Policy Futures in Education, Volum e 3, N um ber 4, 2005 doi: 10 .2304 /p fie .2005 .3 .4 .379

Audit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies in Education

MICHAEL W. APPLEThe University o f Wisconsin-Madison, USA

A B S T R A C T T h e a u th o r d iscu sses s o m e o f th e w a y s in w h ic h c e r ta in e le m e n ts o f c o n s e rv a tiv e m o d e r n iz a t io n h a v e h a d a n im p a c t o n e d u c a t io n a t m u l t ip le lev e ls . H e p o in ts to th e g r o w th o f c o m m o d ify in g lo g ic s a n d th e a u d i t c u l tu re th a t a c c o m p a n ie s th e m . In th e p ro c e ss , h e h ig h lig h ts a n u m b e r o f d a n g e rs c u r r e n t ly b e in g faced . H o w e v e r , h e u rg e s u s n o t to a s s u m e th a t th e s e c o n d it io n s c a n b e r e d u c e d to th e a u to m a tic w o rk in g s o u t o f s im p le fo rm u la e . H e a rg u e s th a t w e n e e d a m u c h m o r e n u a n c e d a n d c o m p le x p ic tu re o f class re la tio n s a n d class p ro je c ts to u n d e r s ta n d w h a t is h a p p e n in g - a n d a m o r e s e n s it iv e a n d h is to r ic a lly g r o u n d e d an a ly s is o f th e p la c e o f ra c ia l d y n a m ic s in th e v is io n b o th o f ‘a w o r ld o u t o f c o n tro l ' t h a t n e e d s to b e p o lic e d a n d o f ‘c u ltu ra l p o l lu t io n ' th a t th r e a te n s ‘re a l k n o w le d g e ' in th e g r o w th o f m a rk e ts a n d a u d i t c u ltu re s . T h u s , M ic h a e l A p p le a lso u rg e s h is re a d e rs to l is te n c a re fu lly to th e c r it iq u e s c o m in g f ro m c o lle c tiv e v o ic e s w i th in o p p re s s e d c o m m u n it ie s a n d to n o t a s s u m e th a t o n e c a n r e a d o f f th e ir p o s i t io n s b y re d u c in g th e ir a g e n c y to s im p ly e x p re ss io n s o f r ig h tis t id e o lo g ic a l fo rm u la . B e c o m in g m o r e n u a n c e d a b o u t su c h c o n s t i tu t iv e d y n a m ic s w ill n o t g u a ra n te e th a t w e c a n in te r r u p t th e te n d e n c ie s u p o n w h ic h h e fo c u se s h e re . B u t i t is o n e e s se n tia l s te p in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e g e n e s is o f w h a t is a t s ta k e in a s e r io u s p o litic s o f in te r ru p t io n .

Introd uctionM o s t o f u s l iv in g in th e U S A a re n o w fa m ilia r w i th th e k e y e le m e n ts o f th e fe d e ra l r e a u th o r iz a t io n o f th e E le m e n ta ry a n d S e c o n d a ry E d u c a t io n A c t, c o m m o n ly k n o w n as N o C h ild L e ft B e h in d (N C L B ), p a s s e d b y C o n g re s s in 2001 a n d s ig n e d b y P re s id e n t B u sh in J a n u a ry 2002. T h is r e p re s e n ts a s e t o f in it ia tiv e s t h a t c a n ra d ic a lly t r a n s f o r m th e fe d e ra l ro le in p o lic in g a n d c o n tro l l in g c o re a sp ec ts o f e d u c a tio n .[1 ] T h e m a jo r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e le g is la t io n c e n te r a r o u n d te s t in g a n d a c c o u n ta b ili ty , b u t a lso p ro v id e in ro a d s to w a r d a la rg e r a g e n d a o f p r iv a t iz a t io n a n d m a rk e tiz a t io n .

T h e m a jo r p ro v is io n s in c lu d e th e fo llo w in g :[2 ]1. T h e r e m u s t b e r e g u la r te s t in g in k e y su b jec ts . T h u s , s ta r t in g in 2002-03, s ta te s m u s t e n g a g e in

a n a n n u a l a s s e s s m e n t o f E n g lish la n g u a g e p ro f ic ie n c y fo r s tu d e n ts w h o a re le a rn in g th e E n g lish la n g u a g e . B y th e y e a r 2005-06 a n n u a l te s ts in m a th e m a tic s a n d r e a d in g / la n g u a g e a r ts m u s t b e g iv e n to all c h i ld re n in g ra d e s th r e e to e ig h t. B y th e y e a r 2007-08 sc ie n c e te s ts a re a d d e d a t specific g ra d e lev e ls . F in a lly , to c h e c k o n th e a c c u ra c y o f th e te s ts t h a t e a c h s ta te h a s d e v e lo p e d , s ta te s h a v e to a d m in is te r th e N A E P (N a tio n a l A s s e s sm e n t o f E d u c a tio n a l P ro g re s s ) te s ts to a p o r t io n o f th e ir s tu d e n ts in g ra d e s fo u r a n d e ig h t.

2. T h e te s ts t h a t s ta te s d e v e lo p m u s t b e a lig n e d w i th e a c h s ta te 's s ta n d a rd s a n d m u s t h a v e re su lts th a t a re c o m p a ra b le f ro m y e a r to y e a r . T h e te s ts a re to b e u s e d b o th to d e te r m in e w h e th e r th e s ta te is in d e e d m e e t in g its s ta n d a rd s a n d in th e o ry to ass is t te a c h e rs in d ia g n o s in g th e a c a d e m ic p ro b le m s a n d n e e d s o f s tu d e n ts .

379

Michael W . Apple

3. T h e sco re s o n th e s e te s ts a re to b e d is a g g re g a te d so th a t th e a v e ra g e sc o re s o f specific p o p u la t io n s (fo r e x a m p le , b y r a c e /e th n ic i ty , in c o m e , d isab ility , l im ite d E n g lish p ro f ic ie n c y ) a re v isib le .

4. W i th th is d is a g g re g a te d in fo rm a t io n , a s ta te is to fo llo w a specific t im e lin e to c lo se a n y g a p s in a c h ie v e m e n t a m o n g r a c ia l / e th n ic a n d in c o m e g ro u p s . S ta r t in g w i th t h e y e a r 2002-2003, s ta te s h a v e 12 y e a rs fo r all s tu d e n ts to m o v e to th e s ta te b e n c h m a r k fo r m a th e m a tic a l a n d r e a d in g p ro f ic ie n c y .

5. A t le a s t 95% o f all s tu d e n ts in e a c h sc h o o l m u s t b e te s te d . E v e ry g r o u p o f s tu d e n ts in e a c h sc h o o l n e e d s to m e e t o r e x c e e d th e ir a n n u a l o b je c tiv e s . F a i lu re to m e e t th e s e o b je c tiv e s le a d s to fo rm a l n o tif ic a t io n a n d fo r th o s e sc h o o ls re c e iv in g T it le I m o n e y i t c a n le a d to v a r io u s k in d s o f in te rv e n tio n s . T h is in v o lv e s te c h n ic a l a ss is ta n c e i f a T it le I - a k e y s o u rc e o f fe d e ra l fu n d in g - sc h o o l h a s n o t m e t its p e r fo rm a n c e o b je c tiv e s fo r tw o c o n se c u tiv e y e a rs . A s w e ll, p a re n ts h a v e a ch o ic e to s e n d th e ir c h ild re n to a n o th e r p u b lic s c h o o l w i th in t h e sc h o o l d is tr ic t. A fte r th r e e c o n se c u tiv e y e a rs o f fa ilu re , th e a s s is ta n c e a n d c h o ic e o p tio n s c o n tin u e , b u t a n a d d it io n a l o p t io n n o w c o m e s in to p lay . S tu d e n ts c a n n o w u s e th e ir s h a re o f T it le I fu n d in g to p a y fo r t u to r in g a n d o th e r s u p p le m e n ta l se rv ices. T h e e x p e n d i tu re o f th is m o n e y is n o t l im ite d to p u b lic in s t i tu t io n s , b u t is e x p a n d e d to c o v e r o th e r s ta te - a p p ro v e d e n tit ie s su c h as re lig io u s in s t i tu t io n s , fo r -p ro fit c o m p a n ie s , o r a p r iv a te n o n -p ro f i t in s t i tu t io n . I f a sc h o o l c o n tin u e s to fail fo r a f o u r th c o n se c u tiv e y e a r , th e r e is a c o n t in u a t io n o f a ss is ta n ce , p u b lic s c h o o l ch o ic e , a n d th e a b o v e n o te d p u b lic o r p r iv a te s u p p le m e n ta l se rv ice s. H o w e v e r , n o w th e s c h o o l i ts e lf is r e q u ir e d to m a k e fu n d a m e n ta l a lte ra t io n s s u c h as s ta ffin g ch an g e s . B y th e fif th y e a r , a s c h o o l c a n b e r e q u ir e d to m a k e c h a n g e s in its g o v e rn a n c e . T h is m ig h t in c lu d e tr a n s f o r m in g i ts e lf in to a c h a r te r sc h o o l, h a v in g th e s ta te i ts e lf ta k e o v e r th e sc h o o l, o r tu r n in g sc h o o l m a n a g e m e n t o v e r to a p r iv a te c o m p a n y .

