
3
1.0
05
2
:.4
41
6
.77
6
.18
8
13
.28
0
.70
7
10
1
.24
7
1.0
05
2
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1
7.2
2
6.3
46
1
4.1
6
0.7
05
~
20
1
.20
5
1.0
05
2
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2
7.7
1
6.5
33
1
5.0
6
0.7
03
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3
0
1.1
65
1
.00
5
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67
3
8.2
3
6.7
17
1
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0
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01
4
0
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28
1
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5
2.7
55
8
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6
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4
16
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0
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9
50
1
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3
1.0
05
2
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4
9.2
9
7.0
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1
7.9
5
0.6
98
60
1
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0
1.0
05
2
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4
9.7
9
7.2
21
1
8.9
7
0.6
96
7
0
1.0
29
1
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9
2.9
64
1
0.2
8
7.3
44
2
0.0
2
0.6
94
8
0
1.0
00
1
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9
3.0
45
1
0.8
7
7.5
23
2
1.0
9
0.6
92
9
0
0.9
72
1
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9
3.1
27
1
1.4
8
7.7
01
' 2
2.1
0
0.6
90
1
00
0
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6
1.0
09
3
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8
12
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7
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0
23
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0
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8
12
0
0.8
98
1
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9
3.3
36
1
3.2
6
8.1
70
2
5.4
5
0.6
86
1
40
0
.85
4
1.0
13
3
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7
14
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8
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9
27
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0
.68
4
16
0
0.8
1.5
1
.01
7
.63
8
15
.80
8
.78
6
30
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0
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2
18
0
0.7
79
1
.02
2
3.7
78
1
7.1
0
9.0
70
3
2.4
9
0.6
81
2
00
0
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6
1.0
26
3
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9
18
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9
.38
0
34
.85
0
.68
0
25
0
0.6
74
1
.03
8
4.2
66
2
1.4
9
10
.02
0
40
.61
0
.67
7
A P
P [N
! D I
X 1
0
FREE
ZIN
G
POIN
TS
OF
AQ
UfO
US
SOLU
TIO
NS
Alc
oh
ol
Gl y
ced
ne
Eth
yle
ne
gly
co
l P
rop
yle
ne
gly
co
l.
%
by
wt.
DC
?~
by
w
t .
DC
?o b
y
wt.
DC
?~
by
w
t.
DC
5 -2
.2
10
-1
. 6
15
-S
.3
5 -1
.7
1
0
-4.7
20
-4
.8
20
-8
.8
10
-3
.3
15
-6
.8
30
-9
.5
25
-1
2.2
1
5
-5.3
2
0
-1
0.4
4(
1 -1
,;;.
4
30
-1
5.8
2
0
-7.2
'" 2
5
-14
.7
50
-2
3.0
3S
-2
9.0
2
5
-9.7
w
0
30
-1
9.2
6
0
-34
.7
40
-2
4.7
3
0
-12
.8
35
-2
5.1
7
0
-38
.0
45
-3
0.0
3
5
-16
.4
40
-2
9.4
8
0
-20
.8
50
-3
5.8
4
0
-ZO
.8
45
-3
3.0
9
0
-1 .
