appendix i si base · pdf file463 appendix i si base units 1 the seven base units in the...
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463
Appendix I
SI base units
1 THE SEVEn BASE unITS In THE InTERnATIOnAL SySTEM OF unITS (SI)
quantity name of base SI unit
Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
2 SOME dERIVEd SI unITS WITH THEIR SyMBOL/dERIVATIOn quantity Common
symbolunit Symbol derivation
Term Term
Length a, b, c metre m SI base unit
Area A square metre m²
Volume V cubic metre m³
Mass m kilogram kg SI base unit
Density r (rho) kilogram per cubic metre kg/m³
Force F newton N 1 N = 1 kgm/s2
Weight force W newton N 9.80665 N = 1 kgf
Time t second s SI base unit
Velocity v metre per second m/s
Acceleration a metre per second per second m/s2
Frequency (cycles per second) f hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1 c/s
Bending moment (torque) M newton metre Nm
Pressure P, F newton per square metre Pa (N/m²) 1 MN/m² = 1 N/mm²
Stress σ (sigma) newton per square metre Pa (N/m²)
Work, energy W joule J 1 J = 1 Nm
Power P watt W 1 W = 1 J/s
Quantity of heat Q joule J
Thermodynamic temperature T kelvin K SI base unit
Specific heat capacity c joule per kilogram degree kelvin J/ kg × K
Thermal conductivity k watt per metre degree kelvin W/m × K
Coefficient of heat U watt per square metre kelvin w/ m² × K
464 Rural structures in the tropics: design and development
3 MuLTIPLES And SuB MuLTIPLES OF SI–unITS COMMOnLy uSEd In COnSTRuCTIOn THEORy
Factor Prefix Symbol
106 mega M
103 kilo k
(102 hecto h)
(10 deca da)
(10-1 deci d)
(10-2 centi c)
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro u
Prefix in brackets should be avoided.
465Appendices
• Practical values for use in everyday calculations • Note, the conversion factors marked * are exact
1 LEnGTH Metre Inch Foot yard
1* 39.3701 3.2808 1.0936
0.0254* 1* 0.0833 0.0278
0.3048* 12 1* 0.3333
0.9144* 36 3 1*
1km = 0.6214 miles
2 AREA m² cm² mm² in2 ft2 yd2 acre ha
1* 10 000 106* 1 550.0031 10.7639 1.196 0.2471 × 10–3 0.1 × 10–3
0.1 × 10–3 1* 100* 0.155 1.0764 × 10–3 11.96 × 103 24.71 × 10–9 0.1 × 10–6*
10–6* 0.01* 1* 1.55 × 10–3 10.7639 × 10–6 1.196 × 106 0.2471 × 10–9 0.1 × 10–9*
0.64516 × 10–3 6.4516* 645.16* 1* 6.9444 × 10–3 0.7716 × 10–3 0.1594 × 10–6 64.516 × 10–9
0.09290304* 929.0304 92903.044 144* 1* 0.1111 22.9568 × 10–6 9.2903 × 10–6
0.83612736* 8361.2736 0.8361 × 106 1296* 9* 1* 0.2066 × 10–3 83.6136 × 10–6
4046.8561 40.4685 × 106 4.0469 × 109 6272640* 43560* 4840* 1* 0.4047
10000 100 × 106 109 15.5 × 10 107639.1 11959.9 2.4711 1*
3 VOLuME m³ cm³ in3 ft3 yd3
1* 106 61023.744 35.3147 1.3080
10–6 1* 0.0610 35.3146 × 10–5 1.3080× 10–6
16.387 × 10–6 16.387064* 1* 0.5787 × 10–3 21.4334 × 10–6
0.0283 28316.847 1728* 1* 0.0320
0.7646 764554.86 46656* 27* 1*
4 MASS kg g pound oz
1* 1000* 2.2046 35.274
0.001* 1* 2.205 × 10–3 0.0353
0.45359237* 453.5924 1* 16*
0.0283 28.3495 0.0625* 1*
Appendix II
Conversion tables
466 Rural structures in the tropics: design and development
5 dEnSITy kg/m³ lb/ ft3 lb/in3
1* 0.0624 3.6106 × 10–5
16.0185 1* 5.787 × 10–4
27679.906 1728* 1*
7 PRESSuRE And STRESS Pa = n/m² mm Hg (0°C) uk ton–force/in2 (tonf/in2) Pound force/in2 (LBF/in2 (= psi))
1* 7.5006 × 10–3 64.7488 × 10–9 0.145 × 10–3
133.322 1* 115841.53 0.0193
15.4443 × 106 8.6325 × 10–6 1* 2239.4237
6894.76 51.7283 446.543 × 10–6 1*
8 VELOCITym/s km/h ft/s mile/h
1* 3.6* 3.2808 2.2369
0.2778 1* 0.9113 0.6214
0.3048* 1.0973 1* 0.6818
0.447 1.609344* 1.4667 1*
9 TEMPERATuRE°C °F °k
°C (1.8 × °C) + 32* °C + 273.15*
(°F – 32)1.8* °F* (°F – 32) / 1.8 + 273.15*
°K – 273.15* (1.8(°K – 273.15)) + 32' °K*
10 EnERGyJ, nm, Ws kWh kcal ft 1bf therm
1* 0–2778 × 106 0.2388 × 10–3 0.7376 9.4781 × 10–9
3.6 × 106* 1* 859.845 2.6552 × 106 0.341
4.1868 × 103 1.163 × 10–3 1* 3.088 × 103 39.6832 × 10–6
1.3558 0.3766 × 10–6 0.3238 × 10–3 1* 12.8506 × 10–9
105.505 × 106 29.3071 25 199.56 77.8168 × 106 1*
11 POWERW, nm/s, J/S hp ft lbf/s Btu/h
1* 1.341 × 10-3 0.7376 3.4121
745.7 1* 550* 2544.4328
1.3558 1.81820 × 10-3 1* 4.6262
0.2931 0.393 × 10-3 0.2162 1*
6 FORCE n kgf (=kp) Lbf
1* 0.102 0.2248
9.80665* 1* 0.2246
4.4482 0.4536 1*
467Appendices