6. R e p o r t c a rd s a re to b e is su e d a n n u a lly , p u b lic ly d o c u m e n t in g a s c h o o l 's a c h ie v e m e n t lev e ls . P a re n ts a lso h a v e th e r ig h t to g e t in fo rm a t io n o n te a c h e r q u a lif ic a tio n s a t th e ir sch o o l.

7. In c o re a c a d e m ic su b jec ts , a s ta te 's te a c h e rs m u s t a ll b e h ig h ly q u a lif ie d b y 2005-06. T h is w ill b e d e m o n s t r a te d u s u a lly th r o u g h th e u s e o f a s ta te te s t o f s u b je c t m a t te r a n d p e d a g o g ic a l skill in a d d it io n to c e r tif ic a tio n a n d d e g re e r e q u ir e m e n ts . N e w ly h ir e d p a ra p ro fe s s io n a ls w h o e n g a g e in in s t ru c t io n a n d a re p a id th r o u g h T it le I fu n d s m u s t p a ss a r ig o ro u s te s t o r m u s t d o c u m e n t th a t th e y h a v e a t le a s t tw o y e a rs o f p o s t- s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n . A lre a d y e m p lo y e d p a ra p ro fe s s io n a ls h a v e a fe w m o r e y e a rs in o rd e r to m e e t th e s e r e q u ir e m e n ts .

8. M o re flex ib ility is g iv e n to sc h o o l sy s te m s in th e u s e o f fe d e ra l m o n e y . T h is e n a b le s th e m , fo r e x a m p le , to u s e T it le I fu n d in g m o r e f lex ib ly in a n y sc h o o l t h a t h a s a t le a s t 40% o f its c h i ld re n as p o o r , r a th e r th a n th e o ld e r c r i te r io n o f 50% . T h e le g is la t io n a lso a llo w s sc h o o ls to sh if t h a l f o f th e fu n d s th e y g e t f ro m fo u r specific fe d e ra l p ro g ra m s a m o n g th e s e p ro g ra m s in w a y s th a t th e y f in d u se fu l.

9. In a d d it io n to m a k in g c h a n g e s in h o w fe d e ra l m o n e y is d is t r ib u te d so th a t m o r e m o n e y g o e s to th e p o o r e s t d is tr ic ts , m o r e m o n e y is a p p ro p r ia te d fo r th e p o o re s t d is tric ts .

10. N e w in itia tiv e s a re e s ta b lish e d . T h e s e in c lu d e su c h th in g s as th e T e a c h e r Q u a li ty P ro g ra m , w h ic h h e lp s s c h o o l d is tr ic ts in th e ir e ffo rts to re c ru i t , r e ta in , a n d p ro v id e p ro fe s s io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t to te a c h e rs a n d a d m in is tra to r s , a n d R e a d in g F irs t, a p r o g r a m th a t is a im e d a t r e fo rm in g th e w a y s in w h ic h re a d in g is t a u g h t in sc h o o ls t h r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try .

T h e r e a re , o f c o u rse , o th e r im p o r ta n t e le m e n ts in c lu d e d in th e N C L B le g is la t io n . I t s h o u ld b e im m e d ia te ly c le a r t h a t th e p ro p o sa ls in c o rp o r a te a n u m b e r o f p ro g re s s iv e -s o u n d in g issu es a n d a re c o u c h e d in s e e m in g ly p ro g re s s iv e la n g u a g e . T h is is p a r t ly a r e s u l t o f th e c o m p ro m is e s m a d e in o rd e r to g e t th e le g is la t io n p a s s e d w i th b ip a r t is a n s u p p o r t in C o n g re s s . B u t i t a lso c o n tin u e s a n e s ta b lis h e d t r a d i t io n o f th e c o n s e rv a tiv e p r o d u c t io n o f d is c o u rs e t h a t in c o rp o ra te s p ro g re s s iv e la n g u a g e , w h ile s im u lta n e o u s ly a d v a n c in g k e y e le m e n ts o f th e n e o - lib e ra l a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e ag en d a s . I t in e s se n c e c re a te s w h a t S m ith a n d o th e rs h a v e c a lled a ‘p o lit ic a l s p e c ta c le ', o n e in w h ic h p ro p o sa ls t h a t s e e m in g ly le a d to r e fo rm s th a t a re w a n te d b y th e le a s t p o w e r fu l a c to rs in s o c ie ty a re in s te a d la rg e ly u s e d to g a in le g itim a c y fo r v e ry d if fe re n t k in d s o f a g e n d a s a n d p o lic ie s .[3 ]

B eca u se o f b o th th e h is to ry o f su c h p o lit ic a l sp ec ta c le s a n d th e re a litie s o f in e q u a lit ie s in o u r so c ie ty , m a n y o f th e p ro v is io n s o f N C L B , a n d th e ir h id d e n e ffec ts a n d c o n n e c tio n s to o th e r a sp ec ts o f th e c o n s e rv a tiv e a g e n d a , a re - a n d s h o u ld b e - c o n tro v e rs ia l . C o n tro v e rs ie s c o n t in u e to sw irl

380

a n d in te n s ify a r o u n d su c h th in g s as its r e d e f in i t io n o f l i te ra c y a n d re a d in g in s t r u c t io n a n d its e m p h a s is o n o n ly o n e s e t o f s tra te g ie s fo r te a c h in g su c h th in g s . T h e r e a re m a jo r q u e s tio n s as w e ll a b o u t its b u d g e t p r io r i t ie s a n d a b o u t w h e th e r th e s u p p o s e d in c re a s e in fu n d in g is ‘re a l ' o r n o t . T o th e s e , o th e rs c a n b e a d d e d . Its r e d e f in i t io n o f a c c o u n ta b il i ty as re d u c ib le to sco re s o n s ta n d a rd iz e d a c h ie v e m e n t te s ts , a n d u s e d in a p p ro p r ia te ly fo r c o m p a ra t iv e p u rp o s e s , is m o r e th a n a l i t t le p ro b le m a tic . T h e m a n n e r in w h ic h N C L B d e fin e s su ccess a n d fa ilu re , a n d th e s h a m in g p ra c tic e s a s so c ia te d w i th th e s e p ro c e sse s , h a s c a u se d n u m e r o u s c o m p la in ts a n d e v e n re b e llio n s in s o m e s ta te s a n d d is tr ic ts . T h e a c c o m p a n y in g lo ss o f lo c a l c o n tro l h a s a lso b e e n a c o n s is te n t w o rry .

T h e r e h a s b e e n l i t t le t h o u g h t a b o u t th e e ffe c t as w e ll o n th e w a y s in w h ic h th e c o n s ta n t s tre ss o n ‘fa ilin g p u b lic s c h o o ls ' c a n a c t to m a k e su c h th in g s as h o m e s c h o o lin g - o n e o f th e fa s te s t g ro w in g tr a n s fo rm a t io n s in e d u c a t io n to d a y , w i th m a n y m o r e c h ild re n a n d p a re n ts in v o lv e d th a n in c h a r te r sch o o ls o r v o u c h e r p ro g ra m s - t h a t m u c h m o r e a t tra c tiv e . W i th l i t t le a c c o u n ta b il i ty a t all in h o m e s c h o o lin g , th e s tre ss o n r e d u c t iv e fo rm s o f a c c o u n ta b il i ty in N C L B c a n h a v e th e p a ra d o x ic a l e ffe c t o f a c tu a lly c re a t in g a s i tu a t io n in w h ic h e v e r m o r e c h ild re n a re e d u c a te d in in s t i tu t io n s t h a t h a v e m in im a l, i f an y , fo rm s o f p u b lic a c c o u n ta b ility .[4 ]

F u r th e r , th e c le a r im p lic a t io n th a t w h a t c o u n ts as g o o d te a c h in g is to b e e v a lu a te d o n ly o n im p r o v e m e n ts in s tu d e n ts ' sco re s o n th e te s ts is less th a n sa tis fa c to ry a n d s h o w s a p r o f o u n d m is u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e c o m p le x ity o f th e te a c h in g ac t. T h e w a y s in w h ic h i t ta c i t ly d e fin e s w h a t c o u n ts as le g i t im a te k n o w le d g e as o n ly th a t w h ic h c a n b e in c lu d e d o n su c h re d u c t iv e te s ts flies in th e face o f d e c a d e s o f s tru g g le o v e r th e p o litic s o f o ffic ia l k n o w le d g e a n d o v e r th e in c lu s io n o f th e c u ltu re s , la n g u a g e s , h is to r ie s , v a lu e s , a n d h a b itu s o f a c o u n t r y m a d e o f c u l tu re s f ro m all o v e r th e w o rld .[5 ] N o t le a s t, as V a le n z u e la a n d h e r c o lle a g u e s h a v e so c le a rly d e m o n s tr a te d , th is a s se m b la g e o f ‘re fo rm s ' h a s h a d t r u ly d a m a g in g c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r a la rg e n u m b e r o f o u r m o s t d isp o sse sse d p e o p le s , w i th r a c e /e th n ic i ty b e in g a p r im e m a rk e r o f th e s e n e g a tiv e c o n se q u e n c e s .[6 ]