6
45
-2
6.1
5
0
-36
.7
10
0
+
1.7
5
0
-31
.9
5
5
-40
.3
55
-3
9.7
5
9
-49
.4
APP[NDIX 11
PROPERTI~S or TYPICAL REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerants Boi li'1g Poin t (0 C)
Ammonia -33.3 Carbon dioxide -79.2 Ethyl chlori de 13 .1 Freezol (isobutane) -12.2 Freon II (Cn 3F) 23.8
Freon 12 (C C12F Z ) -29.8
Freon 13 (C C1 F 3 ) --81 .4
Freon 21 (CHC1 ZF) 8.9
Freon 2Z(CH ClF 2) -40.8
Freon 113 (C 1ZF . C CIF 2) 47.6
Freon 114 (C C1 F 2) 2 3.6
Freon 115 (CC1F ZCF 3 ) -38.7
Freon 50Z -45.6
Methyl ch10ri de -Z3.7
Sulfur dioxide 10.0
631
Heat of vapourj-zation
at boiling point at atmospheric ~ressure (MJ /Kg)
1 .290 0.2698 0.4117 0.4036 0.182
0.165
0.149
0.2424
0.2338
0.147
0.137
0.126
0.178
0.2740
0.4008
APPENDU 1.2
STORAGE CAPACITI[S*
Energy densities Temperature
(Wh/kg) (Wh/dm 3 ) (DC)
Conventional fuels
on Coal Wood
Heat storage(Thermal storage)
Hot water Hot rocks,(concr'ete, granite)
Iron ore Al um j n j um Ir on
Heat storage(Phase change)
Ice,(heat of fusion) Water, (evaporation) Paraffin, (heat of fusion) Salt hydrates,(heat of fusion) Lithjum hydride LiH, (heat of fusion) Ljthium fluoride LiF, (heat of fusjon) Fluorides, mixtures
11 000 8300 4200
58 111
11 12
6
93 630 47
55
1300
290
200
Uthium sulphate,U ,S04 58 Ammonia Tiocyanat. 12 NH 4SCN
Chemical storage Synthetj c fuels:
Ammonia Hydrogen(liquid) Hydrogen,metal hyd~ide
5150 33000 600-2500
632
8300 12500
zaoo
58 29
57 34 50
93
39
80
1070
760
400
l' 20 16
39'90 2490 2-5000
20-100 20-100
20-350 20-350 20-35U
o 100 Approx. 55
30-70 typical
686
850
450-850 C oncei vab Ie 575 88
APPENDIX 12
Appendix 12 (Contd)
Ethanol (liquid) Methane (Uquid) Methanol Propane Petrol Hydrazine
Batteries:
Lead-acid Nickel-cadmium Iron-nickel Nickel-zinc Sodi um-sulphur U t h i um -5 u 1 P h ur Iron-air High temperature
Mechanjcal storage
Water, pumped-hydyo (100 m) Flywheels, steel Steel sprj ng Natur a1 rubber
Electd c fi e Ids
Capad tor
Magnetj c fi elds
Superconducting coil
7694 1.389 5800 112800 111600 2}OO
40 (167) 100(45) 60 (266) 90 (321 )
1'50(680) 150(1500) 80 (70) 400 (200)
0.3
20-30 0.1 8
1-2
6100 5900 4400 7000 9000
80 100
80 400
0.3
300-400
2 x 10-4
5-1.0
20-30
20-30 300-375
40 350-450
633
Theoretical values in brackets. The storage is at standard temperature except where jndjcated.
* Adapted with permission from J. Jensen, Energy storage Newnes - Butterworths, London, 1980.
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(1
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ab
.,
43
(5),
2
89
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'" w '" » ."
t;l Z " ><
APPENDIX 14 90~------------------------~~~
80
70
SOLUBILITY BEHAVIOR OF CANDIDATE SALTS FOR SALT GRADIENT SOLAR POND (ADAPTED WITH PERMISSION FROM REPORT NO: SERI/TR-253-1512. JANUARY 1983)
637
INDEX
Adsorbents, 30,414,415 AdsorpU on, 412 Advan~ed batteries, 72,74 Ammonla, 331 Ammoniated salts 362 . ' AqUl fers, 461
advantages of, 461 characteristics of 472 ' field studies on,473 operational strategies of, 462 theoretical studies on, 466 thermal energy capacity of, 467
A5HRAE 94-77, 594,596 Attach~d sunspace type
-2QJVe design, 525 Au xJ .1iary energy, 5 Butteries, 72
advanced, 73 lead acid, 74 life of, 75 nickel-zinc 74 primary type, 72
