appendix a - springer978-0-230-59918-5/1.pdfyear population number percentage ratea at end of year...
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Appendix A
Table A1 Demographic changes in East Laguna Village estimated by familyreconstitution, 1917–97
Year Population Number Percentage ratea
at endof year Birth Death Migrated Birth Death Immigration Emigration
In Out
1917 431918 47 1 1 4 0 2.33 2.33 9.30 0.001919 49 2 2 2 0 4.26 4.26 4.26 0.00
1920 51 2 2 2 0 4.08 4.08 4.08 0.001921 55 2 1 3 0 3.92 1.96 5.88 0.001922 55 3 2 0 1 5.45 3.64 0.00 1.821923 55 1 2 1 0 1.82 3.64 1.82 0.001924 56 2 2 2 1 3.64 3.64 3.64 1.82
1925 58 1 0 1 0 1.79 0.00 1.79 0.001926 60 3 1 0 0 5.17 1.72 0.00 0.001927 69 5 1 6 1 8.33 1.67 10.00 1.671928 71 3 1 0 0 4.35 1.45 0.00 0.001929 76 5 4 4 0 7.04 5.63 5.63 0.00
1930 82 7 1 0 0 9.21 1.32 0.00 0.001931 85 2 2 4 1 2.44 2.44 4.88 1.221932 90 4 1 2 0 4.71 1.18 2.35 0.001933 92 5 3 0 0 5.56 3.33 0.00 0.001934 92 3 2 1 2 3.26 2.17 1.09 2.17
1935 97 4 1 2 0 4.35 1.09 2.17 0.001936 107 6 3 7 0 6.19 3.09 7.22 0.001937 113 5 0 1 0 4.67 0.00 0.93 0.001938 116 3 4 5 1 2.65 3.54 4.42 0.881939 121 8 2 0 1 6.90 1.72 0.00 0.86
1940 131 6 2 6 0 4.96 1.65 4.96 0.001941 132 3 1 0 1 2.29 0.76 0.00 0.761942 149 8 2 11 0 6.06 1.52 8.33 0.001943 156 9 3 1 0 6.04 2.01 0.67 0.001944 177 7 4 18 0 4.49 2.56 11.54 0.00
1945 181 11 6 0 1 6.21 3.39 0.00 0.561946 176 7 4 2 10 3.87 2.21 1.10 5.521947 183 3 2 9 3 1.70 1.14 5.11 1.701948 193 10 1 2 1 5.46 0.55 1.09 0.551949 199 7 4 3 0 3.63 2.07 1.55 0.00
245
1950 204 9 3 0 1 4.52 1.51 0.00 0.501951 211 8 2 2 1 3.92 0.98 0.98 0.491952 226 16 2 5 4 7.58 0.95 2.37 1.901953 238 14 1 2 3 6.19 0.44 0.88 1.331954 241 16 3 1 11 6.72 1.26 0.42 4.62
1955 247 10 1 2 5 4.15 0.41 0.83 2.071956 258 16 5 4 4 6.48 2.02 1.62 1.621957 272 23 5 0 4 8.91 1.94 0.00 1.551958 286 19 2 1 4 6.99 0.74 0.37 1.471959 292 11 1 2 6 3.85 0.35 0.70 2.10
1960 305 13 3 3 0 4.45 1.03 1.03 0.001961 318 18 6 3 2 5.90 1.97 0.98 0.661962 334 11 4 11 2 3.46 1.26 3.46 0.631963 358 20 5 11 2 5.99 1.50 3.29 0.601964 376 14 3 9 2 3.91 0.84 2.51 0.56
1965 389 18 3 2 4 4.79 0.80 0.53 1.061966 399 17 6 9 10 4.37 1.54 2.31 2.571967 407 19 8 11 14 4.76 2.01 2.76 3.511968 415 18 7 6 9 4.42 1.72 1.47 2.211969 437 21 5 7 1 5.06 1.20 1.69 0.24
1970 460 20 4 10 3 4.58 0.92 2.29 0.691971 478 19 5 6 2 4.13 1.09 1.30 0.431972 498 17 4 19 12 3.56 0.84 3.97 2.511973 523 21 3 27 20 4.22 0.60 5.42 4.021974 548 22 5 17 9 4.21 0.96 3.25 1.72
1975 593 31 1 39 24 5.66 0.18 7.12 4.381976 639 35 6 32 15 5.90 1.01 5.40 2.531977 646 24 3 9 23 3.76 0.47 1.41 3.601978 671 34 5 14 18 5.26 0.77 2.17 2.791979 676 26 4 10 27 3.87 0.60 1.49 4.02
1980 707 36 12 34 27 5.33 1.78 5.03 3.991981 722 23 6 26 28 3.25 0.85 3.68 3.961982 746 24 6 26 20 3.32 0.83 3.60 2.771983 739 17 10 28 42 2.28 1.34 3.75 5.631984 764 18 1 32 24 2.44 0.14 4.33 3.25
1985 792 23 4 36 27 3.01 0.52 4.71 3.531986 826 20 4 37 19 2.53 0.51 4.67 2.40
Appendix A246
Table A1 (Continued)
Year Population Number Percentage ratea
at endof year Birth Death Migrated Birth Death Immigration Emigration
In Out
1987 871 28 3 41 21 3.39 0.36 4.96 2.541988 889 25 2 18 23 2.87 0.23 2.07 2.641989 928 22 6 41 18 2.47 0.67 4.61 2.02
1990 964 26 5 48 33 2.80 0.54 5.17 3.561991 991 27 4 35 31 2.80 0.41 3.63 3.221992 1042 27 9 60 27 2.72 0.91 6.05 2.721993 1052 30 8 27 39 2.88 0.77 2.59 3.741994 1077 32 5 44 46 3.04 0.48 4.18 4.37
1995 1184 30 3 114 34 2.79 0.28 10.58 3.161996 1199 30 14 54 55 2.53 1.18 4.56 4.651997b 1209 22 5 55 62 1.83 0.42 4.59 5.17
Notes: a Relative to the population at the end of the previous year.b Data are until October.