A ll o f th e s e issu es a re c ru c ia l, a n d I h a v e ta lk e d a b o u t a n u m b e r o f t h e m e ls e w h e re . [7] B u t w i th in th e l im ite d c o n te x t o f th is a r tic le , o f p a r t ic u la r c o n c e rn to m e h e re is f if th p o in t in th e d e sc r ip t io n o f th e le g is la t io n g iv e n ea rlie r. T h is is a k e y e le m e n t, s in ce i t s u tu re s to g e th e r th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f s t ro n g a c c o u n ta b il i ty m e a s u re s w i th a n e v e n f u r th e r o p e n in g to w a r d fu n d in g fo r p r iv a te e d u c a tio n . E v e n th o u g h m a n y c o n s e rv a tiv e m e m b e r s o f C o n g re s s h a d to b a c k a w a y f ro m th e ir o r ig in a l p la n to in c lu d e fe d e ra l s u p p o r t fo r v o u c h e rs in th e le g is la t io n , i t w o u ld b e a g ra v e m is ta k e n o t to see th e c o n n e c t io n b e tw e e n p r iv a t iz a t io n a n d in c re a s e d fe d e ra l c o n tro l a n d in te rv e n t io n th r o u g h te s tin g . A s V a le n z u e la h a s d o c u m e n te d in T ex a s , fo r e x a m p le , th e s e c o n n e c tio n s a re o f te n v e ry o v e r t in th e p o lit ic a l a c tio n s o f c o n s e rv a tiv e ad v o c a te s .[8 ] A n d as w e sha ll see la te r in th is a r tic le , th e p o litic s o f r a c e a n d th e c o n tra d ic to ry im p u lse s a n d e ffec ts in v o lv e d in su c h p o litic s n e e d to b e ta k e n v e ry s e r io u s ly in th in k in g a b o u t all o f th is .

E lse w h e re I h a v e a rg u e d th a t th e re is n o c o n tra d ic t io n b e tw e e n s u p p o se d ly d e c e n tra l iz e d m a rk e t-b a s e d m o d e ls o f e d u c a t io n a n d c e n tr a l iz a t io n th r o u g h s t ro n g re g im e s o f c u r r ic u la r c o n tro l, te s tin g , a n d a c c o u n ta b ili ty .[9 ] In d e e d , th e m o v e m e n t to w a r d m a rk e t iz a t io n a n d ‘c h o ic e ' requires th e p r o d u c t io n o f s ta n d a rd iz e d d a ta b a s e d o n s ta n d a rd iz e d p ro c e sse s a n d ‘p r o d u c ts ' so th a t c o m p a r is o n s c a n b e m a d e a n d so th a t ‘c o n s u m e rs ' h a v e r e le v a n t in f o r m a t io n to m a k e c h o ice s o n a m a rk e t.

I a n d m a n y o th e rs h a v e d o c u m e n te d th e n e g a t iv e e ffec ts o f su c h ‘r e fo rm s ' e ls e w h e re (Ib id .). In th is a r tic le , I w a n t to fo cu s o n th e lo g ic s th a t u n d e r p in in te rv e n t io n s su c h as N C L B a n d s im ila r in itia tiv e s , o n th e c re a tiv e id e o lo g ic a l /p o l i t ic a l w o r k th a t h a s g o n e o n to m a k e th e m a c c e p ta b le , a n d o n th e c o m p lic a te d c lass a n d r a c e d d y n a m ic s th a t b o th c r e a te d th e m a n d a re th e effec ts o f th e m . In o r d e r to d o th is , I n e e d to la y o u t th e g e n e ra l c o n te x t a n d s h if t in g lo g ic s in w h ic h N C L B o p e ra te s , lo g ic s t h a t w o r k to p la c e s t ro n g s ta te m o d e ls o f a c c o u n ta b il i ty in c lo se c o n ta c t w i th m a rk e tiz a t io n . N o C h ild L e ft B e h in d d o e s n o t s ta n d a lo n e a n d a p p e a rs o n a t e r r a in o n w h ic h c ru c ia l id e o lo g ic a l w o r k h a s a lre a d y b e e n d o n e .

C hanging C om m on SenseIn a n u m b e r o f v o lu m e s o v e r th e p a s t d e c a d e , I h a v e c r itic a lly a n a ly z e d th e p ro c e s s e s o f ‘c o n s e rv a tiv e m o d e r n iz a t io n ' - th e c o m p lic a te d a llia n ce b e h in d th e w a v e a f te r w a v e o f e d u c a tio n a l re fo rm s th a t h a v e c e n te r e d a r o u n d n e o -lib e ra l c o m m itm e n ts to th e m a r k e t a n d a s u p p o se d ly w e a k

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

381

s ta te , n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e e m p h a s e s o n s t ro n g e r c o n tro l o v e r c u rr ic u la a n d v a lu e s , a n d ‘n e w m a n a g e r ia l ' p ro p o sa ls to in s ta ll r ig o ro u s fo rm s o f a c c o u n ta b il i ty in s c h o o lin g a t all lev e ls .[1 0 ] T h e f irs t s e t o f r e fo rm s h a s n o t d e m o n s t r a te d m u c h im p r o v e m e n t in e d u c a t io n a n d h a s m a rk e d a d a n g e ro u s sh if t in o u r v e ry id e a o f d e m o c ra c y - a lw ay s a c o n te s te d c o n c e p t [11] f ro m ‘th ic k ' c o lle c tiv e fo rm s to ‘th in ' c o n s u m e r -d r iv e n a n d o v e r ly in d iv id u a lis tic fo rm s . T h e s e c o n d m is c o n s tru e s a n d th e n b a s ica lly ig n o re s t h e in te n s e d e b a te s o v e r w h o s e k n o w le d g e s h o u ld b e ta u g h t in s ch o o ls a n d u n iv e rs it ie s , a n d e s ta b lish e s a fa lse c o n se n s u s o n w h a t is su p p o se d ly c o m m o n in th e U S A .[12] T h e th i r d ta k e s th e p o s i t io n th a t ‘o n ly th a t w h ic h is m e a s u ra b le is im p o r ta n t ' a n d h a s c a u se d s o m e o f th e m o s t c re a t iv e a n d c ritica l p ra c tic e s th a t h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d th r o u g h c o n c e r te d e ffo rts in s o m e o f th e m o s t d iff icu lt s e tt in g s to b e th re a te n e d .[1 3 ] U n fo r tu n a te ly , all to o m a n y o f th e a c tu a l effec ts o f th is a s s e m b la g e o f r e fo rm s h a v e e i th e r b e e n n e g lig ib le o r n e g a tiv e , o r th e y h a v e b e e n la rg e ly rh e to r ic a l.[1 4 ] T h is is u n f o r tu n a te , e sp ec ia lly g iv e n all o f th e w o r k th a t w e ll- in te n t io n e d e d u c a to rs h a v e d e v o te d to s o m e o f th e s e e ffo rts . B u t r e a l i ty m u s t b e fa c e d i f w e a re to g o b e y o n d w h a t is c u r r e n t ly fa sh io n a b le .

T h e o d d c o m b in a t io n o f m a rk e t iz a t io n o n th e o n e h a n d a n d c e n tr a l iz a t io n o f c o n tro l o n th e o th e r is n o t o n ly o c c u r r in g in e d u c a tio n ; n o r is i t o n ly g o in g o n in th e USA. T h is is a w o r ld w id e p h e n o m e n o n . A n d w h ile th e r e a re v e ry re a l, a n d o f te n su ccessfu l, e ffo rts to c o u n te r i t [15], th is h a s n o t m e a n t t h a t th e b a sic a s s u m p tio n s th a t lie b e h in d n e o -lib e ra l, n e o c o n s e rv a tiv e , a n d n e w m a n a g e r ia l fo rm s h a v e n o t h a d a m a jo r im p a c t o n o u r in s t i tu t io n s t h r o u g h o u t s o c ie ty a n d e v e n o n o u r c o m m o n sense .