Capital Lower case name Capital Lower case name
A a alpha N n nu
B b beta X e xi
G g gamma O o omicron
D δ delta P π pi
E e epsilon P r rho
Z z zeta S σ (at end of word) c sigma
H η eta T τ tau
Q θ theta Y υ upsilon
I i iota F f phi
K k kappa x x chi
L λ lambda Y y psi
M m mu W w omega
Appendix III
Greek alphabet
469Appendices
a, b, c, d, = length, width depth etc m = mass, metre
a = acceleration M = moment, bending moment
A = cross sectional area m = coefficient of friction (mu)
C = compression force N = newton
(suffix) c = compression Nx Ax = neutral axis
d = diameter P = pressure, stress
δ = deflection (delta) Q = shearing force
D = diameter, dead load r = radius, distance, radius of gyration
e = eccentricity, distance t = thickness
E = modulus of elasticity (suffix) t = tension
e = direct strain (epsilon) T = tension force
θ = angle, rotation (theta) τ = shear stress (tau)
f, σ = stress (tension or compression) (sigma) V = volume
F, P, R = force, reaction w = specific weight, intensity of loading
g = acceleration due to gravity (suffix) w = working or allowable value
h = distance, lever arm W = weight force, load
H = height, depth, horizontal force x = horizontal axis
I = second moment of area, moment of inertia, Y = vertical axis
imposed load x-x, Y-Y = reference
k = constant Z = section modulus
I, L = length, span > = greater than
DL = change in length < = less than
λ = slenderness ratio (lambda) S = summation (capital sigma)
r = density (rho)
Appendix IV
List of symbols
471Appendices
1 R
Equ
IREM
EnTS
FO
R B
ATC
HIn
G O
Rd
InA
Ry C
On
CR
ETE
MIx
ES O
F V
AR
IOu
S G
RA
dES
An
d O
F M
EdIu
M W
OR
kA
BIL
ITy
Gra
de
Wat
er:
cem
ent
rati
o
Max
imu
m
size
of
agg
reg
ate
(mm
)
Cem
ent:
ag
gre
gat
e ra
tio
6
San
d
to t
ota
l ag
gre
gat
e (%
)B
atch
ing
by
wei
gh
t (k
g d
ry m
ater
ials
p
er m
³, li
tre
per
m³
con
cret
e)B
atch
ing
by
volu
me,
nat
ura
lly m
ois
t m
ater
ials
(lit
re p
er m
³ co
ncr
ete)
Litr
e p
er b
ag c
emen
t (5
0 kg
)y
ield
(m
³)
Cem
ent
San
dSt
on
esM
axim
um
¹ w
ater
Cem
ent²
San
d³
Sto
nes
4M
axim
um
5 w
ater
San
d³
Sto
nes
4M
axim
um
5 w
ater
C7
0.95
4010
.835
185
700
1 30
017
513
551
083
011
413
522
530
0.27
C7
0.95
209.
440
205
770
1 16
019
415
556
074
013
113
518
032
0.24
C10
0.
8540
9.2
3521
569
01
290
182
150
500
820
121
115
190
280.
23
C10
0.85
208.
140
235
760
1 14
019
917
555
073
013
711
515
529
0.21
C10
0.85
147.
645
245
840
1 02
020
818
561
065
014
412
513
529
0.20
C15
0.75
407.
835
250
680
1 27
018
718
549
081
012
810
016
025
0.20
C15
0.75
206.
740
280
750
1 13
021
021
054
072
014
995
130
260.
18
C15
0.75
146.
445
290
840
1 02
021
721
560
065
015
410
511
026
0.17
C20
0.66
406.
730
285
570
1 34
018
821
041
085
013
275
150
230.
18
C20
0.66
205.
735
325
650
1 20
021
424
047
077
015
770
120
240.
15
C20
0.66
145.
440
335
720
1 09
022
125
052
069
016
280
105
240.
15
C25
70.
5840
5.7
3033
056
01
320
191
245
410
840
137
6012
520
0.15
C25
70.
5820
4.9
3537
564
01
190
217
275
470
760
161
6010
021
0.13
C25
70.
5814
4.6
4039
072
01
080
226
190
520
690
168
6590
210.
13
C30
7 8
0.51
405.
130
365
560
1 30
018
627
040
083
013
255
115
180.
14
C30
7 8
0.51
204.
435
410
630
1 17
020
930
546
075
015
355
9018
0.12
C30
7 8
0.51
144.
040
440
700
1 06
022
432
551
067
016
860
7519
0.11
C35
7 8
0.45
204.
035
445
620
1 16
020
033
045
074
014
650
8516
0.11
See
foo
tno
tes
at b
ott
om
of
Ap
pen
dix
V: 2
Appendix V
design tables and charts
472 Rural structures in the tropics: design and development
2 R
Equ
IREM
EnTS
FO
R B
ATC
HIn
G O
Rd
InA
Ry C
On
CR
ETE
MIx
ES O
F V
AR
IOu
S G
RA
dES
An
d O
F H
IGH
WO
Rk
AB
ILIT
y
Gra
de
Wat
er:
cem
ent
rati
o
Max
imu
m
size
of
agg
reg
ate
(mm
)
Cem
ent:
ag
gre
gat
e ra
tio
6
San
d
to t
ota
l ag
gre
gat
e (%
)B
atch
ing
by
wei
gh
t (k
g d
ry m
ater
ials
per
m
³, li
tre
per
m³
con
cret
e)B
atch
ing
by
volu
me,
nat
ura
lly m
ois
t m
ater
ials
(lit
re p
er m
³ co
ncr
ete)
Litr
e p
er b
ag c
emen
t (5
0 kg
)y
ield
(m
³)
Cem
ent
San
dSt
on
esM
axim
um
¹ w
ater
Cem
ent²
San
d³
Sto
nes
4M
axim
um
5 w
ater
San
d³
Sto
nes
4M
axim
um
5 w
ater
C7
0.95
409.
440
210
790
1 18
019
915
557
075
013
613
518
032
0.24
C7
0.95
208.
245
235
870
1 06
022
317
563
068
015
913
514
534
0.21
C10
0.