Appendix A 247
Table A1 (Continued)
Year Population Number Percentage ratea
at endof year Birth Death Migrated Birth Death Immigration Emigration
In Out
Tabl
eB
1M
igra
tory
flo
ws
to a
nd f
rom
Eas
t Lag
una
Vill
age,
191
8–97
a
Imm
igra
tion
to th
e vi
llag
eE
mig
rati
on fr
om th
e vi
llag
e
Rur
alU
rban
Tota
lR
ural
Urb
anTo
tal
Low
land
U
plan
dF
orm
alIn
form
alL
owla
nd
Upl
and
For
mal
Info
rmal
rice
are
aar
eab
rice
are
aar
eab
1918
–39
Lar
ge f
arm
er07
270
034
0700
10
08Sm
all f
arm
er05
080
013
0000
00
00A
g. la
bour
er00
000
000
0000
00
00T
otal
1235
00
4707
001
008
1940
–59
Lar
ge f
arm
er29
147
151
2106
90
36Sm
all f
arm
er04
080
012
1112
00
23A
g. la
bour
er06
020
008
0000
00
Tot
al39
247
171
3218
90
59
1960
–9L
arge
far
mer
0211
00
1308
048
020
Smal
l far
mer
1419
01
3409
021
012
Ag.
labo
urer
813
04
2503
100
114
Tot
al24
430
572
2016
91
46
248
App
endi
x B
1970
–9L
arge
far
mer
0100
301
600
602
615
2102
506
067
Smal
l far
mer
1900
800
100
503
328
0100
910
048
Ag.
labo
urer
2107
500
002
712
310
1100
413
038
Non
-far
m00
000
001
000
001
0000
000
0000
0T
otal
4108
601
803
818
353
3303
829
153
1980
–9L
arge
far
mer
0100
601
300
702
704
0101
500
020
Smal
l far
mer
1502
100
500
204
305
14
02
504
048
Ag.
labo
urer
6407
902
003
419
749
56
03
7 48
19
0N
on-f
arm
0000
001
900
001
900
0000
305
008
Tot
al80
106
057
043
286
5871
080
5726
6
1990
–7L
arge
far
mer
0100
000
800
000
901
0601
700
024
Smal
l far
mer
0000
802
900
404
115
0804
703
073
Ag.
labo
urer
9308
902
207
928
339
2406
362
18
8N
on-f
arm
0200
804
605
210
800
0 304
419
06
6T
otal
9610
510
513
544
155
4117
184
351
Not
es:
aD
ata
are
from
the
fam
ily r
econ
stitu
tion
of t
he v
illag
e.
The
acc
urac
y of
fam
ily r
econ
stitu
tion
is h
ighe
r fo
r 19
18–7
9th
an f
or 1
980–
97. F
or t
he l
atte
r pe
riod
, par
ticul
arly
for
the
198
0s, t
he d
estin
atio
ns o
r or
igin
s of
a s
ubst
antia
l nu
mbe
rof
mig
ratio
n ca
ses
rem
ain
unkn
own;
thes
e un
know
n ca
ses
are
allo
cate
d to
eac
h de
stin
atio
n/or
igin
acc
ordi
ng to
the
per-
cent
age
shar
es o
f th
e kn
own
case
s. N
umbe
r of
mig
rant
s in
the
flow
s in
clud
es f
amily
mem
bers
.bIn
clud
e fi
shin
g vi
llage
s.
249
Notes and References
3 Population Growth and the Evolution of Households
1. An attempt to extend the family reconstitution to earlier years using parishregisters was not feasible. Parish registers from around 1900 are available withvillage (barrio) identifications in numbers, but no record is available to relatethese identification numbers to the names of villages.
2. Adjustments in the age of marriage to employment opportunities and wagerates was a major variable to control population growth rates in pre-modernagrarian societies underlying Malthus’s theory of population (Hayami, 1997,pp. 62–3).
3. According to the 1986 Contraceptive Prevalence Survey (Commission onPopulation, 1992), the total fertility rate in rural areas of the Philippines was5.65 per cent in 1980, compared to 3.98 per cent in urban areas.
4. According to the life tables estimated for the village using the data for theperiods 1920–49 and 1950–80 (Kikuchi et al., 1982), declines in the mortalityrate between these two periods occurred for almost all the age groups. Formales, the factor that contributed most to the increase in the life expectancy atbirth from 48.5 to 59.1 years old was the reduction in infant mortality ratefrom 97 to 53 per 1000. For females, for whom life expectancy at birthincreased from 53.6 to 65.5 years, the infant mortality rate did not decline sig-nificantly, but the mortality rates of child-bearing age groups were reducedsignificantly. For example, the mortality rate for the 20–29 age group declinedfrom 51 to 7 per 1000.
5. An anthropological comparison between Japan and Thailand by Embree(1950) suggests a hypothesis that the loose definition of village borders mightbe a common characteristic of South-east Asia, in contrast with the clear andtight definition in North-east Asia.
6. They say that in the past some large farmers employed young boys as perma-nent farm helpers (kasugpong). However, this form of labour employment wasrarely practised in this village. For kasugpong, see Hayami, Quisumbing andAdriano (1990, ch. 4).
7. Another significant change in the occupational pattern of villagers is theincrease in the number of villagers who find job opportunities overseas. Theseoverseas contract workers are not included in Table 3.7, since the table summa-rizes the major occupations of villagers normally residing in the village.
8. The numbers of immigrants to and emigrants from the village increased sud-denly during and immediately after the Second World War (see Appendix B).These migration flows were created by the evacuation of town dwellers to thevillage, and their repatriation after the war.