In m a n y n a t io n s th e r e h a v e b e e n a t te m p ts , o f te n m o r e th a n a l i t t le su ccess fu l, to r e s t ru c tu r e s ta te in s t i tu t io n s .[16] A m o n g th e m a jo r a im s o f su c h r e s t ru c tu r in g w e re : to e n s u re t h a t th e s ta te s e rv e d b u s in e s s in te re s ts ; to h a v e th e s ta te 's in te rn a l o p e ra t io n s m o d e l th o s e u s e d in b u s in e ss ; a n d to ‘ta k e p o litic s o u t o f p u b lic in s t i tu t io n s ', t h a t is to re d u c e th e p o ss ib ility t h a t g o v e r n m e n t in s t i tu t io n s w o u ld b e s u b je c t to p o lit ic a l p re s s u re f ro m th e e le c to ra te a n d f ro m p ro g re s s iv e so cia l m o v e m e n ts .[1 7 ] C h u b b & M o e 's a rg u m e n ts a b o u t v o u c h e r p la n s th a t p la c e e d u c a tio n a l in s t i tu t io n s o n a m a r k e t m ir r o r th is la t te r p o in t , fo r ex am p le .[1 8 ]

T h is la s t p o in t , r e m o v in g p o litic s f ro m g o v e r n m e n t in s t i tu t io n s , is b a s e d o n a less th a n a c c u ra te u n d e r s ta n d in g n o t o n ly o f th e s ta te b u t o f th e m a r k e t as w e ll. W h ile m o s t e c o n o m ic s te x tb o o k s m a y g iv e th e im p re s s io n th a t m a rk e ts a re im p e rs o n a l a n d im p a rtia l , th e y a re in s te a d h ig h ly p o litic a l as w e ll as in h e re n t ly u n s ta b le . T o th is , o th e r p o in ts n e e d to b e a d d e d . T o g u a ra n te e th e ir su rv iv a l, f irm s m u s t se e k w a y s o f b re a k in g o u t o f th e b o u n d a r ie s th a t a re s e t b y s ta te re g u la t io n . In c rea s in g ly , th is h a s m e a n t th a t th e b o u n d a r ie s e s ta b lis h e d to d iv id e n o n -m a r k e t p a r ts o f o u r lives m u s t b e p u s h e d so th a t th e s e sp h e re s c a n b e o p e n e d to c o m m o d if ic a t io n a n d p ro f it-m a k in g . As L eys r e m in d s u s , th is is a c ru c ia lly im p o r ta n t issu e: ‘I t th r e a te n s th e d e s tru c t io n o f n o n -m a r k e t sp h e re s o f life o n w h ic h so c ia l so lid a r ity a n d a c tiv e d e m o c ra c y h a v e a lw ay s d e p e n d e d . '[1 9 ]

It is n o t a n ea sy p ro c e s s to t r a n s f o r m p a r ts o f o u r liv e s a n d in s t i tu t io n s th a t w e re n o t to ta lly in te g ra te d in to m a r k e t re la t io n s so th a t th e y a re p a r t o f a m a rk e t . T o d o th is , a t le a s t fo u r s ig n if ic an t th in g s m u s t b e w o rk e d on :[20 ]1. T h e se rv ice s o r g o o d s th a t a re to b e fo c u s e d u p o n m u s t b e r e c o n f ig u re d so th a t th e y c a n in d e e d

b e b o u g h t a n d sold .2. P e o p le w h o r e c e iv e d th e s e th in g s f ro m th e s ta te m u s t b e c o n v in c e d to w a n t to b u y th e m .3. T h e w o rk in g c o n d it io n s a n d o u t lo o k o f th e e m p lo y e e s w h o w o r k in th is s e c to r m u s t b e

t r a n s fo rm e d f ro m a m o d e l b a s e d o n c o lle c tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g s a n d p ro v id in g se rv ic e to ‘th e p u b lic ' o n th e o n e h a n d to w o rk in g to p r o d u c e p ro f its fo r o w n e r s a n d in v e s to rs a n d b e in g su b je c t to m a r k e t d isc ip lin e o n th e o th e r .

4. W h e n b u s in e sse s m o v e in to w h a t w e re p re v io u s ly n o n -m a r k e t fie lds, as m u c h as p o s s ib le th e ir risk s m u s t b e u n d e r w r i t t e n b y th e s ta te .

U n d e r th e s e k in d s o f p re s s u re s , s ta n d a rd iz e d a n d c o m p e t i t iv e la b o r p ro c e s s e s b e g in to d o m in a te th e liv e s o f th e n e w ly m a rk e t iz e d w o rk e rs . B u t th is is n o t all. A g o o d d e a l o f la b o r is sh if te d to th e c o n s u m e r . S h e o r h e n o w m u s t d o m u c h o f th e w o rk o f g e t t in g in fo rm a t io n , s o r t in g th r o u g h th e a d v e r t is in g a n d c la im s, a n d m a k in g se n se o f w h a t is o f te n a th o r o u g h ly c o n fu s in g w e l te r o f d a ta a n d ‘p ro d u c ts '.[2 1 ] In th e p ro c e s s as w e ll, th e r e is a v e ry s t ro n g te n d e n c y fo r n e e d s a n d v a lu e s th a t w e re o r ig in a lly g e n e r a te d o u t o f c o lle c tiv e d e lib e ra tio n s , s tru g g le s , a n d c o m p ro m is e s , a n d w h ic h le d to th e c r e a t io n o f s ta te se rv ice s, to b e m a rg in a l iz e d a n d u l t im a te ly a b a n d o n e d .[2 2 ] O n c e ag a in ,

Michael W . Apple

382

in L ey s ' w o rd s , ‘[ t]h e fac ts s u g g e s t t h a t m a rk e t-d r iv e n p o litic s c a n le a d to a r e m a rk a b ly ra p id e ro s io n o f d e m o c ra t ic a l ly -d e te rm in e d c o lle c tiv e v a lu e s a n d in s ti tu tio n s '.[2 3 ]

T h e s e a rg u m e n ts m a y s e e m a b s tra c t, b u t th e y sp e a k to s ig n if ic an t a n d c o n c re te c h a n g e s in o u r d a ily liv e s in a n d o u t o f e d u c a tio n . F o r m o r e th a n tw o d e c a d e s w e h a v e w itn e s s e d c o o rd in a te d a n d d e te r m in e d e ffo rts n o t o n ly to r e c o n s t r u c t a ‘l ib e ra l ' m a r k e t e c o n o m y , b u t a lso a ‘l ib e ra l ' m a rk e t s o c ie ty a n d c u ltu re . T h is d is t in c tio n is im p o r ta n t . In H a b e r m a s 's w o rd s , th e a t t e m p t is to h a v e ‘s y s te m ' to ta l ly c o lo n iz e th e ‘l ife -w o rld '.[2 4 ] As m a n y a sp ec ts o f o u r liv e s as p o ss ib le , in c lu d in g th e s ta te a n d civ il so c ie ty , m u s t b e m e rg e d in to th e e c o n o m y a n d e c o n o m ic lo g ics. A l th o u g h th e r e w ill a lw ay s b e c o u n te r -h e g e m o n ic te n d e n c ie s [25], o u r d a ily in te ra c t io n s - a n d e v e n o u r d re a m s a n d d e sire s - m u s t u l t im a te ly b e g o v e r n e d b y m a r k e t ‘re a l i t ie s ' a n d re la tio n s . In th is s c e n a r io - a n d i t is in c re a s in g ly n o t o n ly a s c e n a r io , b u t a lso a re a lity - a s o c ie ty a n d a c u l tu re is n o t to b e b a s e d o n t r u s t a n d s h a re d v a lu e s . R a th e r , a ll a sp ec ts o f th a t s o c ie ty a re to b e g r o u n d e d in a n d face ‘th e m o s t e x tre m e p o ss ib le e x p o s u re to m a rk e t fo rces , w i th in te rn a l m a rk e ts , p ro f i t c e n te rs , a u d its , a n d “b o t to m lin e s” p e n e t r a t in g th e w h o le o f life f ro m h o sp ita ls to p la y -g ro u p s ' to s c h o o ls .[26] As M a rg a re t T h a tc h e r o n c e fa m o u s ly p u t it: ‘T h e ta s k is n o t to j u s t c h a n g e th e e c o n o m y , b u t to c h a n g e th e s o u l. '

In te re s tin g ly , b e c a u s e o f th e fo cu s o n m e a s u ra b le re s u lts a n d c e n tra l c o n tro l o v e r im p o r ta n t d e c is io n s , th e fe d e ra l g o v e r n m e n t 's p o w e r h a s a c tu a lly b e e n s h a rp ly e n h a n c e d . (T h e B u sh a d m in is t ra t io n 's le g is la t io n c o n c e rn in g N C L B - w h e r e s ch o o ls la b e le d as ‘fa ilin g ' o n s ta n d a rd iz e d te s ts a re to b e s u b je c t to m a r k e t c o m p e t i t io n a n d c e n tra l s a n c tio n s - b e c o m e s a g o o d e x a m p le o f th is a t th e le v e l o f e le m e n ta ry a n d s e c o n d a ry sch o o ls .) T h is h a s b e e n a c c o m p a n ie d b y a lo ss o f lo c a l d e m o c ra c y . A t th e s a m e t im e , t h e ro le o f th e s ta te in d e a lin g w i th th e d e s tru c t iv e ra p a c io u s n e ss p r o d u c e d b y ‘e c o n o m ic a lly r a t io n a l ' d e c is io n s h a s b e e n s h a rp ly re d u c e d .[2 7 ]