8540
8.2
4023
577
01
160
199
175
560
740
137
120
155
290.
21
C10
0.85
207.
345
255
840
1020
216
190
610
650
152
120
130
300.
20
C10
0.85
147.
050
265
930
930
225
195
670
590
161
125
110
300.
19
C15
0.75
407.
040
270
760
1 13
020
220
055
072
014
110
013
526
0.19
C15
0.75
206.
145
305
830
1 02
022
822
561
065
016
510
010
527
0.16
C15
0.75
145.
850
310
900
900
232
230
650
570
168
105
270.
16
C20
0.66
406.
135
305
650
1 21
020
122
547
077
014
375
125
230.
16
C20
0.66
205.
340
345
730
1100
227
255
530
700
168
7510
024
0.14
C20
0.66
145.
145
350
800
980
231
260
580
620
171
8590
240.
14
C27
70.
5840
5.2
3535
565
01
200
205
265
470
760
149
6511
021
0.14
C27
70.
5820
4.5
4040
072
01
080
232
295
520
690
175
6585
210.
13
C27
70.
5814
4.3
4540
578
096
023
430
057
061
017
570
7521
0.12
C30
7 8
0.51
404.
735
385
630
1 18
019
628
546
075
014
060
9518
0.13
C30
7 8
0.51
204.
140
430
710
1 06
021
932
051
061
716
360
8019
0.12
C30
7 8
0.51
143.
845
455
780
950
232
335
560
610
174
6065
190.
11
C35
7 8
0.45
203.
740
470
700
1 04
021
135
050
067
015
555
7016
0.11
1 In
clu
din
g m
ois
ture
co
nte
nt
in a
gg
reg
ate.
Use
less
wat
er if
acc
epta
ble
wo
rkab
ility
can
be
ach
ieve
d.
2 B
ulk
den
sity
1 3
50kg
/m³
i.e. 3
7 lit
re p
er b
ag o
f 50
kg
.3
Mo
istu
re c
on
ten
t 5%
an
d b
ulk
den
sity
1 4
50kg
/m³
(San
d w
ith
nat
ura
l mo
istu
re w
ill f
orm
a b
all i
n t
he
han
d w
hen
sq
uee
zed
, bu
t th
e b
all h
as a
ten
den
cy t
o f
all a
par
t)4
Mo
istu
re c
on
ten
t 2%
an
d b
ulk
den
sity
1 6
00kg
/m³.
5 Ex
clu
din
g m
ois
ture
acc
ord
ing
to
3 an
d 4
in a
gg
reg
ate.
Use
less
wat
er if
acc
epta
ble
wo
rkab
ility
can
be
ach
ieve
d.
6 So
lid d
ensi
ty o
f ag
gre
gat
e 2
600–
2 70
0 kg
/ m³
7 C
on
cret
e o
f g
rad
e C
25 a
nd
hig
her
sh
ou
ld p
refe
rab
ly b
e b
atch
ed b
y w
eig
ht
and
th
e m
ois
ture
co
nte
nt
of
the
agg
reg
ate
sho
uld
be
chec
ked
in
ord
er t
o a
chie
ve t
he
in
ten
ded
gra
de.
Bat
chin
g r
equ
irem
ents
are
nev
erth
eles
s g
iven
fo
r b
atch
ing
by
volu
me
and
may
be
use
d w
hen
on
ly in
sm
all q
uan
titi
es a
re r
equ
ired
.8
Co
ncr
ete
of
gra
de
C30
an
d h
igh
er s
ho
uld
be
mix
ed in
a m
ech
anic
al m
ixer
in o
rder
to
ach
ieve
th
e in
ten
ded
gra
de.
473Appendices
3 dIMEnSIOnS And PROPERTIES OF STEEL I-BEAMS
nominal size
Mass Per metre
depth of section (d)
Width of section (B) Thickness Radius
depth between fillets d
Area of section
Web (t) Flange (T) Root (r1) Toe (r2)
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm mm cm²
254 × 203 81.85 254.0 203.2 10.2 19.9 19.6 9.7 166.0 104.4
254 × 114 37.20 254.0 114.3 7.6 12.8 12.4 6.1 199.2 47.4
203 × 152 52.09 203.2 152.4 8.9 16.5 15.5 7.6 133.2 66.4
203 × 102 25.33 203.2 101.6 5.8 10.4 9.4 3.2 161.0 32.3
178 × 102 21.54 177.8 101.6 5.3 9.0 9.4 3.2 138.2 27.4
152 × 127 37.20 152.4 127.0 10.4 13.2 13.5 6.6 94.3 47.5
152 × 89 17.09 152.4 88.9 4.9 8.3 7.9 2.4 117.7 21.8
152 × 76 17.86 152.4 76.2 5.8 9.6 9.4 4.6 111.9 22.8
127 × 114 29.76 127.0 114.3 10.2 11.5 9.9 4.8 79.4 37.3
127 × 114 26.79 127.0 114.3 7.4 11.4 9.9 5.0 79.5 34.1
127 × 76 16.37 127.0 76.2 5.6 9.6 9.4 4.6 86.5 21.0
127 × 76 13.36 127.0 76.2 4.5 7.6 7.9 2.4 94.2 17.0
114 × 114 26.79 114.3 114.3 9.5 10.7 14.2 3.2 60.8 34.4
102 × 102 23.07 101.6 101.6 9.5 10.3 11.1 3.2 55.1 29.4
102 × 64 9.65 101.6 63.5 4.1 6.6 6.9 2.4 73.2 12.3
102 × 44 7.44 101.6 44.4 4.3 6.1 6.9 3.3 74.7 9.5
89 × 89 19.35 88.9 88.9 9.5 9.9 11.1 3.2 44.1 24.9
76 × 76 14.67 76.2 80.0 8.9 8.4 9.4 4.6 38.0 19.1
76 × 76 12.65 76.2 76.2 5.1 8.4 9.4 4.6 37.9 16.3
B
D dt
T
r1
r2
474 Rural structures in the tropics: design and development
3 JOISTS, dIMEnSIOn And PROPERTIES (continued)Minimal Moment of inertia Radius of gyration Elastic modulus Ratio
size Axis x–x Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis d/T
Gross net y–y x–x y–y x–x y–y
mm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm³ cm4
254 × 203 12 016 10 527 2 278 10.7 4.67 946.1 224.3 12.8
254 × 114 5 092 4 243 270.1 10.4 2.39 401.0 47.19 19.8
203 × 152 4 789 4 177 813.2 8.48 3.51 471.4 106.7 12.3