4 Agrarian Structure and Land Reform
1. This section draws heavily on Hayami and Kikuchi (1981, ch. 4) and Hayami,Marciano and Kikuchi (1998).
250
2. Some scholars assume a nobility class in addition to the chiefs, and somedo not distinguish two categories in the dependent class (Larkin, 1972;McLennan, 1969; Phelan, 1959). Our exposition follows Ikehata (1971) andUmehara (1976). There must have existed considerable variation in barangayorganizations across regions.
3. It was a common practice for tenants to sign detailed written contracts withhaciendas, while written contracts were rare outside haciendas beforeland reform. For the hacienda tenancy contract, see Umehara (1974).
4. The accession of Corazon C. Aquino to the presidency in February 1986 cre-ated great expectations that land reform would become more comprehensiveand drastic. However, the Comprehensive Agrarian Law (RA 6657) of 1988was a compromise between the massive popular demand, especially fromintellectuals comprising the urban middle class, and the resistance of the land-lord bloc in the congress. This law appears to represent a break from the tradi-tional pattern of Philippine land reform legislation as its coverage expandedfrom tenanted rice and corn lands to all the agricultural lands, regardless oftenure arrangements and types of crop produced. This expanded coverage nec-essarily involved much greater complexity in administrative and legal proce-dures. Under the weak administrative and financial capability of the Aquinogovernment, the law was largely a dead letter, beyond a modest after-care ofthe Marcos programmes. For procedures and accomplishments of various pastreform programmes, see Hayami, Quisumbing and Adriano (1990, ch. 3).
5. In fact, it was estimated that the average rent on new leasehold land was21.3 per cent in 1976, while the average rent on old leasehold land was15.6 per cent. See Hayami and Kikuchi (1981, p. 112).
6. They say that the compensation payment before land reform was not limitedto leasehold tenants; it was also applied sometimes to share tenants. It is possi-ble that land rents from the customary 50 : 50 sharecropping contracts alsoexceeded economic returns to land, especially in the case of fertile land, evenbefore the introduction of new rice technology.
7. In the case where the ownership of land on which a farmer has held cultivationrights is sold to someone else, the landlord pays compensation to the formertenant, either in cash or in ownership of a part of the land. The increase in thenumber of paddy fields owned by villagers, as observed in Table 4.1, resultedpartly from such compensations.
8. Legally, inheritance is equal among heirs, but it is varied and flexible inpractice. It is often the case that a child who continues to live with and takecare of parents receives a major share of the farm, as explained in Chapter 1.In recent years, cases have been increasing in number in which children culti-vate the inherited land in rotation without subdividing it into individual unitsof operation; this tends to disguise the influence of population pressure onaverage farm size.
9. Even if the benefits from the reform were not so different initially betweenlarge and small farmers on a per capita basis, large ones were in a better posi-tion to mobilize absolutely larger benefits for the purchase of indivisible capi-tal items such as tractors and threshers, which became a significant source ofcash income from the use for custom services beyond operating in their ownfields. Their advantage in this regard was often extended to investing in start-ing non-farm businesses and, more importantly, to human capital formation in
Notes and References 251
providing higher education for the bright ones among their children. Throughthis process the difference in per capita gains between large and small farm-ers tended to increase over time.
10. Such results are found rather commonly in many yield comparisons con-ducted world-wide (Hayami and Otsuka, 1993, p. 93).
5 Diffusion of New Rice Technology
1. This chapter draws heavily on Hayami and Kikuchi (1999).2. Short and sturdy stems prevent rice plants from lodging under the weight of
heavy grain, and erect, pointed leaves facilitate the acceptance of solar energy.Non-photo-period sensitivity means that the flowering of rice plants does notdepend on day length. Traditional rice varieties in tropical Asia had theirflowering induced by shortened day length, and therefore ripened for harvestin dry months (late November to December) after the rainy season. This was aconvenient characteristic for single cropping under rainfed condition. How-ever, as double cropping began to be practised with the development of irriga-tion systems, earlier harvests before the monsoon rains became necessary.Non-photo-period sensitivity was thus developed as a necessary trait of MVfor irrigated rice production. For more details, see Yoshida (1981).
3. Paddy of traditional varieties such as Intan, Binato and Malagkit commandedhigher prices than IR8 for better eating qualities and smaller percentages ofgrain breakage in the milling process.
4. Since 1990, new rice varieties bred at IRRI, as well as those bred at thePhilippine Rice Research Institute and other national institutes in the country,have been released through the Philippine Seed Board under the series nameof PSB-RC (abbreviated as RC).
5. The yield in the 1966 wet season thus estimated is in close conformity withthat reported by Umehara (1967). His 1965 dry season yield, however, ishigher than our estimate for the 1965 dry season by about one ton perhectare. Judging from the 1959 average yield per hectare in Pila of 1.8 tonsreported in the 1960 Agriculture Census, it is likely that rice yield was excep-tionally high in the 1965 dry season.
6. During this period the price of fertilizer relative to the consumer price index(CPI) declined rapidly. However, it did not decrease relative to the price ofrice, because rice prices in the Philippines, deflated by the CPI, went downequally fast, corresponding to major increases in rice supply as a result of thevery success of the Green Revolution. The decline in real rice prices had cru-cial implications for villagers’ incomes, which will be examined in detail inChapter 10. Here we concentrate on changes in input prices paid by farmersrelative to the price of rice they received.
7. Though data are not available, it is almost certain that the substitution ofhired to family labour was paralleled by increases in the share of agriculturallabourers in hired wage employment on farms, which had traditionally occu-pied neighbouring farmers and their family members to a large extent.
8. Changes in factor shares are produced not only by biases in technologi-cal progress but also by changes in relative factor prices if the elasticity ofsubstitution is not 1 (one). For the relationship between factor shares andtechnological change, see Hayami (1997, pp. 151–61).