As m a n y p e o p le h a v e re c o g n iz e d , b e h in d all e d u c a tio n a l p ro p o sa ls a re v is io n s o f a j u s t so c ie ty a n d a g o o d s tu d e n t . T h e n e o -lib e ra l r e fo rm s I h a v e b e e n d isc u ss in g c o n s t r u c t th is in a p a r t ic u la r w a y . W h ile th e d e fin in g c h a ra c te r is t ic o f n e o - lib e ra lis m is la rg e ly b a s e d o n th e c e n tra l te n e ts o f c lassica l l ib e ra lism , in p a r t ic u la r c lassic e c o n o m ic l ib e ra lism , th e r e a re c ru c ia l d iffe ren c es b e tw e e n c lassica l l ib e ra lism a n d n e o -lib e ra lism . T h e s e d iffe ren c es a re a b so lu te ly e s se n tia l in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e p o litic s o f e d u c a t io n a n d th e tr a n s fo rm a t io n s e d u c a t io n is c u r r e n t ly u n d e rg o in g . M a rk O ls s e n c le a rly d e ta ils th e s e d iffe ren c es in th e fo l lo w in g p a ssag e . I t is w o r th q u o t in g in its e n tire ty :

W h e r e a s classica l l ib e ra lism re p re s e n ts a n e g a tiv e c o n c e p t io n o f s ta te p o w e r in t h a t th e in d iv id u a l w a s to b e ta k e n as a n o b je c t to b e f re e d f ro m th e in te rv e n t io n s o f t h e s ta te , n e o ­lib e ra lism h a s c o m e to r e p r e s e n t a p o s i t iv e c o n c e p t io n o f th e s ta te 's ro le in c re a t in g th e a p p ro p r ia te m a r k e t b y p ro v id in g th e c o n d itio n s , la w s a n d in s t i tu t io n s n e c e s sa ry fo r its o p e ra t io n . In classica l l ib e ra lism , th e in d iv id u a l is c h a ra c te r iz e d as h a v in g a n a u to n o m o u s h u m a n n a tu r e a n d c a n p ra c t ic e f re e d o m . In n e o - lib e ra lis m th e s ta te seek s to c re a te an in d iv id u a l w h o is a n e n te rp r is in g a n d c o m p e t i t iv e e n t r e p r e n e u r . In th e c lassica l m o d e l th e th e o re t ic a l a im o f th e s ta te w a s to l im it a n d m in im iz e its ro le b a s e d o n p o s tu la te s w h ic h in c lu d e d u n iv e rsa l e g o ism ( th e s e lf - in te re s te d in d iv id u a l) ; in v is ib le h a n d th e o ry w h ic h d ic ta te d th a t th e in te re s ts o f th e in d iv id u a l w e re also th e in te re s ts o f t h e so c ie ty as a w h o le ; a n d th e p o lit ic a l m a x im o f la issez-fa ire . In th e sh if t f ro m classica l l ib e ra lism to n e o -lib e ra lism , th e n , th e r e is a f u r th e r e le m e n t a d d e d , fo r su c h a sh if t in v o lv e s a c h a n g e in s u b je c t p o s i t io n f ro m ‘h o m o e c o n o m ic u s ', w h o n a tu ra l ly b e h a v e s o u t o f se lf - in te re s t a n d is re la tiv e ly d e ta c h e d f ro m th e s ta te , to ‘m a n ip u la ta b le m a n ', w h o is c re a te d b y th e s ta te a n d w h o is c o n tin u a lly e n c o u ra g e d to b e p e rp e tu a l ly re s p o n s iv e . I t is n o t t h a t th e c o n c e p t io n o f th e self­in te re s te d s u b je c t is r e p la c e d o r d o n e a w a y w i th b y th e n e w id ea ls o f ‘n e o - lib e ra lis m ', b u t th a t in a n ag e o f u n iv e rsa l w e lfa re , th e p e rc e iv e d p o ss ib ilitie s o f s lo th fu l in d o le n c e c re a te n e c e ss itie s fo r n e w fo rm s o f v ig ila n ce , s u rv e illa n c e , ‘p e r f o r m a n c e a p p ra isa l ' a n d o f fo rm s o f c o n tro l g e n e ra lly . In th is m o d e l th e s ta te h a s ta k e n i t u p o n i ts e lf to k e e p u s a ll u p to th e m a rk . T h e s ta te w ill see to i t t h a t e a c h o n e m a k e s a ‘c o n tin u a l e n te rp r is e o f o u rs e lv e s ' ... in w h a t s e e m s to b e a p ro c e s s o f ‘g o v e rn in g w i th o u t g o v e rn in g '.[2 8 ]

In a t te m p t in g to u n d e r s ta n d th is , in E duca ting the ‘R ig h t ' W a y I d e m o n s t r a te d th e p o w e r o f O ls se n 's p o in t t h a t n e o - lib e ra lis m re q u ire s th e c o n s ta n t p r o d u c t io n o f e v id e n c e th a t y o u a re d o in g th in g s ‘e ff ic ien tly ' a n d in th e ‘c o r r e c t ' w a y b y e x a m in in g th e effec ts o n th e g r o u n d o f th e s u tu r in g to g e th e r o f th e s e e m in g ly c o n tra d ic to ry te n d e n c ie s o f n e o - lib e ra l a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e d is c o u rse s a n d

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

383

Michael W . Apple

p ra c tic e s , fo r th is is e x ac tly w h a t is h a p p e n in g a t a ll lev e ls o f e d u c a tio n , in c lu d in g h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .[2 9 ] A n d th is is o c c u r r in g a t th e s a m e t im e as th e s ta te i ts e lf b e c o m e s in c re a s in g ly s u b je c t to c o m m e rc ia l iz a t io n . T h is s i tu a t io n h a s g iv e n r ise to w h a t m ig h t b e s t b e c a lled a n a u d it cu lture . T o g e t a se n se o f th e w id e s p re a d n a tu r e o f s u c h p ra c tic e s , it is u s e fu l h e re to q u o te f ro m L eys, o n e o f th e m o s t p e rc e p t iv e an a ly s ts o f th is g ro w th :

[T h e re is a] p ro l i f e r a t io n o f aud iting , i.e . th e u s e o f b u s in e ss d e r iv e d c o n c e p ts o f in d e p e n d e n t s u p e rv is io n to m e a s u re a n d e v a lu a te p e r f o r m a n c e b y p u b lic ag e n c ie s a n d p u b lic e m p lo y e e s , f ro m civ il s e rv a n ts a n d s c h o o l te a c h e rs to u n iv e rs i ty [facu lty ] a n d d o c to rs : e n v iro n m e n ta l a u d it, v a lu e fo r m o n e y a u d it, m a n a g e m e n t a u d it , fo re n s ic a u d it , d a ta a u d it , in te l le c tu a l p r o p e r ty a u d it , m e d ic a l a u d it , te a c h in g a u d i t a n d te c h n o lo g y a u d i t e m e r g e d a n d , to v a ry in g d e g re e s o f in s t i tu t io n a l s ta b ility a n d a c c e p ta n c e , v e ry fe w p e o p le h a v e b e e n le f t u n to u c h e d b y th e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts .[3 0 ]

T h e w id e s p re a d n a tu r e o f th e s e e v a lu a tiv e a n d m e a s u r e m e n t p re s s u re s , a n d th e i r ab ility to b e c o m e p a r ts o f o u r c o m m o n sen se , c ro w d s o u t o th e r c o n c e p tio n s o f e ffec tiv en ess a n d d e m o c ra c y :

In p la c e o f a s o c ie ty o f c itiz e n s w i th th e d e m o c ra t ic p o w e r to e n s u re e ffec tiv en ess a n d p r o p e r u s e o f c o lle c tiv e re s o u rc e s , a n d re ly in g in la rg e m e a s u re o n t r u s t in th e p u b lic s e c to r , th e re e m e rg e d a s o c ie ty o f ‘a u d ite e s ', a n x io u s ly p re p a r in g fo r a u d its a n d in sp e c tio n s . A p u n it iv e c u l tu re o f ‘le a g u e ta b le s ' d e v e lo p e d (p u r p o r t in g to s h o w th e re la t iv e e ffic ien cy a n d in e ff ic ie n cy o f u n iv e rs it ie s o r s ch o o ls o r h o sp ita ls ) . In s p e c tio n a g en c ie s w e re c h a rg e d w i th ‘n a m in g a n d s h a m in g ' ‘fa ilin g ' in d iv id u a l te a c h e rs , sch o o ls , so c ia l w o r k d e p a r tm e n ts , a n d so o n ; p r iv a te f irm s w e r e in v ite d to ta k e o v e r a n d r u n ‘fa ilin g ' in s ti tu tio n s .[3 1 ]