203 × 102 2 294 2 024 162.6 8.43 2.25 225.8 32.02 19.6
178 × 102 1 519 1 339 139.2 7.44 2.25 170.9 27.41 19.7
152 × 127 1 818 1 627 378.8 6.20 2.82 238.7 59.65 11.5
152 × 89 881.1 762.6 85.98 6.36 1.99 115.6 19.34 18.4
152 × 76 873.7 736.2 60.77 6.20 1.63 114.7 15.90 15.9
127 × 114 979.0 800.9 241.9 5.12 2.55 154.2 42.32 11.0
127 × 114 944.8 834.6 235.4 5.26 2.63 148.8 41.19 11.2
127 × 76 569.4 476.1 60.35 5.21 1.70 89.66 15.90 13.3
127 × 76 475.9 400.0 50.18 5.29 1.72 74.94 13.17 16.7
114 × 114 735.4 651.2 223.1 4.62 2.54 128.6 39.00 10.7
102 × 102 486.1 425.1 154.4 4.06 2.29 95.72 30.32 9.9
102 × 64 217.6 182.2 25.30 4.21 1.43 42.84 7.97 15.4
102 × 44 152.3 126.9 7.91 4.01 0.91 30.02 3.44 16.7
89 × 89 306.7 263.7 101.1 3.51 2.01 69.04 22.78 9.0
76 × 76 171.9 144.1 60.77 3.00 1.78 45.06 15.24 9.1
76 × 76 158.6 130.7 52.03 3.12 1.78 41.62 13.60 9.1
In calculating the net moment of inertia, one hole is deducted from each flange.
Y
X X
Y
475Appendices
4 PS
yC
HR
OM
ETR
IC C
HA
RT
SEA
LEV
EL
BA
RO
ME
TRIC
PR
ES
SU
RE
: 101
.325
kP
a
PSYC
HR
OM
ETR
ICC
HA
RT
Nor
mal
Tem
pera
ture
SI U
nits
SEA
LEVE
L
-25
-20
-15
-10
-50
510
1520
2530
3540
4550
55
DR
Y B
ULB
TE
MP
ER
ATU
RE
- °C
-20
-10
010
2030
4050
60
708090100
110
120
130
ENTHALPY - KJ PER KILOGRAM OF DRY AIR
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
ENTHALPY - K
J PER KILO
GRAM OF D
RY AIR
SATURATION TEMPERATURE - °
C
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
31.0
32.0
33.0
34.0
VAPOR PRESSURE - MM OF MERCURY
-10
-5 0 5 10
15
20
25
30
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE - °C
Cha
rt b
y: H
AN
DS
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1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.450.
400.
350.
300.
250.
20S
EN
SIB
LE H
EAT
RAT
IO =
Qs
/ Qt
SENSIBLE HEAT RATIO = Qs / Qt
246810121416182022242628
15%
25% 2%4%6%8% R
ELAT
IVE
HUM
IDIT
Y
10%
REL
ATIV
E H
UM
IDIT
Y20
%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%80%
90%
-20
-15
-15
-10
-10
-5
-5
05
510
10
15
15
20
20
25
25
30 W
ET BULB
TEMPERAT
URE - °C
30
0.74
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.82
0.84
0.86 VOLUME - CUBIC METER PER KG DRY AIR0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAMS MOISTURE PER KILOGRAM DRY AIR
0
1.01.0
•-
2.0
4.0 8.0-8.
0-4.0
-2.0
-1.0
-0.5-0.4-0.3-0.2-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.40.5
0.6
0.8
-4.6
-2.3
0.0
1.2
2.3
3.5
4.7
7.011.7
- ••
SEN
SIB
LE H
EAT
Qs
TOTA
L H
EAT
Qt
ENTH
ALP
YH
UM
IDIT
Y R
ATIO
•h
•W
BA
RO
ME
TRIC
PR
ES
SU
RE
: 101
.325
kP
a
PSYC
HR
OM
ETR
ICC
HA
RT
Nor
mal
Tem
pera
ture
SI U
nits
SEA
LEVE
L
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476 Rural structures in the tropics: design and development
5 PS
yC
HR
OM
ETR
IC C
HA
RT
750M
AB
OV
E SE
A L
EVEL
BA
RO
ME
TRIC
PR
ES
SU
RE
: 92.
636
kPa
PSYC
HR
OM
ETR
ICC
HA
RT
Nor
mal
Tem
pera
ture
SI U
nits
750
MET
ERS
-25
-20
-15
-10
-50
510
1520
2530
3540
4550
55
DR
Y B
ULB
TE
MP
ER
ATU
RE
- °C
-20
-10
010
2030
4050
60
708090100
110
120
130
ENTHALPY - KJ PER KILOGRAM OF DRY AIR
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
ENTHALPY - K
J PER KILO
GRAM OF D
RY AIR
SATURATION TEMPERATURE - °
C
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
31.0
VAPOR PRESSURE - MM OF MERCURY
-10
-5 0 5 10
15
20
25
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE - °C
Cha
rt b
y: H
AN
DS
DO
WN
SO
FTW
AR
E, w
ww
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1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
SE
NS
IBLE
HE
AT R
ATIO
= Q
s / Q
t
SENSIBLE HEAT RATIO = Qs / Qt
246810121416182022242628
15%
25% 2%4%6%8% R
ELAT
IVE
HUM
IDIT
Y
10%
REL
ATIV
E H
UM
IDIT
Y20
%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%80%
90%
-20
-15
-15
-10
-10
-5
-5
05
510
10
15
15
20
20
25
25
30 W
ET BULB
TEMPERAT
URE - °C
0.80
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94 VOLUME - CUBIC METER PER KG DRY AIR0.96
0.98
1.00
HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAMS MOISTURE PER KILOGRAM DRY AIR
0
1.01.0
•-
2.0
4.0 8.0-8.