Notes and References252
6 Community and State in Irrigation Management
1. This chapter draws heavily on Kikuchi, Fujita, Marciano and Hayami (1999).2. In the jargon of economics, local commons, alternatively called ‘common-
pool resources’ or ‘common-property resources’ can be defined as theresources that are strong in the attribute of non-excludability but weak in theattribute of non-rivalness. They are a part of ‘local public goods’, of which theuse is de facto limited to people living in a certain location.
3. In particular, if a rural community, such as a village, is largely self-sufficientwith little exposure to urban market activities, the expectation should be strongfor its members to continue their collective actions indefinitely; this is akin tothe situation of infinitely repeating games for sustaining positive-sum co-oper-ative games (Bardhan, 1993; Seabright, 1993; Ostrom et al., 1994).
4. This classification does not coincide exactly with the geographical demarca-tion by the highway. In the service area of Lateral E, for example, three vil-lages are located above the highway, of which only the one closest to the maincanal did not experience water shortage and, was therefore classified into theupper reach, while the remaining two villages were classified in the lowerreach.
5. The NIA was established in 1963 as a government-owned and controlled cor-poration by the Republic Act 3601: ‘An Act Creating the National IrrigationAdministration’. A revision of the Act in 1974, required the NIA to be auto-nomous in financing its current expenditure, with a limit to the governmentsubsidy of six million pesos. By the 1980 revision, the government subsidywas removed, but the NIA was allowed to receive 5 per cent of the projectfund for new construction and major rehabilitation as a set-aside for adminis-trative overhead costs. In addition to irrigation fees, the NIA raises revenuesfrom such activities as the rental of bulldozers and machinery, see Fujita (1998).
6. The NIA has rarely allocated IDOs for institutional development in existingsystems, but has often assigned them for the development of newly con-structed systems with generous external support.
7. Such a failure is not unique to this system, and it can be found in many othersystems: for example, a system in Central Luzon studied by Oorthuizen andKloezen (1995).
7 Community and Market in Labour Relations
1. This chapter draws heavily on Hayami (1998, 1999) and Kikuchi and Hayami(1999).
2. Increased dependency on hired labour may be explained, to some extent,by increased disutility of labour for enriched land reform beneficiaries.However, that was not the response of land reform beneficiaries in Japan,Korea and Taiwan.
3. A cultural norm is here distinguished from a social norm; the former is definedas a standard of belief, and the latter defined as a standard of conduct in soci-ety. For details of the classification of norms, see Hayami (1998a).
4. In Central Luzon, north of Manila, where large haciendas prevailed, rice har-vesting was done on a daily wage contract and threshing was performed by largethreshing machines called tilyadora, mainly for the purpose of the accurate
Notes and References 253
measurement of sharecroppers’ rice outputs, and hence the collection of dueshare rents by hacienda management. In contrast, in Laguna and its surround-ings, where small and medium-scale landownership was traditionally domi-nant, landlords were able to rely on mutual trust relationships with tenants forthe collection of share rents (Hayami and Kikuchi, 1981, ch. 4).
5. This new hunusan contract was practised from the mid-1970s, with the tradi-tional share rate of one-sixth in exceptional low-yielding plots, where the one-sixth of output was barely sufficient to cover the cost of harvesting at a rate ofrenumeration to labour comparable to the market wage rate. Also, in the 1970sit began to be observed that marginal farmers cultivating very small plots har-vested their fields by family labour, corresponding to an increased subdivisionof farms under strong population pressure.
6. Threshing machines introduced earlier were not equipped with blowers, sowinnowing by blowers was contracted out separately. Charges to the customservices of threshing and winnowing were typically 6 per cent and 2 per cent,respectively. Later, as threshers with blowers attached were developed,8 per cent to 10 per cent of output was allocated to the combined services ofthreshing and winnowing. Paddy received for the custom service was sharedbetween machine owners and operators: two-thirds to owners and one-third tooperators initially, and later shared 50 : 50.
8 Farmers and Middlemen in Rice Marketing
1. This chapter draws heavily on Hayami, Kikuchi and Marciano (1999).2. Interest rates for formal credit in the Philippines range from 10 per cent to
40 per cent per annum. At the lower end, loans are available with subsidizedinterest rates of 10 per cent to 20 per cent per annum from government-controlled banks, such as the Land Bank. Depending on the credit-worthinessof borrowers, the banks’ lending rate can become high. According to ourobservations, in the mid-1990s, the interest rate for private bank loans avail-able to farmers and small entrepreneurs in rural areas was around 25 per centper year.