T h e u l t im a te r e s u l t o f a n a u d it in g c u l tu re o f th is k in d is n o t t h e p r o m is e d d e c e n tr a l iz a t io n th a t p lay s su c h a s ig n if ic a n t ro le rh e to r ic a l ly in m o s t n e o -lib e ra l se lf -u n d e rs ta n d in g s , b u t w h a t s e e m s to b e a m a ss iv e re c e n tr a l iz a t io n a n d w h a t is b e s t s e e n as a p ro c e s s o f d e -d e m o c ra tiz a tio n .[3 2 ] M a k in g th e s ta te m o r e ‘b u s in e ss -fr ie n d ly ' a n d im p o r t in g b u s in e ss m o d e ls d ire c tly in to th e c o re fu n c tio n s o f th e s ta te s u c h as h o sp ita ls a n d e d u c a t io n - in c o m b in a t io n w i th a r ig o ro u s a n d u n fo rg iv in g id e o lo g y o f in d iv id u a l a c c o u n ta b il i ty - th e s e a re th e h a llm a rk s o f life to d a y .[3 3 ] O n c e ag a in , th e g r o w th o f fo r -p ro f it v e n tu r e s s u c h as E d is o n sc h o o ls in th e USA, th e in c re a s in g s ta n d a rd iz a t io n a n d te c h n ic iz a t io n o f c o n te n t w i th in te a c h e r e d u c a t io n p ro g ra m s so th a t so c ia l re f le x iv ity a n d c ritica l u n d e r s ta n d in g a re n e a r ly e v a c u a te d f ro m c o u rse s [34], th e c o n s ta n t p re s s u re to ‘p e r f o r m ' a c c o rd in g to im p o s e d a n d o f te n re d u c t iv e s ta n d a rd s in o u r in s t i tu t io n s o f e d u c a tio n , a n d s im ila r k in d s o f th in g s a re th e fo o tp r in ts th a t th e s e c o n s ta n tly e s c a la tin g p re s s u re s h a v e le f t o n th e te r r a in o f e d u c a tio n .

A k e y to a ll o f th is is th e devaluing o f p u b lic g o o d s a n d se rv ice s. I t ta k e s lo n g - te rm a n d c re a tiv e id e o lo g ic a l w o rk , b u t p e o p le m u s t b e m a d e to see a n y th in g th a t is p u b lic as ‘b a d ' a n d a n y th in g th a t is p r iv a te as ‘g o o d '. A n d a n y o n e w h o w o rk s in th e s e p u b lic in s t i tu t io n s m u s t b e s e e n as in e ff ic ie n t a n d in n e e d o f th e s o b e r in g fac ts o f c o m p e t i t io n so th a t th e y w o r k lo n g e r a n d h a rd e r .[3 5 ] W h e n th e p e o p le w h o w o r k in p u b lic in s t i tu t io n s f ig h t b a c k a n d a rg u e fo r m o r e re s p e c tfu l t r e a tm e n t a n d fo r a g re a te r r e a l iz a t io n th a t s im p lis tic so lu tio n s d o n o t d e a l w i th th e c o m p le x itie s t h a t th e y face e v e ry d a y in th e re a l w o r ld o f sch o o ls , u n iv e rs it ie s , a n d c o m m u n it ie s , th e y a re la b e le d as re c a lc i t r a n t a n d selfish , a n d as u n c a r in g . S o m e tim e s , as in th e ca se o f fo r m e r US S e c re ta ry o f E d u c a t io n P a g e 's p u b lic c o m m e n ts to w h a t h e th o u g h t w a s a s y m p a th e tic a u d ie n c e , th e y a re e v e n c a lled ‘te r ro r is ts '. A n d th e s e ‘r e c a lc i tr a n t , se lfish , a n d u n c a r in g ' e m p lo y e e s - te a c h e rs , a c a d e m ic s , a d m in is tra to r s , so c ia l w o rk e rs , a n d a lm o s t a ll o th e r p u b lic e m p lo y e e s - c a n th e n h a v e th e ir la b o r e x te rn a lly c o n tro l le d a n d in te n s if ie d b y p e o p le w h o c ritic iz e th e m m e rc ile ss ly , o f te n , as in th e ca se o f m a jo r c o rp o ra t io n s , w h ile th e s e s a m e b u s in e sse s a re s h e d d in g th e ir o w n so c ia l re sp o n s ib ili t ie s b y p a y in g l i t t le o r n o tax es.

I n o te d e a r lie r t h a t i t is n o t j u s t th e la b o r o f s ta te e m p lo y e e s th a t is ra d ic a lly a lte re d ; so to o is th e la b o r o f ‘c o n s u m e rs '. W h e n se rv ice s su c h as h o sp ita ls a n d sc h o o ls a re c o m m o d if ie d , a g o o d d e a l o f th e w o r k th a t w a s f o rm e r ly d o n e b y s ta te e m p lo y e e s is s h if te d o n to th o s e u s in g th e se rv ice . E x am p le s o f la b o r b e in g sh if te d to th e ‘c o n s u m e r ' in c lu d e o n lin e b a n k in g , a ir l in e t ic k e t in g a n d ch eck -in , s u p e r m a rk e t s e lf -c h e c k o u ts , a n d s im ila r th in g s . E a c h o f th e s e is a d v e r t is e d as e n h a n c in g ‘c h o ic e ' a n d e a c h c o m e s w i th a s y s te m o f in c e n tiv e s a n d d is in c e n tiv e s . T h u s , o n e c a n g e t A ir M iles fo r c h e c k in g in o n o n e 's c o m p u te r . O r as s o m e b a n k s a re n o w d o in g , th e re is a n e x tra c h a rg e i f y o u

384

w a n t to see a re a l, l iv e b a n k te l le r r a th e r th a n u s in g a n a u to m a te d te l le r m a c h in e (w h ic h i ts e lf o f te n n o w h a s a n e x tra c h a rg e fo r u s in g it).

T h e e ffec ts o f su c h c h a n g e s m a y b e h id d e n b u t t h a t d o e s n o t m a k e th e m a n y less rea l. S o m e o f th e s e a re c le a rly e c o n o m ic : th e c lo s in g o f b a n k b ra n c h e s ; th e la y in g o f f o f la rg e n u m b e r s o f w o rk e rs , in c lu d in g in e le m e n ta ry , m id d le , a n d s e c o n d a ry sc h o o ls a n d in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n ; th e in te n s if ic a t io n o f th e w o rk lo a d o f th e fe w e r w o rk e r s w h o re m a in . S o m e a re h id d e n in th e ir effec ts o n c o n su m e rs : e x p o r t in g all o f th e w o rk a n d th e n e c e s sa ry c o m m itm e n t o f t im e o n to th o s e p e o p le w h o a re n o w p u rc h a s in g th e se rv ice ; s e a rc h in g fo r in f o r m a t io n th a t w a s o n c e g iv e n b y th e g o v e rn m e n t ; d o in g o n e 's b a n k in g a n d a ir l in e w o rk on ese lf; b a g g in g a n d c h e c k in g o u t a t s u p e rm a rk e ts .[3 6 ] T h e c la ssed a n d r a c e d spec ific ities o f th is a re c ru c ia l, s in ce th e a b ility to d o su c h e le c tro n ic s e a rc h in g a n d e d u c a tio n , fo r e x a m p le , is d e p e n d e n t o n th e av a ila b ility o f c o m p u te rs a n d e sp ec ia lly t im e to e n g a g e in su c h ac tio n s . I t r e q u ire s re s o u rc e s - b o th te m p o r a l a n d fin an c ia l, to say n o th in g o f e m o tio n a l - t h a t a re d if fe re n tia lly d is tr ib u te d .