0-4.0
-2.0
-1.0
-0.5-0.4-0.3-0.2-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
-4.6
-2.3
0.0
1.2
2.3
3.5
4.7
7.011.7
- ••
SEN
SIB
LE H
EAT
Qs
TOTA
L H
EAT
Qt
ENTH
ALP
YH
UM
IDIT
Y R
ATIO
•h
•W
BA
RO
ME
TRIC
PR
ES
SU
RE
: 92.
636
kPa
PSYC
HR
OM
ETR
ICC
HA
RT
Nor
mal
Tem
pera
ture
SI U
nits
750
MET
ERS
Cha
rt b
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477Appendices
6 PS
yC
HR
OM
ETR
IC C
HA
RT
1 50
0M A
BO
VE
SEA
LEV
EL
BA
RO
ME
TRIC
PR
ES
SU
RE
: 84.
557
kPa
PSYC
HR
OM
ETR
ICC
HA
RT
Nor
mal
Tem
pera
ture
SI U
nits
1500
MET
ERS
-25
-20
-15
-10
-50
510
1520
2530
3540
4550
55
DR
Y B
ULB
TE
MP
ER
ATU
RE
- °C
-20
-10
010
2030
4050
60
708090100
110
120
130
ENTHALPY - KJ PER KILOGRAM OF DRY AIR
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
ENTHALPY - KJ P
ER KILOGRAM OF DRY AIR
SATURATION TEMPERATURE - °
C
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
VAPOR PRESSURE - MM OF MERCURY
-10
-5 0 5 10
15
20
25
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE - °C
Cha
rt b
y: H
AN
DS
DO
WN
SO
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1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
SE
NS
IBLE
HE
AT R
ATIO
= Q
s / Q
t
SENSIBLE HEAT RATIO = Qs / Qt
246810121416182022242628
15%
25% 2%4%6%8% R
ELAT
IVE
HUM
IDIT
Y
10%
REL
ATIV
E H
UM
IDIT
Y20
%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%80%
90%
-20
-15
-15
-10
-10
-5
-5
05
5
10
10
15
15
20
20
25
25
30 W
ET BULB
TEMPERAT
URE - °C
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
1.02 VOLUME - CUBIC METER PER KG DRY AIR1.04
1.06
1.08
1.10
HUMIDITY RATIO - GRAMS MOISTURE PER KILOGRAM DRY AIR
0
1.01.0
•-
2.0
4.0 8.0-8.
0-4.0
-2.0
-1.0
-0.5-0.4-0.3-0.2-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
-4.6
-2.3
0.0
1.2
2.3
3.5
4.7
7.011.7
- ••
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SIB
LE H
EAT
Qs
TOTA
L H
EAT
Qt
ENTH
ALP
YH
UM
IDIT
Y R
ATIO
•h
•W
BA
RO
ME
TRIC
PR
ES
SU
RE
: 84.
557
kPa
PSYC
HR
OM
ETR
ICC
HA
RT
Nor
mal
Tem
pera
ture
SI U
nits
1500
MET
ERS
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478 Rural structures in the tropics: design and development
7 TyPICAL PROPERTIES OF COHESIOnLESS MATERIALMaterial Angle of shearing
resistance θ (deg)Specific mass
(kg/m³)*
Gravel 35–45 16–20
Sand
– loose 25–35 17–19
– compact 30–40 18–21
Organic topsoil 15–30 13–18
Broken brick 35–45 1 1–16
Ashes and clinker 35–45 6–10
Maize corn 30 7–8
Rice 30–45 5–6
Millet 30–45 6–7
Soya 30 7–8.5
Potatoes 35 7
Fertilizer (general) 35 10
*Multiplied by 102
8 TyPICAL SPECIFIC MASS OF MATERIALSMaterial Specific mass ( kg/m³)*
Concrete
– unreinforced 23
– reinforced 24
– lightweight 7–15
Masonry
– granite 26
– limestone 20–26
– sandstone 21–25
– slate 25–28
Brickwork 12–20
Timber
– softwoods 4–7
– hardwoods 6–12
Steel 77
*Multiplied by 102
9 TyPICAL ALLOWABLE BEARInG CAPACITIESMaterial Allowable bearing
capacity (kn/m²)
Plain concrete 2 000–6 000
Masonry or brickwork 1 500–5 000
Compact sands and gravels 300–600
Loose sands and gravels 150–400
Solid non-fissured rocks 600–3 000
Hard clays and soft rocks 300–600
Stiff clays and sandy clays 150–300
Firm clays and sandy days 75–150
Soft clays and silts 0–75
Fill and made ground Variable
Note: the values for soils apply where the foundation is 1m or more wide and at a depth of at least 0.6m. The allowable bearing capacity is about one-third of the ultimate bearing capacity
479Appendices
10 TyPICAL STREnGTH PROPERTIES And ALLOWABLE STRESSES (n/mm²)
Mild-steel Sections
Young’s modulus (E) 206 000
Tension or compression stress in bending 155–165
Axial tension 155 (depends on slenderness ratio)
Bearing 190
Shear 115
Mild-steel rivets and bolts
Axial tension
– rivets 100
– bolts 120
Shear
– rivets 90–100
– bolts 80
Bearing
– (double shear) rivets 265–315
– bolts 200
Timber (green > 18% moisture)
Softwoods Hardwoods
(values in thousands)
Young’s modulus (E) 4–12 5–19
Bending or tension parallel to grain 3–1 1 4–27
Compression parallel to grain 2 ½ –8 ½ 4–27
Compression perpendicular to grain ¾–1½ 1½ –5½
Shear parallel to grain ½ –1¼ ¾–3 ½
Extracts from B.S. 499 and C.P. 112 are reproduced by permission of the British Standards Institution. Complete copies of the standard can be obtained from them at Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK146LE, England.