9 Emergence of Rural-based Industries
1. This chapter draws heavily on Hayami, Kikuchi and Marciano (1998).
Notes and References254
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Glossary
aliping namamhay Serfs or peons in the pre-Hispanic and early HispanicPhilippine communities
aliping saguiguilid Slaves in pre-Hispanic and early Hispanic Philippine (saguiguilid) communities
barangay Communities in pre-Hispanic and Hispanic Philippines,coming from the Malayan term meaning ‘boat’; usednow to designate the lowest unit of government admin-istration, village or barrio, below municipality (town)
barangay captain Village headman
barrio See barangay
bayanihan Mutual help through labour exchange
canon Leasehold arrangement practised in the Inner CentralLuzon during the early phase of land development
carabao Water buffalo
casique Indigenous elite or leading family in Spanish period
cavan Sack for carrying and storing grain; for paddy, onecavan contains 40–50 kg
commadre The relationship between the godmother of a daugh-ter/son and the mother of the daughter/son
compadre The relationship between the godfather of a daughter/son and the father of the daughter/son
cono A rice milling machine equipped with an iron disc-sheller and a cone polisher
dapog A type of seedbed preparation on dry ground
datu Chief or chieftain of a barangay
encargado Farm manager/overseer
gama Literally means ‘weed’; a type of labour contract inrice farming in which hired labourers do weeding.They do not receive a wage but establish a right to har-vest paddy on the weeded fields and receive a share ofoutput in lieu of wages
hacienda Large agricultural estate
haciendero Hacienda owner
hunusan A traditional rice harvest in which anyone can join andreceive a certain share of the harvested crop (hunus)
263
inquilino (inquilinato) Agricultural entrepreneur who leased land for rice andsugar cultivation from monastic orders in CentralLuzon in Spanish times; later their land turned tohaciendas
jeepney Informal mini-bus
kabisilya Foreman (forewoman) of a labour gang working on, inthe case of rice farming, transplanting
kapilya Small chapel
karapatan Tenancy right
kasama Share-cropping arrangement, originating from the mean-ing of ‘partnership’
kasugpong Permanent farm labourer
katiwala Farm overseer
kiskisan An old type of rice milling machine with a steel huller
maharlica (timagua) Freemen in pre-Hispanic and early Hispanic Philippinecommunities
mestizo a person of mixed foreign (mostly Chinese andSpanish) and native Filipino stock
milled rice Husked and polished rice ready for cooking. A stan-dard conversion factor from dry paddy to milled ricein the Philippines is 0.65
pacto de retroventa A money-lending arrangement in which the lendersecured control of the land as a mortgage for the loan;during the loan period, the borrower continued to cul-tivate the land as a sharecropper of the creditor
paddy Unhusked rice grain
peso (P) The unit of Philippine local currency; US$1 was equiv-alent to P3.90 in 1966 and P26.22 in 1996
poblacion Urban district of town (municipality)
principalia Local land-owning class during the Spanish period,formed through intermarriage between Spanish/Chinese mestizos and casiques
pulot Rice panicle fallen to the ground in the harvestingprocess
punla A type of rice seedbed preparation in a wet paddy field
realenga Grant or purchase of the royal domain in Spanishperiod
rough rice Same as paddy
sari-sari Small grocery store selling a variety of daily needs
Glossary264
suki Continuous mutual-trust relationship between a buyerand a seller which is lasting, long and close
tricycle Petty-cab motorcycle with a sidecar; a major means ofshort-distance transportation in rural areas, such asbetween a village and its nearest town
tilyadora Large threshing machine
upahan A labour hiring contract with daily cash wage
utang na loob Sense of gratitude or indebtedness, literally means ‘debtdeep inside’
walang hiya ‘Shameless’, a person who violates social rules andnorms is considered to be walang hiya
white rice Same as milled rice
Glossary 265
Abegglen, J. C. 225Adriano, L. S. 17, 81, 251n4Akerlof, G. A. 170Aquino, Corazon 251n4Asanuma, B. 224, 225
Balagtas, Benita (Nita) 71Balagtas, Ilyo 67–9, 71Balagtas, Mario 71Baland, J. M. 133Bardhan, P. 253n3Barker, R. 30, 103, 118, 190Bauer, P. T. 184Becker, Gary 165Becker, G. S. 170Benedict, R. 12Binswanger, H. P. 119, 205Brewster, J. M. 205
Casimiro, Pablo (Ambo) 70–1Chambers, R. 133Chandler, R. F. 105Chayanov, Alexander 166, 168Corpuz, O. D. 9, 74, 78
Dalisay, A. M. 74David, C. 1de los Reyes, B. N. 81Dewey, A. G. 185Duff, B. 180
Embree, J. F. 9
Feeny, D. 133Fei, John 164Fujita, M. 144, 253n1Fürer-Haimendorf, C. U. 10
Geertz, C. 175Gorospe, V. R. 12Greif, A. 179Griffin, K. 1
Hardie, Robert 79Hardin, G. 132, 133
Harris, J. R. 67Hatate, I. 161Hayami, A. 47Hayami, Y. 12, 17, 18, 19, 81, 100,
105, 112, 126, 145, 161, 168, 173,183, 185, 194, 205, 232, 244,250n1, 250n2, 251n4, 251n5,252n1, 252n8, 253n1, 253n3,253n4, 254n1
Herdt, R. W. 103, 190, 232Hester, E. D. 77Hirschman, A. O. 160Hopper, W. D. 165Hossain, Mahabub 18