Building materials, 495 phase change materials as, 528 properties of, 620 thermal properties of 505
Calcium chloride hexa-hydrate, 209, 212
Capacitors, 55 Cera~ic pellets, 570 ChemJcal energy storage,
60,70,292 in ammonia, 331 ~n ammoniated salts,362 ln carbonates, 356 compariscn of, 292 in heat of solution,39B hydrogenation/dehydroge_ nation reaction, 361 ~n inorganic oxides,337 ln metal hydride,368 in methane reactions,372
reactions(list),307-31o selection criterian of 297 in 50 3 , 318 ' in sulfates, 358 systems, 313 thermal dissociation reactions, 314 thermodynamic considerations of, 297
Chemical heat pump, 375 ammoniates based, 384 heat of solution based, 398 hydrides in, 394 materials of, 379 salt hydrates in, 390 thermal efficien~y of, 380
Clathrate hydrates, 182, 186 Coefficient of performance
(COP), 16 Compatibility of peM, 244 Compressed gas energy storage
42 ' adiabatic compression, 44 expansion process, 46 isothermal compression, 43 large scale storage, 52 small scale storage, 50
Conse~vation of energy, 1,2 Contalnment of PCM Convective loop passive design,
507 Conversion of units, 610 Crop drying, 354 Crystallization, 29, 162, 198 Dehydration and hydration
reacU ons, 342 Dielectric materials, 56 Direct gain passive design,497 Drawing salt, 548 Drum Well, 516 Electric energy storage 9,11, 5<; ,
In batteries, 60 in capacitors, 55 in electromagnets, 57 in magnets, 59
Electrochemical storage, 72
639
640
Energy storage, 1,82,154, 292 by adsorptjon, 442 applications,7,8,9,12 in aquifers, 461 in building materjals, 495 characteristics of,19,2o as chemical energy, 9,292 jn compressed gas, 42 as electrical energy, 9,11,55 in flysheel 36 general, 1 in ground, 482 at hjgh temperature,10,547 in hydrogen, 10,13 jn kinetic ring, 40 as latent heat, 19,23,154,
at low temperature, 10,19 ,agnetic energy, 9,55,
59 as mechanical energy, 9,11,31 modes, 9 as sensible heat, 19,82 in solar p0nd, 461 in steel ingots, 567 system testing, 591 jn underqround tanks, 475
Encapsulation of peM, 241, 246
Endothermic mode, 293, 311,321
Entropy, 301 Equilibrjum temperat~re,30o Eutectics, 187, 189,
191, 195 Eva/Adam system, 373 E~Dthermjc mode, 292,311 Extra water principle, 217 Fatty acids, 183 Flujdized bed, 550,569 Flywheel, 35,36
rotor materials, 39 storage energy, 35 types of, 37, 38
Fossjl fuel, 1,2,10,67 Fuel cell 66,67,68 Clauber's salt 203,208,214
Greenhouse, 525 Habitat, 8
INDEX
Heat exchanger, 226,236,246, 268,271 actjve systems, 253 direct contact, 254 passive systems, 246
Heat of solution storage, 268, 290,298
Heat pjpe, 250 Heat storage jn ground, 482 Heat transfer salt, 548 Heat transformation, 375 hydrides in, 394 materials of, 379 Hydrogen energy storage, 10,
13,62,64 Hydrogenatjon/dehydrogenation
reaction, 361 Incongruent meltjng, 29, 160,
170,201 Kinetic ring, 40,41 Latent heat storage, 19, 154
basics of, 154 in fatty acids, 183 heat of fusion, 156 material selection of, 192 material propertjes of, 21,23,27 in non-orQanic solids, 181 jn organic compounds, 184 in paraffins, 180, 220 in salt hydrates, 173 in solid-liouid transformation, 173; 175, in solid-solid transition, 171,262 system component, 157
Liquid storage tank, 94 analytical studjes, 106 contajners for, 121 experimental studies on, 114 forced strati fi cati on, 120 stratified tank, 101, 112 well mj xr;H tClnk, 9!!