481Appendices
Ch
oo
se v
alu
es a
t th
e u
pp
er p
art
of
the
inte
rval
s g
iven
wh
ere
man
agem
ent,
ho
usi
ng
an
d p
rod
uct
ion
per
form
ance
is o
f g
oo
d s
tan
dar
d a
nd
th
e p
rod
uct
ion
inte
nsi
ty is
hig
h
nu
m-b
er o
f p
igs
in t
he
her
d
Co
mb
ined
pen
Pi
gle
ts t
o
12 w
eeks
in
farr
ow
ing
pen
Pig
lets
tra
nsf
erre
d f
rom
to
wea
ner
pen
s at
2
farr
ow
ing
wee
ks a
fter
wea
nin
g
Plac
es in
ser
vice
/g
esta
tio
n p
ens
wea
nin
g a
tB
oar
gilt
pen
s p
ens
4–6
gilt
s
Two
-sta
ge
pen
s fo
r 10
–12
gro
wer
s
Fin
ish
ing
p
ens
for
8–10
fi
nis
her
s
On
e-st
age
fin
ish
ing
p
ens
for
8–11
fi
nis
her
s
Farr
ow
ing
pen
s:
wea
nin
g a
t
Pen
s fo
r 7–
11
wea
ner
s w
ean
ing
at
6 w
ks8
wks
6 w
ks8
wks
6 w
ks8
wks
21
––
––
22
00
11
2
42
––
––
33
00
22
4
63
––
––
54
00
33
6
84
––
––
65
00
33
6
105
––
––
76
11
44
7–8
158
––
––
9–11
8–11
11
56
9–11
2010
––
––
12–1
511
–14
12
78
12–1
5
2513
––
––
15–1
914
–18
23
8–9
9–10
15–1
9
3014
–16
9–10
11–1
27–
84–
518
–24
16–2
02
310
–12
11–1
320
–25
4018
–22
12–1
414
–16
9–11
5–7
25–3
022
–28
24
12–1
413
–16
25–3
0
5023
–28
15–1
718
–20
12–1
46–
930
–36
28–3
53
5–6
14–1
615
–19
30–3
5
6027
–33
18–2
121
–24
14–1
68–
1135
–45
33–4
24
6–7
16–2
020
–25
35–4
5
8038
–44
25–2
828
–32
18–2
210
–14
45–6
044
–55
58–
1023
–26
27–3
450
–60
100
45–5
531
–34
35–3
823
–27
13–1
860
–75
55–7
06
10–1
3–
–60
–70
120
60–7
037
–41
42–4
627
–32
16–2
275
–90
60–8
57
12–1
5–
–70
–90
150
80–9
047
–51
53–5
735
–41
22–2
790
–100
75–9
58
15–1
8–
–90
–110
200
110–
120
62–6
870
–76
55–6
528
–36
110–
140
100–
130
920
–25
––
130–
150
Appendix VI
number of pens and stalls required in breeding pig units of various sizes
3D modelling 24
AAbreast parlour 242, 244Acrylics 87Action forces 93, 98Adobe blocks 64, 268, 308Aggregate 71Air distribution 355
flow meters 375flow resistance 370inlet(s) 79, 80, 337movements 229quality 349
Alley widths 235Allowable compressive stress concrete 133Aluminium sheets 187Ambient temperature 313Angle of repose 145Angles: setting out of 34Animal behaviour 225Aqua privy 437Arch 109Artificial drying 367, 368Asbestos cement 82
cement sheets 184Askew loads 122Auction ring 410Auger conveyors 384Automatic drinkers 248
BBag storage 378Ballast 71Bamboo 55
joints 55preservation 56shingles 189wall 170
Batch dryers 372Beam 109
equations 125loading cases 124reactions 98
Beaufort wind scale 149Beef cattle 230Bending moment 101, 125
stress 121Bill of quantities 29, 211, 212Binders 68Bins 376Biogas 454
biofuel 454biogenic 454digesters 455enzymes 448methane 454
Bituminous products 88Blockboards, laminboards 54Blockmaking 66Blocks 79Boards 53, 54Bolt joints 138Bolts 85
Boning rod 39Bricks 162
making 66-walled silo 377
Bridges 393Buckling of columns 126Builder's square 37Building lifetime 215
legislation 210module 209production process 205regulations 210
Butt joints 138
CCable 108CADD 21
hardware 21software 21
Calf shed 236Cattle crush 408
dips 250grid 405housing 232races 407yards 407
Cement 69mortar 81plaster 81
Centrifugal blower 336fans 335pumps 423
Chain surveying 35Channel flow 431Chickens, recommended space 269Chipboard 54Chitting stores 356Circuits 200Claddings 169Clamp 352Clay 59
blocks 66silo 376
Cleaning of crops 374Climatic factors 228Coal tar 52Cob 62Coir waste 57Collecting yard 243Collinear forces 96Columns 108, 126, 131Compo mortar 80Compressive stress 105
stresss in concrete 131Concrete 70
blocks 79, 162columns 131compaction 75compressive strength 72curing 77design 131, 133finishes 78foundations 155ingredients 71, 72
joints 76mixing 74workability 72
Condensation 383Conduction 313Connections 138
for steel frames 141Construction methods 205Continuous beams 124Continuous-flow dryers 372Contour lines 36Contracts 219Control segment 40Convection 313Conveyors 384Cooling load 324Cooling systems 347Cooling techniques 339Coplanar forces 94Corrosion 84Corrugated roofing 183Cost estimate 29Costing 214Couples 99Creosote 52Cross-section 111
-stave 34Culvert construction 393
DDagga plaster 81Dairy: goats 285Dalton’s law 319Dead loads 107, 149Deep-bedded sheds 234Deep-layer dryers 369Deep-litter system 270Deep-well turbine pumps 424Deflection 120, 125Deformation 106Density of concrete 131, 133Density of materials 150Design codes 116Design criteria constructions 121Design criteria of beams 118
of concrete 130, 133Design of channels 431
of dryer 371of dwellings 303of feed troughs 257, 269of load 135of members 116of purlin 122of roads 387of stress 107of timber 129of ventilation 337
Design philosophy 115Diaphragm pumps 425Digital mapping 42Dimensions for feed trough 245
of free stalls 234of vehicles turning 396tie-stall 235
Index
Direct stress 116Divided contract 217Documentation for a building project 28Doors 191Double-lap joint 138Double-pitched roof 176Drainage 151, 190Drains 389Drifts 391Dryers 372Drying systems 366
EEarth foundation 155
earth road 388roof 175track 388
Earthing 200Earthquakes 146Eccentrically loaded 131Economic plan 8Egg cooling & handling 281Elasticity 106Electrical motors 202
supply 199Elevation(s) 24, 29Elevator 384Energy audits 460Energy economics 460Energy efficient rural buildings 460Energy sources 447
chemical 447gravitational 447heat 447kinetic 447non-renewable 447nuclear 447renewable 447
Enthalpy 320Environmental audit 18Environmental factors 231
requirements 227Environmental management 17Environmental planning 8Equilibriant 94Equilibrium moisture content (EMC) 364Evaporative cooling 322Evaporator 341
size 355Exhaust ventilation system 335
FFacings 169Factor of safety 107Fan capacities 371Fans 335
laws 337location 337