T h is all m a y s e e m so triv ia l. B u t w h e n e a c h ‘tr iv ia l ' in s ta n c e is a d d e d u p , th e m a ss iv e n e s s o f th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n in w h ic h la b o r is t r a n s fe r re d to t h e c o n s u m e r is s trik in g . F o r i t to b e su ccess fu l, o u r c o m m o n se n se m u s t b e c h a n g e d so th a t w e see th e w o r ld o n ly as in d iv id u a l c o n s u m e rs a n d w e see o u rs e lv e s as s u r ro u n d e d b y a w o r ld in w h ic h e v e ry th in g is p o te n t ia l ly a c o m m o d ity fo r sale. T o sp eak m o r e th e o re t ic a l ly , th e s u b je c t p o s i t io n o n o ffe r is th e d e ra c e d , d e c la sse d , a n d d e g e n d e re d ‘p o sse s s iv e in d iv id u a l ', a n e c o n o m ic a lly r a t io n a l a c to r w h o is c o n s tr u c te d b y a n d c o n s tru c ts a r e a l i ty in w h ic h d e m o c ra c y is n o lo n g e r a p o lit ic a l c o n c e p t b u t is r e d u c e d to a n e c o n o m ic o n e .[3 7 ]

M a rk F o w le r , R o n a ld R e a g a n 's C h a ir o f th e F e d e ra l C o m m u n ic a t io n s C o m m is s io n , o n c e p u b lic ly s ta te d th a t te le v is io n is s im p ly a to a s te r w i th p ic tu re s . A c o n s e rv a tiv e m e d ia m o g u l in E n g la n d s e e m e d to a g re e , w h e n h e sa id th a t th e r e is n o d if fe re n c e b e tw e e n a te le v is io n p r o g r a m a n d a c ig a re t te l ig h te r . [38] B o th p o s i t io n s a re b a s e d o n a n a s s u m p tio n th a t c u l tu ra l f o r m a n d c o n te n t a n d th e p ro c e s s e s o f d is t r ib u t io n a re in d e e d c o m m o d it ie s . T h e r e a re fe w m o r e im p o r ta n t m e c h a n ism s o f c u l tu ra l s e le c t io n a n d d is t r ib u t io n th a n sch o o ls a n d u n iv e rs it ie s . A n d u n d e r th is k in d o f lo g ic , o n e m ig h t say th a t e d u c a tio n a l in s t i tu t io n s a re s im p ly to a s te r s w i th s tu d e n ts . T h e r e is s o m e th in g d e e p ly d is tu rb in g a b o u t th is p o s i t io n n o t o n ly in its v is io n o f e d u c a tio n , b u t p ro fo u n d ly in its u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e liv e s o f th e p e o p le w h o a c tu a lly w o r k in su c h in s t i tu t io n s a n d in th e o f te n u n d e r fu n d e d , u n d e rs ta ffe d , a n d d iff icu lt c o n d it io n s n o w b e in g e x p e r ie n c e d th e re . W h ile it w o u ld b e to o re d u c t iv e to see e d u c a tio n a l w o r k m e re ly in la b o r-p ro c e s s te rm s , th e in te n s if ic a tio n th a t h a s r e s u l te d f ro m th e c o n d it io n s a s s o c ia te d w i th th is a s s e m b la g e o f a s s u m p tio n s h a s b e c o m e r a th e r p ro n o u n c e d .[3 9 ]

O f c o u rse , m a n y o f u s m a y b e a p t to see s u c h th in g s as re la tiv e ly h u m o r o u s o r in n o c u o u s . A r e n 't m a rk e t-b a s e d p ro p o sa ls fo r su c h th in g s as sch o o ls , u n iv e rs it ie s , h e a l th c a re a n d so m u c h m o r e j u s t a n o th e r , b u t s u p p o se d ly m o r e e ffic ien t, w a y o f m a k in g se rv ice s av ailab le? B u t n o t o n ly a re th e s e id e o lo g ic a lly d r iv e n ‘r e fo rm s ' no t a ll t h a t e f f ic ien t [40], th e p ro c e s s o f p r iv a t iz a t io n is s trik in g ly d if fe re n t th a n p u b lic o w n e r s h ip a n d c o n tro l. F o r e x a m p le , in o r d e r to m a r k e t s o m e th in g lik e e d u c a tio n , i t m u s t f irs t b e t r a n s f o r m e d in to a c o m m o d ity , a ‘p r o d u c t '. T h e p r o d u c t is th e n th e r e to s e rv e d if fe re n t en d s . T h u s , r a th e r th a n s c h o o lin g b e in g a im e d a t c r e a tin g c ritic a lly d e m o c ra t ic c it iz e n s h ip as its u l t im a te g o a l ( a l th o u g h w e s h o u ld n e v e r r o m a n t ic iz e a n E d e n ic p a s t w h e n th is w a s a c tu a lly th e case ; s c h o o lin g h a s a lw ay s b e e n a s ite o f s tru g g le o v e r w h a t its fu n c tio n s w o u ld a c tu a lly b e , w i th t h e w o rk in g c lass a n d m a n y w o m e n a n d p e o p le o f c o lo r b e in g c o n s tr u c te d as ‘n o t q u ite c it iz e n s ') [41], th e e n tire p ro c e s s c a n s lo w ly b e c o m e a im e d in s te a d a t th e g e n e r a t io n o f p ro f i t fo r s h a re h o ld e rs o r a s ite w h o s e h id d e n p u r p o s e is to d o c u m e n t th e e ffic ien cy o f n e w ly e m p o w e re d m a n a g e r ia l fo rm s w i th in t h e r e c o n s t i tu te d s ta te .[4 2 ]

T h e fa c t t h a t su c h th in g s as th e fo r -p ro fit E d iso n sc h o o ls in th e U S A h a v e n o t g e n e r a te d th e s ig n if ic a n t p ro f its t h a t th e ir in v e s to rs h a d d r e a m e d o f m e a n s th a t th e p ro c e s s o f c o m m o d if ic a t io n is a t le a s t p a r t ly b e in g re je c te d . F o r m a n y p e o p le in a ll w a lk s o f life, th e id e a o f ‘se llin g ' o u r sch o o ls a n d o u r c h ild re n is s o m e h o w d is tu rb in g , as th e c o n t in u in g c o n tro v e r s y o v e r C h a n n e l O n e , th e for- p ro f i t te le v is io n s ta t io n w i th a d v e r t is in g n o w b e in g b ro a d c a s t in 43% o f all p u b lic a n d p r iv a te m id d le a n d s e c o n d a ry s ch o o ls in th e U SA , a m p ly d e m o n s tra te s .[4 3 ] T h e s e in tu i t io n s d e m o n s t r a te th a t in o u r e v e ry d a y liv e s th e r e re m a in s a se n se th a t th e r e is s o m e th in g v e ry w r o n g w i th o u r c u r r e n t a n d still to o u n c r i t ic a l fa sc in a tio n w i th m a rk e ts a n d au d its . H o w e v e r , th is o p t im is m n e e d s to b e im m e d ia te ly b a la n c e d b y th e im m e n s e g r o w th o f fo r -p ro fit o n lin e u n iv e rs it ie s su c h as th e

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

385

U n iv e rs ity o f P h o e n ix , a n in s t i tu t io n th a t ex em p lif ie s th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f e d u c a t io n in to a sa lea b le c o m m o d ity .

D a v id M a rq u a n d s u m m a riz e s th e w o r r is o m e te n d e n c ie s I h a v e b e e n d e sc r ib in g in t h e fo llo w in g w ay :

T h e p u b lic d o m a in o f c it iz e n s h ip a n d se rv ic e s h o u ld b e s a fe g u a rd e d f ro m in c u rs io n s b y th e m a rk e t d o m a in o f b u y in g a n d se llin g ... T h e g o o d s o f th e p u b lic d o m a in - h e a l th ca re , c r im e p re v e n t io n , a n d e d u c a t io n - s h o u ld n o t b e t r e a te d as c o m m o d it ie s o r p ro x y c o m m o d itie s .T h e la n g u a g e o f b u y e r a n d se lle r, p r o d u c e r a n d c o n s u m e r , d o e s n o t b e lo n g in th e p u b lic d o m a in ; n o r d o th e re la t io n sh ip s w h ic h th a t la n g u a g e im p lie s . D o c to rs a n d n u rs e s d o n o t ‘sell' m e d ic a l se rv ice s; s tu d e n ts a re n o t ‘c u s to m e rs ' o f th e ir te a c h e rs ; p o l ic e m e n a n d p o l ic e w o m e n d o n o t ‘p r o d u c e ' p u b lic o rd e r . T h e a t t e m p t to fo rc e th e s e re la tio n sh ip s in to a m a rk e t m o d e l u n d e r m in e s th e se rv ic e e th ic , d e g ra d e s th e in s t i tu t io n s t h a t e m b o d y i t a n d ro b s th e n o t io n o f c o m m o n c it iz e n s h ip o f p a r t o f its m e a n in g .[4 4 ]