Ikehata, S. 251n2Ishikawa, S. 105
Jones, W. O. 184Jorgenson, Dale W. 164
Kawagoe, T. 185, 194Kerkvliet, B. J. 78, 79Kikuchi, M. 10, 12, 17, 18, 61, 168,
173, 208, 244, 250n1, 250n2,251n5, 253n1, 253n4, 254n1
Kiyonari, T. 224Kloezen, W. H. 253n7
Larkin, J. A. 251n2Lele, U. J. 184Lewis, W. Arthur 164, 165Lipton, M. 1Lucas, R. E. B. 169
Mabbun, P. 77Macapagal, Diosdado 34, 79, 80McLennan, M. S. 76, 77, 78, 251n2McMillan, R. T. 74Magsaysay, Ramon 79Marciano, E. B. 250n1, 254n1Marcos, Ferdinand 2, 22, 33, 34, 38,
60, 81, 137, 182Marx, Karl 162
266
Name Index
Massell, B. F. 165Mears, L. A. 185Minami, R. 224Murray, F. J. 77Myint, H. 205
Ohkama, K. 10, 12Ohkawa, K. 224Okazaki, T. 221Okuno-Fujiwara, M. 221Olson, M. 164Oorthuizen, J. 253n7Opeña, C. 17, 61Ostrom, E. 132, 133, 253n3Otsuka, K. 1, 100, 112, 183, 205
Paglin, M. 165Patrick, H. R. 224Pelzer, K. J. 74, 78, 79Phelan, J. L. 251n2Pingali, P. L. 112, 113, 115Platteau, J. P. 133Popkin, S. L. 164Putnam, R. D. 177Putzel, J. 81
Quisumbing, M. A. R. 17, 81, 251n4
Ramos, Fidel 7, 40, 182Ranis, Gustav 164Resnick, S. A. 206Riedinger, J. M. 81Rivera, G. E. 74Rohlen, T. P. 224Roosevelt, Theodore 79Rosenzweig, M. R. 119, 169, 205
Rosovsky, H. 224Ruttan, V. W. 80, 105, 199
San Luis, Governor 31Schofield, R. S. 47Schultz, Theodore W. 164, 165, 182Scott, J. C. 143, 163, 165Seabright, P. 253n3Spillman, W. J. 31, 57Srinivas, M. N. 10Stalk, G. 225Stark, O. 169
Takahashi, A. 11, 12, 42, 168Takigawa, T. 79, 80, 81Tamaki, T. 161Timmer, C. P. 190Todaro, M. P. 67Tönnies, Ferdinand 162Toquero, Z. F. 180Tussing, A. 224
Umehara, H. 9, 11, 15, 17, 22–3, 30,31, 74, 81, 106, 122, 207, 251n2,251n3, 252n5
Uphoff, N. 133
Wada, K. 224, 225Wade, R. 133Weber, Max 162Wiser, C. V. 10Wiser, W. H. 10Wrigley, E. A. 47Wurfel, D. 79
Yoshida, S. 252n8Yotopoulos, P. A. 165
Name Index 267
absenteeism 214AD-27 103advanced-order contract 211Africa 184agrarian structure, Philippines 72–82agrarian unrest 78Agricultural Credit Administration 80agricultural labourers 95–6
case study 70–1class segmentation between farmers
and labourers 35–6, 54, 226gama contract 36, 70, 119, 123,
170–6, 179–82haciendas 176–7hired 166–8, 234, 235, 252n7,
253n1immigration 64, 66incomes 19–20, 88–9, 234–6landless 9, 10, 14, 54, 57–8, 94,
163, 170, 200, 227wage 31, 33, 36, 53, 58–60, 99,
122–3, 166–8, 227, 235, 252n7agricultural ladder 31, 57–8, 95–6, 99Agricultural Land Reform Code 34,
79–80agricultural productivity 80, 100Agricultural Productivity Commission
80Agricultural Tenancy Act 79altruism 165, 169American Mutual Security Agency
79animism 12ASEAN 208, 223, 224Asian Development Bank 37, 38
barangay 74East Laguna 6–8
Barrio Charter 7barrio fiesta 12, 42Batangas 24Bicol 8, 202, 213birthrate, East Laguna Village 50–1,
250n4
BPI–76 103brown planthoppers 109, 111, 112,
115Bulacan 72, 73Bureau of Agricultural Extension 32,
106
Calamba 37Calauan 185canon 77capital assets, rice production 117–20capital intensity, rice farming 218–19carabaos 23, 30, 117, 118, 123Catholicism 11–12, 42cattle ranching 77Cavite 24censuses, Philippines 23, 45Central Luzon Region 34, 72, 74, 81,
106, 176, 186, 253n4Certificates of Land Transfer 81, 83,
85, 92, 93chemical sprayers 118chemicals 113–17, 122, 123
application 32children, schooling 28–9China 166, 223Chinese 25
Philippines 76class segmentation, farmers and
labourers 35–6, 226co-operatives, rice marketing 188,
195–6coconut grove, East Laguna Village
5, 11, 25, 82, 130–1collectors, rice marketing 186, 188,
193, 196, 197, 200, 201, 204commission agents
incomes 199–200rice marketing 188, 190, 193–5,
197–8common-pool resources 131–2, 145,
253n2community, relations with market
162–6
Subject Index
268
Comprehensive Agrarian Law 82,251n4
construction industry, temporary work66, 70–1
consumer price index 229, 231, 234contracting-out, metalcraft industry
221cottage workshops 209–14, 214, 217
labour 211–14country road, Pila–East Laguna Village
29–30, 38credit
farmers 33–4, 80landlords 73–4, 77
credit tying 194–5culture of shame 12
dapog method, seedbed preparation28, 121–2
death rate, East Laguna Village 51debt peonage 74demography, East Laguna Village 19
East Laguna Villagealternative land markets 89–96case studies 67–71Green Revolution 31–4history 22–3, 226household incomes 232–8household surveys 15–19incomes 199–204, 228–32, 239–43industries 207–14intensive production 27–31irrigation deterioration 134–40,
159–61irrigators’ associations 141–5land reform 34–7, 82–9landholdings, distribution 96–9lost decade (1980s) 37–40metalcraft industry 41–2, 208, 213,
214–19migration 63–7, 236, 238, 248–9,
250n7, 250n8modern varieties diffusion 106–9,
112–13national irrigation 129–33non-farm employment 14–15, 38,
40–4, 42, 60–1occupational structure 58–61
population growth 45–52, 226,245–7, 250n4
poverty 239–43pressure on land resources 52–8profile 3–13rice marketing 184–6, 193–5rice production inputs 113–20settlement and land opening 23–7technological progress 126–8wage rates 179–82
economic change, East Laguna Village19
economic environment, East LagunaVillage 3–6
education 69–70East Laguna Village 28–9, 95, 124,
234labour force 61, 63