Load levellinQ, 7 Magnetic materials, 60
Me~hanical energy storage,31 In com~r2ssed gas i n fly \'1 h eel s, 3 6 as kinetic energy, 35
INDEX
in kinetic ring, 40 as potential Anergy, 31 asp u III p e d h Y dr 0, 3 1 , 32 , 34, 35
Metal hydrides, 3C,368 Methane based reactions, 372 Methanolated salts, 398 Moltenslag storage ,566 NBSIR 74-634,594,597 Nucleating agents, 199 Nucleation, 160, 198 Number of transfer units
(NTU), 143,152,239 Packed bed storage system, 128 Paraffins 180, 220
properties of, 221 cooling curve of, 223
Passive systems advantages of, 496 attached sunspace type,525 basic types of, 497 convective loop type,507 direct gain type, 497 roof ponds type, 524 thermal storage type, 511 Trombe wall type, 511
Phase change materials,27,171 compatability of, 244 encapsulation of, 24.1,246 fatty acids, 183 heat transfer in, 227 inorganic compounds, 174,176 non-paraffin organics,27,181, 184 paraffins, 27,180,220 salt hydrates,27,29,173 selection, 192 solid liquid transformation, 173 P01id-solid transition~171,262
Phase diagram,169,170,20~ of CaCl -H 0,210
2 2 of N8 2S0 4-H 20,207
Photochemical storage, 175 Phot0svnt~es]s, 2 Power plantJ,7,86,387,458,562 Primary cells, 72,73 Process heat, 457 Properties of
aqueous solutions, 630
641
Building materials,620 dry air, 628 Gases, 628 insulating materials, 620 latent heat materials, 634 Ii aui ris, (,?? liquid metals, 623 metals, 619 non metals, 619 refrigerants, 631 saturated water, 625 salts, 637 saturated steam, 627 solid materials, 618
Rock bed storage system, 551 air as working fluid in, 555 dual media type,559 at high temperature, 551,555
ReIling cylinder method, 219
Roof ponds, 524 Russel di agram, 14 Salt hydrates, 173,195,
198,203,204 CaC1 20 6H ZO,209,212
KF o 4H 2 0,213
Na2S04010H20,203
Na 2S20 3 05H 20,211
Sensible heat storage, 19,82,24 advantages of 82 Basics of, 82 drawbacks of, 84 in dual media, 94 for isothermal 10ad,85 in liquid media,90,94 material properties, 21 media, 89 in packed bed, 128 in solids, 26,91 in solid media, 93 in water, 24, 90
642
SiUcagel 416 Sodium suiphate decahydrate,
203 thermal cycling of, 215
Sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate, 211
Solar air conditioner, 17 Solar architecture, 540 Solar collector, 153,353,510 Solar cooling, 350,321,495 Solar desalination, 458 Solar drying, 86,87 Solar Energy, 1,6,348
storage 1,18,348,352 Solar heat engine 15 Solar pond, 25, 428,
analysis of, 445 applications, 454 areas of research for, 460 heat extraction from, 453 membrane stratified, 433 parU U oned, 433 profile, 444 salt gradient, 430 saturated, 434 shallow solar. Q?q
stability of~ 434 types of, 42;1 viscosity stabilized, 433
Solar thermochemical power plant, 334, 387
Solar water heating, 102,118 119, 456
Solid-solid transition 262 Space heating, 6,348,350,388,
354,495 Space cooling, 6 Steel ingots, 5t7 Storage, 5
applicaUons, 7,8,9,12 characteristics, 19,20 duration, 5,6 longterm, 6 short term, 6,19 size, 5 thermal, 16
Storage boiler, 578 Storage testing procedure 591 Stratification in liquid'
tanks, 101, 112, 120
INDEX
Sulfates, 358 Sulfur trioxide, 318 Sulfuric acid, 398 Supercooling, 29, 160 Synthetic fuels, 61 Testing of thermal storage
system, 591 Thermal cycling, 215 Thermal decomposition
reacti ons, 301 entropies of, 31~
o x ide s - per 0 xi U 8 ~> and superoxides, )Q3
volume change in, 317 sulfates, 358
Thermal dissociation type reactions, 314 Ammoniated salts, 362 CS 2 , 360
inorganic oxides, 337 NH 3 ,331
50 3 ,318
Thermal storage wall type passive desJgn, 511
Th75m02~2mical heat storage, , advantages of, 70
Thermocli ne, 563 Thickening agents, 2Q1, 214 Transport appJications, 9 Trombe wall, 511, 521 Turning temperature, 302 Underground water tanks,
475 advantages of, 475 heat storage in, 475 problems in, 476
Water wall, 516 Zeolites, 30, 416