Farm dwellings 299dwellings improvements 301
Farrowing pens 254, 263Feed handling 248
requirements 265, 279storage 265trough 246, 265
Feeding equipment 243, 245, 266, 279Fences 399Fencing 47Ferrocement 81Fibre-reinforcement 81Field book 36Field gate 405Fire protection 15
Flat roof 174Floor-drying system 370Floors 169Flow diagram 13Footbaths 251Footing and foundation 152Force 93
triangle 95Formwork; concrete 76, 77Foundation plan 28
waterproofing 158Foundations 152Frames 136Frame walls 168Free-body diagram 95Free stalls 234Friction losses in pipes 428Fruit and vegetables 357Functional design 13Functional planning 5
GGable-roof design 177Gantry hoist 291Gates 404Geese housing 283General contract 218Geospatial 33Geosynthetics 88Glass 86Gliding formwork 167Global Positioning Systems 40Glued joints 138Goat housing 284Goats 230Gradients 387Grain cooling 372
drying 363feeders 243-handling equipment 384storage 375
Grass 57Gravity wall 143Greenhouse 343
design 345materials 345ventilation 346
Green state timber 48Grid method 36Guidance cost 214Gutters 191
HHandling facilities 406Handpump 423Hand-ramming 65Hardboards 55Harvest 352Hazardous materials 311Heat 313
and moisture production 228balance 330conservation 349loss from buildings 318regulation 227transfer 313
Heating load 324Herringbone parlour 243, 244Hinges 86Hip roof 178Holding pens 407Horses 231Horticultural crops 351
Housing for cattle 237requirements 232systems 268
Humid volume 320Hydraulic lime 69
radius 432Hydraulic rams 425Hydropneumatic water system 427
IImposed loads 107Impregnation of timber 52Infrastructure planning 7Insect control 380
infestation 381Insulating materials 315Insulation and vapour barriers 354
JJet pumps 424Joint analysis 104Joints 76, 138
in masonry 158
LLadders 198Laminboards 54Latches 86Latent heat 313Laterite soils 58Latrine slab 436Laying hens: recommended dimensions 275Laying of roofing sheets 185Least lateral dimension 126Level excavation 39Leveling 35Lime 68
mortar 79Lintels 164Liquid pressure 143Live loads 149Loading diagram 125
ramp 408Loads 107, 135, 149, 150Loads concentrated 99
on footings 152uniformly distributed 99
Locks 86Loose housing 234Losses caused by insects 380Loss of moisture 366Low volume ventilation 373Lumber 47
MManagement systems 255Manning's formula nomograph 434
roughness coefficient 432Manometer 336, 375Manure handling 249, 267, 281
production 249storage 249
Masonry walls 161Mass of building materials 150
of farm products 150Maximum ventilation rate 339Measuring 33Measuring static pressure 336Mechanical press 65Mechanical ventilation 334Mediumboards 55Metallic salts 52Metals 84
Method of sections 104Milk handling 239Milking 239
parlour 242, 243, 244plants 240system 241
Model buildings 30Modular grid 209Modulus of elasticity 106Moist air 319Moisture and heat production 228
balance 331content measurement 364movement 383transmission 323
Moment of inertia 110Moments of forces 98Monopitched roof 175Mortar 79Mud-and-pole walls 167
NNailed joints 139Nailing plates 139Nailing spaces 140Nail loads 141Nails 84Natural drying 367
fibres 57ventilation 332
Naturally ventilated store 353ventilating systems 333
Nest boxes 280Non-hydraulic lime 68
OOffcuts 48Optical square 34Organization for construction 217Outlet areas required 332Overall heat transfer coefficient 316Overdrying 374
PPaints 88Panels 169Parallel axes 111Parlours 242, 244Particle board 54Perches 280, 281Perishable crops 357Permeability 323Permeance 323Personal management 217Person-pass 404Perspective 23Photogrammetry 33Photovoltaic cells 453Pier foundation 157Pigs 230
housing 253, 257housing requirements 258management 253pens 254, 259pens dimensions 257production 255slaughter 292unit 260, 261, 262unit calculations 256
Pipe flow 427Pitch requirements 179Pit latrines 435Pits 377
Planning procedure 12dryers 371strategies 7
Plan of water and sanitary installations 29Plans 28Plastering 81
technique 83Plastic-lined reservoirs 419Plastics 87Plumb bob 34Plywood 54Point of concurrency 95Pole barns 137Polythene 87Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 87Portal frame 136, 141Post or pole foundation 158Poultry 230, 268
environmental requirements 268houses 273housing 267shelter 270slaughter 294
Pozzolana 69Precipitation 229Prefabrication 208Presentation of farm building projects 30Preservatives 52Pressure ventilation systems 335Principle of superposition 107Profiles 37Progress chart 221Projections 22Project planning 16Propeller fans 335Properties of structural sections 112Psychrometric chart 320, 321Psychrometry 319Pump applications 426Pumps 423Purlins 179Pythagora's theorem 34
QQuonset 344
RRabbits 231, 287Radiation 228Radius of Gyration 112Rammed earth 63
-earth walls 166Range poles 33Ratio of eccentricity 132Reaction forces 96Reciprocating pumps 425Reduction factor 129, 130Reeds 57Reference axes 110Refrigeration 340Regional planning 6Reinforced cement sisal-fibre 82
concrete silo 378Reinforcement 78
mesh 82Relative humidity 320, 364Remote sensing 40Rendering 81Resolution of force 94Resultant of gravitational forces 96Resultant of parallel forces 98Retaining walls 142Rigid frames 178
Road construction 390designs 387
Rod 108Rodent control 382Roof design 179Roofing material 82, 179, 182, 184
sheets (manufacturing) 83Roofs 173
double-pitched 176drainage 190
Rubber 88Rural energy 447
biomass 448choices 447cogeneration 450conversion processes 448diesel 449electricity 448fossil fuels 449grid 449hybrid systems 459rural electrification 449supply routes 448
Rural planning 7