electricity, extension to East LagunaVillage 36–7
elitesland grabbing 78landowning 25
Emancipation Patents 81emigration, urban formal sector 64,
66employment
non-farm 14–15, 38, 40–4, 42,60–1, 179, 181, 227, 234–5,236, 238
overseas 40, 85rice farming 58–60
estates, private, redistribution 78–9exit 159–61export contractors 219–22
sub-contracting 208–9, 210–11extended families 55
factor inputs, rice production 124–6,252n8
factories, modern 220–1family labour 166–8, 252n7family reconstitution 18, 23, 26,
45–7, 245–7, 250n1family size 55, 57family structure 55
East Laguna Village 8–9, 234‘farmer-irrigators organizers’ 142
Subject Index 269
farmers 31, 68–9class segmentation between farmers
and labourers 35–6, 53, 226credit 33–4immigration 64incomes 19–20, 88–9, 99, 198, 228irrigation costs and benefits
148–50landholdings 96–9new 95rice sales 186–90small 69–70, 98, 176–9
farmland, availability 30–1fertility rates 250n3fertilizers 22, 28, 32–3, 113–17, 122,
123, 252n6finance, irrigation systems 141, 147fiscal base, barangay 7–18fixed capital, garment and metalwork
industries 215–18food prices 137foreign workers, demand 40formal sector 61, 66, 67friar estates 75, 77, 78funerals 11
gama contract 36, 70, 119, 123,170–6, 179–82
garment industry 41, 213compared with metalwork 217–18sub-contracting 211
gravity system, irrigation 131, 132,148, 149, 159
Green Revolution 1, 10, 22, 30, 38,39, 51, 113, 122, 139, 159, 252n6
East Laguna Village 31–4, 111–12,114, 128, 227, 231
Laguna Province 103–6Gulf War 70
H–4 103haciendas 34, 74, 77–8, 84, 251n3,
253n4break-up 81in Laguna 176–9rice production 4, 77–8
herbicides 39, 115, 117highways, improvement 37–8Hong Kong 40, 208
household surveys, East LagunaVillage 15–19
householdsagricultural labourers 54, 55, 57farmers’ 17–18, 55, 57income growth 232–8incomes 20–1non-farm-worker 14–15, 55, 61
houses, new 40Huk rebellion 27, 78, 79hunusan contract 36, 168, 170–3,
174, 176, 178, 180, 181new 179–82, 254n5
Iglesia ni Cristo 11Ilocos Region 77immigration, East Laguna Village
13–14, 23–4, 33, 42, 49–51, 64income distribution, East Laguna
Village 5–6, 19–20, 20–1, 88–9,100, 228–32, 239–43
income and work-sharing 166–70incomes
non-farm 43–4, 227, 234–5, 236,238
rice marketing 199–204indebtedness in gratitude 11independent traders
incomes and profits 200–1rice marketing 188, 190, 193–5,
197–8India 10, 103, 112, 184Indonesia 112, 166, 168, 185Industrial Revolution 205industrialization 37–8
import-substitution 80industry
East Laguna Village 41–2, 207–14rural, prospects 222–5urban 22
inquilino system 77institutional development officers
153–6interest rates 148, 216, 254n2International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI) 1, 31, 32, 103, 104, 108,252n4
Social Sciences Division 17, 109,111
Subject Index270
IR5 109IR8 1, 17, 31–2, 104, 106, 108IR34 109IR36 32, 109IR64 32, 39, 109irrigation 1
community management 133,140–9
costs and benefits 148–52decreased public support 135–9deterioration 17, 20, 102, 111, 128,
143ag 150failure of system 156–9national system 3, 5, 27–8, 37,
38–9, 49, 103, 105, 129–33,156–9
operation and maintenance 9, 14,43, 136–9, 146–7, 150, 152,153, 159
rehabilitation 38–9irrigators’ associations 140–9, 152–6,
159–60
Japan 9, 12, 13, 28, 30, 103, 122,166, 169, 224–5, 250n5, 253n1
Japanese invasion 26–7, 78Java 112
kasugpong 250n6Korea 28, 166, 208, 253n1
labourcottage workshops 211–14use in rice production 121–4
labour forceeducation 61, 63occupational structure 58–61
labour relations 17, 220–1Laguna de Bay 1, 3, 23, 30, 37, 43,
48, 76, 118, 129, 158, 173Laguna Province 1–3, 5, 37, 39,
48–9, 72, 195, 202, 203modern varieties 103–6, 112
landcapital value 219cultivation rights 92–5expropriation 80–1markets 89–96property rights 13, 75
land grabbing 78land ownership
communal 74–5patterns 73–4resident landlords 84–5transfer 34, 82–5
land reform 2, 10, 22, 74, 78–82,168, 251n4, 253n1
East Laguna Village 34–7, 99–102,124, 227
equity and efficiency 99–102, 178,251n9
impact 17, 19–20Land Reform Act 79land registry 77–8land resources, East Laguna Village
52–8land tenure, East Laguna Village
82–9Land Tenure Administration 79landholdings, distribution 96–9,
239–42landlessness 52–8landlord–tenant relations 73–4, 76–7,
85–6regulation 79
landlordism 73–4absentee 3–5, 10, 19, 24–5, 74, 82,
168East Laguna Village 83–4types 75–8
laterals, irrigation performance across139–40, 141–5, 253n4
leasehold, fixed-rent 77, 251n5leasehold tenancies 2, 10, 22, 34–5,
69, 81–2, 85, 86–7, 91–2, 100,251n6, 251n7
life expectancy, East Laguna Village250n4
loans, Masagana 99 programme 33–4local commons 131–2, 145, 253n2local government, East Laguna Village
6–8Local Government Autonomy Act 7Los Baños 1, 32, 37, 103
Makati 220Malaysia 40, 103, 166, 224Manila 14, 37, 74, 76, 84, 203, 219
Subject Index 271
Manila South Super Highway 37manufacturing, East Laguna Village
41–2market, relations with community
162–6marketing
evolution 204–6margins, rice 196–9organization 190–6rice 20, 184–6
marriages 11Masagana 99 33–4, 36Masapang Highway 37metalcraft industry 41–2
East Laguna Village 208, 213,214–19
export contractors 219–22Metro Manila 38, 51, 70, 195, 208,
219, 220, 221, 231Middle East 40migration
East Laguna Village 63–7, 236,238, 248–9, 250n7, 250n8
frontier lands 12labour 17, 173–4remittances 6, 238workers 40, 70see also emigration; immigration
Mindoro 202modern varieties 20, 30, 48, 252n2,
252n3adoption 14, 22diffusion, East Laguna Village
106–9, 112–13IR5 109IR8 1, 17, 31–2, 104, 106, 108,
252n3IR34 109IR36 32, 109, 115IR64 32, 39, 109Laguna Province 103–6RC 252n4
monastic orders, landholding 75moral economy 163–4, 242–3mortgages 81municipalities, Philippines 6, 7MV1 109, 111, 115MV2 109, 111, 115MV3 109
National Food Authority 199National Irrigation Administration
29, 39, 43, 105, 129, 130, 133,137–9, 149–50, 253n5, 253n6
bureaucracy, optimization 145–7institutional development 152–9irrigators’ associations 140–5
newly industrializing economies 208non-farm workers 38Northern Luzon Region 202nuclear families 55
East Laguna Village 8Nueva Ecija Province 72, 81
occupational structure 58–61oil boom 1973–74 40Operation Land Transfer 80–1, 83–4,
85, 87Operation Leasehold 34–5, 80–1, 85,
86, 88, 91, 92
pacto de retroventa 76Pampanga 72, 73Pangasinan 72paper mills, East Laguna Village 208,
210paternalism, landlords 25, 73–4,
76–7, 85–6patron–client relationships 25, 73–4,
76–7, 163, 164, 165, 173, 195peasants 166, 168, 176–9peons 74personal relationships, network 11pesticides 115pests, rice 109, 111Philippines
agrarian structure 72–82hired labour 166–7
Philippine Rice Research Institute252n4
piece-rates, cottage workshops 213Pila 3, 5, 9, 10, 14, 23, 25, 28, 29,
37, 42, 43, 68, 82, 84, 146, 185,202, 203, 252n5
population growth 45–7, 174, 250n2dynamics 47–52East Laguna Village 13–14, 26, 30,
226, 250n4poverty, East Laguna Village 239–43
Subject Index272
prices, rice 39–40, 196–9private property rights, land 75product development, metalcraft industry
220, 222profit
independent traders 200–1retailing 203–4rice marketing 199–204
property, inheritance 9, 68property rights, land 13provinces, Philippines 6pump irrigation 120, 128, 148–50,
155, 160–1costs and benefits 150–2
Punjab 112putting-out contracts 41, 211
Quezon City 221
real incomes, East Laguna Village229
real wages 38recession 22regular-customer relationships 11rental market, animals and machines
119–20rents 88
controlled 2retailing
profit 203–4rice 196, 197, 202, 204
return on capitalmetalwork industry 218rice farming 219
ricecapital assets, use 117–20comparison with metalcraft industry
218–19cultivation 25–6double-cropping 27–31, 49, 91,
118factor inputs 124–6farming employment 58–60harvesting 36irrigation see irrigationlabour inputs 166–70labour use 121–4marketing 20, 184–6, 190–6,
204–6
modern varieties see modernvarieties
pest-resistant varieties 109price decline 39–40, 137–8, 231–2prices 39–40, 196–9, 229, 231–2,
252n6production, East Laguna Village
3–6production risks 169purchased inputs 113–20sale by farmers 186–90total factor productivity 126–8traditional varieties 26, 252n2,
252n3yields 10, 22, 26, 28, 31–3, 100,
103–4, 109–13, 252n5rice mills 41, 186, 190, 193, 194–7,
196, 204, 205profits 202–3
Rizal 72roads
improvement 37–8Pila–East Laguna Village 29–30,
38rotary weeders 118–19, 122rural factories 209–14, 214, 217,
219–20prospects 222–5
San Luis, Governor 31, 106San Pablo City 185, 202Santa Cruz 5, 203Saudi Arabia 40, 70, 85school, East Laguna Village 28–9, 42seedlings, rice cultivation 28self-employment 58–60
incomes 228, 234–5serfs 74shame 12sharecropping 2, 3, 10, 19, 22, 25,
31, 34–5, 69, 76–7, 77, 85, 86,87–8, 91, 99, 122, 168, 254n4
Singapore 40slaves 74social benefits and costs, irrigation
systems 150–2social change, East Laguna Village
19social classes, case studies 67–71
Subject Index 273
social interaction, East Laguna Village10–11
social structure, East Laguna Village8–13
Southern Tagalog Region 8, 72, 77Spanish 24–5
in Philippines 74–8Spanish–American War 78Sri Lanka 103sub-contracting
export contractors 208–9, 210–11,217, 219, 220–1
mass-production processes 221–2sub-tenancies 90–2, 93, 95–6subsistence, poor community members
13subsistence crises 163surveys, data limitation 18–19
Tagalogs 8Taiwan 28, 103, 208, 253n1Tarlac 72television 37tenancy
East Laguna Village 25, 91sale of rights 92–5
tenancy reform, East Laguna Village85–8
tenants, uprising 74Thailand 9, 224, 250n5threshing machines 39, 120, 122,
177, 179–80, 253n4, 254n6total employment 164total factor productivity
East Laguna Village 126–8rice farming 20
tractors 30, 117–18, 120
tragedy of the commons 132–3Treaty of Paris 78tungro virus disease 109, 111, 112,
115turn-out service area groups 141–2
United States 78–9University of the Philippines 1, 103,
109, 210College of Agriculture 32
urban influence, Laguna villages 2–3,22
Victoria 185Vietnam 223Visayas 8voice 159–61
wage ratesEast Laguna Village 179–82imputed 171–2, 180institutional 164–5
water resourcesabuse 132, 143, 161allocation 142
weeders, rotary 118–19, 122women
labour force 61Philippines 9
work, sharing 166–70workers
migrant 40, 70non-farm 14–15, 38, 51, 53, 55,
61, 63, 71‘World Food Crisis’ 137
Zambales 213
Subject Index274