SSack drying 373Safety factor 106Sales yard 409Sand dams 419Sawdust 55Sawn timber 47Scale 28Scour checks 389Screws and bolts 85Seasoning of timber 48Section 28
modulus for beams 119of modulus 111
Seed potatoes stores 356Seepage protection in dams 87Selection of tank size 415Semi-perishable crops 351Sensible cooling 321
heat 313, 321Septic tank 438Setting out 34, 37Shallow-layer natural drying 367Shear force 100, 119, 125
force diagram 101force in beams 120stress 105, 121
Shed-type building 137Sheep 230
dairy production 285-dipping tank 286housing 284, 285
Sheets laying roofs 184Shingles 55Sight rails 38Silo 376Silt test for 71Single-lap joint 138Sinking well 422Sisal-cement sheets 186
fibre 57stems 57
Site plan 28, 37Slaked lime 68Slates 188Slatted floor system 271Slaughterhouse 292, 296Slenderness ratio 127, 129, 130
Slump test 75Soakaway trenches 438
trench sizes 438Social rank 226SODIS 431Softboards 54Soil bearing 151
-classification triangle 59plasticity 60sedimentation test 60shrinkage test 61
Soils 59Soil stabilization 61Solar collectors 452
energy 450flux 451radiation 451
Solid floors 171Sow unit 265Space requirements 256, 299
diagram 95Space segment 40Specific heat 313
humidity 319volume 320
Splashes 391Splitting bamboo 56Spray race 252Stabilized-soil blocks 64Stack effect 332Stacking timber 48Stairway construction 197Stairways 196Stalls 234Standard drawings 25Static equilibrium 93
pressure 336Steel beams 123
bins 378columns 130sheets 182
Stile 405Storage 353
life 358management 380of fertilizers 312of hazardous products 311relative humidity 358requirement 363structures 359temperatures 358warehouse 379
Strain 106Stress 104Structural design 115
elements 108sections 110
Struts 108Sun-dried soil blocks 63Sun shed 233Surveying 33Symbols 26System building 208
TTandem parlour 242, 244Temperature 228, 313Tendering 218Tensile stress 105
systems 116Termite protection 159Termite shields 160Thatch 57, 180
Theodolites 34Thermal capacity 313
properties of materials 314resistance 314
Thermometers 375Thermoplastics 87Tie-stall 235Tiles 187Timber 47
beams 126column 129floors 172preservation 52
Time schedule 30Tolerance in size 210Toothed plate connector 139Total heat content 313Transportation 360Traveller 39Trough dimensions 258Truss components 134Trusses 133Truss gussets 139Tube-axial fan 335Turkeys housing 283Turning diameter for vehicles 396Turnkey contract 218
UUnderground pits 377Urban planning 6User segment 40U-values 316
VVacuum-pressure 52Vapour barriers 324Vapour pressure 323Vector addition 93Ventilated maize crib 368, 379
stores 353Ventilation 329
data 338design 337, 339system 335, 354
Vertical alignment 35Volume estimation 39
WWaferboard 54Walk-through parlour 243, 244Wall bearing on ground 142
material failure 142overturning 142, 144rotational slip 142sliding 142, 144types 161
Walls 142, 160Water-cement ratio 72
and-daub construction 62consumption 413equipment 245, 248, 423quality 413requirement 247, 279, 413requirement for milkroom 241storage 414storage tank selection 415system design 418, 429treatment 430troughs 247
Waterer 279Waterways design 433Weaner and fattening pens 255
Weight loss 380of dried grain 366
Well site 421types 421
Wetted perimeter 432Wicker 55Wind loads 107
pressures 149Windows 195Wind power 456
betz 456distribution 457height 457measurements 457power content 456regime 456siting 459speed 457topologies 458turbine 458
Weibull 457Wire fences 400
gate 404mesh 82
Wood shingles 188preservatives 52
Woodwool slabs 55Workshop 308
YYards 233
ZZero-grazing system 238
Galvanized steel tray
Collector plate withtubes painted black
Glass
Glass
Sealing strip
Glass support
Glass support
Insulation
This book is an effort by FAO to compile an up-to-date, comprehensive
text on rural structures and services in the tropics, focusing on
structures for small- to medium-scale farms and, to some extent,
village-scale agricultural infrastructure. The earlier edition, entitled
Farm structures in tropical climates. A textbook for structural
engineering and design, published in 1986, has been used for over
two decades as a standard textbook for teaching undergraduate and
postgraduate courses on rural structures and services in universities
throughout sub-Saharan Africa.
This second edition will help to improve teaching – at all educational
levels – on the subject of rural buildings in developing countries
of the tropics and it will assist professionals currently engaged in
providing technical advice on rural structures and services, from
either agricultural extension departments or non-governmental rural
development organizations. This book will also provide technical
guidance in the context of disaster recovery and rehabilitation, for
rebuilding the sound rural structures and related services that are key
to development and economic sustainability.
While this book is intended primarily for teaching university- and
college-level agricultural engineering students about rural structures
and services, resources might be made available to produce
textbooks based on this material for teaching at other educational
levels. Although parts of the background material relate specifically
to East and Southeast Africa, the book’s principles apply to the
whole of tropical Africa, Latin America and South Asia because,
while building traditions may vary, the available materials are similar.
4d2
r2Aππ ==
(min)mm274 × 573
==π
d
Photos: ©FAO/G.Napolitano I2433E/1/11.11
ISBN 978-92-5-107047-5
9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 7 0 4 7 5
Rural structures in the tropicsd e s i g n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t