I ag re e . In m y m in d , p u b lic in s t i tu t io n s a re th e d e fin in g fe a tu re s o f a c a r in g a n d d e m o c ra t ic so c ie ty . T h e m a rk e t re la t io n s th a t a re s p o n s o re d b y c a p ita lism s h o u ld ex is t to p a y fo r th e s e in s t i tu t io n s , not th e o th e r w a y a ro u n d . T h u s , m a rk e ts a re to b e s u b o rd in a te to th e a im o f p ro d u c in g a fu lle r a n d th ic k e r p a r t ic ip a to ry d e m o c ra t ic p o l i ty a n d d a ily life.[45] I t s h o u ld b e c le a r b y n o w th a t a cy n ica l c o n c e p t io n o f d e m o c ra c y th a t is ‘o n sa le ' to v o te rs a n d m a n ip u la te d a n d m a rk e te d b y p o lit ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic e lite s d o e s n o t a d e q u a te ly p ro v id e fo r g o o d s su c h as g e n e ra l a n d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , o b je c tiv e in fo rm a tio n , m e d ia a n d n e w fo rm s o f c o m m u n ic a t io n th a t a re u n iv e rsa lly access ib le , w e l l-m a in ta in e d p u b lic lib ra r ie s fo r all, p u b lic h e a l th , a n d u n iv e rs a l h e a l th ca re . A t b e s t , m a rk e ts p ro v id e th e s e th in g s in ra d ic a lly u n e q u a l w a y s , w i th c lass, g e n d e r , a n d e sp ec ia lly r a c e b e in g e x tre m e ly p o w e r fu l m a rk e rs o f th e s e in e q u a litie s .[4 6 ] I f th a t is th e ca se - e v e n i f th e d e fin itio n s o f th e ‘p u b lic ' w e re a n d o f te n still a re b a s e d o n th e c o n s tr u c t io n o f g e n d e re d a n d r a c e d sp aces [47] - th e v e ry id e a o f p u b lic in s t i tu t io n s is u n d e r c o n c e r te d a tta c k . T h e y n e e d to b e p ro v id e d - a n d d e fe n d e d - co llec tiv e ly . S u c h th in g s a re a n y th in g b u t s e c o n d a ry . T h e y a re th e d e fin in g c h a ra c te ris t ic s o f w h a t i t m e a n s to b e a j u s t so c ie ty .[4 8 ]

U n fo r tu n a te ly , th e la n g u a g e o f p r iv a tiz a t io n , m a rk e t iz a t io n , a n d c o n s ta n t e v a lu a t io n h as in c re a s in g ly s a tu ra te d p u b lic d isc o u rse . In m a n y w a y s , i t h a s b e c o m e c o m m o n se n se - a n d th e c ritica l in tu i t io n s th a t s o m e th in g m a y b e w r o n g w i th all o f th is m a y s lo w ly w ith e r . Y et, in m a n y n a t io n s w h e r e c o n d it io n s a re e v e n w o rs e , th is h a s n o t n e c e s sa rily h a p p e n e d , as th e g r o w th o f p a r t ic ip a to ry b u d g e tin g , ‘c it iz e n s c h o o ls ', a n d c lo se r e la t io n s b e tw e e n te a c h e r e d u c a t io n p ro g ra m s a n d b u i ld in g m o r e so c ia lly re s p o n s iv e a n d c ritic a l c u r r ic u la r a n d p e d a g o g ic a l in it ia tiv e s in P o r to A leg re , B raz il a n d e ls e w h e re d o c u m e n ts .[4 9 ] W e c a n le a rn f ro m th e s e n a t io n s ' e x p e r ie n c e s a n d w e c a n r e le a rn w h a t i t m e a n s to r e c o n s t i tu te th e civ ic in o u r lives.[50 ] E d u c a t io n h a s a fu n d a m e n ta l ro le to p la y in d o in g e x ac tly th a t. B u t i t c a n o n ly d o so i f i t is p r o te c te d f ro m th o s e w h o see i t as o n e m o r e p r o d u c t to b e c o n s u m e d as w e m e a s u re i t a n d w h o in te r p r e t th e in te l le c tu a l a n d e m o tio n a l la b o r o f th o s e w h o a re e n g a g e d in e d u c a tio n a l w o r k th o u g h th e le n se s o f s ta n d a rd iz a t io n , ra t io n a liz a t io n , a n d a u d itin g .

H a v in g sa id th is , h o w e v e r , in te r r u p t in g c o n s e rv a tiv e m o d e r n iz a t io n r e q u ire s th a t w e h a v e a m o r e a d e q u a te u n d e r s ta n d in g o f b o th s o m e fu n d a m e n ta l d y n a m ic s a n d its so c ia l fu n c tio n s a n d ro o ts . I w a n t to t u r n to th is n o w .

N e w M anagerialism in C lass T erm sT h r o u g h o u t th is a r tic le , I h a v e b e e n b ro a d ly d e sc r ib in g p a r t ic u la r k in d s o f te n d e n c ie s th a t a re r e c o n s tr u c t in g w h a t c o u n ts as le g i t im a te k n o w le d g e , le g i t im a te e d u c a tio n , le g i t im a te e v id e n c e , a n d le g i t im a te la b o r . Y et, w e n e e d to b e c a u tio u s a b o u t re d u c t iv e an a ly se s in u n d e r s ta n d in g w h e r e th e s e id e o lo g ic a l m o v e m e n ts c o m e f ro m . I t w o u ld b e to o ea sy s im p ly to say th a t th e s e a re th e p re d ic ta b le effec ts o f c o m p e t i t iv e g lo b a liz a tio n , o f ca p ita l in crisis a n d its a c c o m p a n y in g fiscal crisis o f th e s ta te , o r in m o r e F o u c a u ld ia n te rm s o f th e m ic ro p o lit ic s o f g o v e r n m e n ta l i ty a n d n o rm a liz a t io n , a l th o u g h th e r e is s o m e t r u t h to all o f th e se . T h e s e te n d e n c ie s u n d e r p in n in g ‘c o n s e rv a tiv e m o d e r n iz a t io n ' a re a lso ‘s o lu t io n s ' th a t a re g e n e r a te d b y p a r t ic u la r a c to rs , a n d h e re w e n e e d to b e m o r e specific a b o u t class re la t io n s in s id e a n d o u ts id e o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .

Michael W . Apple

386

A s Basil B e rn s te in h a s r e m in d e d u s a n d as I h a v e a rg u e d in m u c h g r e a te r d e p th e ls e w h e re , a g o o d d e a l o f th e g e n es is o f a n d s u p p o r t fo r th e p o lic ie s o f c o n s e rv a tiv e m o d e rn iz a t io n , a n d e sp ec ia lly o f th e c o n s ta n t n e e d fo r a u d its , th e p r o d u c t io n o f ‘e v id e n c e ', r a t io n a liz a t io n , a n d s ta n d a rd iz a t io n o f b o th la b o r a n d k n o w le d g e , c o m e s n o t o n ly f ro m c a p ita l a n d its n e o - lib e ra l allies in g o v e r n m e n t , b u t f ro m a p a r t ic u la r f ra c t io n o f th e p ro fe s s io n a l a n d m a n a g e r ia l n e w m id d le class.[51] T h is f ra c t io n o f th e p ro fe s s io n a l n e w m id d le c lass g a in s its o w n m o b il i ty w ith in t h e s ta te a n d w ith in th e e c o n o m y b a s e d o n th e u s e o f te c h n ic a l ex p e r tise . T h e s e a re p e o p le w i th b a c k g ro u n d s in m a n a g e m e n t a n d e ff ic ien cy te c h n iq u e s w h o p ro v id e th e te c h n ic a l a n d ‘p ro fe s s io n a l ' s u p p o r t fo r a c c o u n ta b ili ty , m e a s u re m e n t , ‘p r o d u c t c o n tro l ', a n d a s s e s s m e n t th a t is r e q u ir e d b y th e p r o p o n e n ts o f n e o -lib e ra l p o lic ie s o f m a rk e t iz a t io n a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e p o lic ie s o f t ig h te r c e n tra l c o n tro l in e d u c a tio n .

M e m b e rs o f th is f ra c t io n o f th e u p w a rd ly m o b ile p ro fe s s io n a l a n d m a n a g e r ia l n e w m id d le class d o n o t n e c e s sa rily b e l ie v e in t h e id e o lo g ic a l p o s i t io n s th a t u n d e r p in all a sp ec ts o f th e c o n se rv a tiv e a llian ce . In fac t, in o th e r a sp ec ts o f th e ir liv e s th e y m a y b e c o n s id e ra b ly m o r e m o d e r a te a n d e v e n ‘l ib e ra l ' p o litic a lly . H o w e v e r , as e x p e r ts in e ffic ien cy , m a n a g e m e n t , te s tin g , a n d a c c o u n ta b ili ty , th e y p ro v id e th e te c h n ic a l e x p e r tise to p u t in p la c e th e p o lic ie s o f c o n s e rv a tiv e m o d e rn iz a t io n . T h e i r o w n m o b il i ty depends o n th e e x p a n s io n o f b o th su c h e x p e r tis e a n d th e p ro fe s s io n a l id e o lo g ie s o f c o n tro l , m e a s u re m e n t , a n d e ffic ien cy th a t a c c o m p a n y it. T h u s , th e y o f te n s u p p o r t su c h p o lic ie s as ‘n e u t r a l in s t ru m e n ta l i t ie s ' e v e n w h e n th e s e p o lic ie s m a y b e u s e d fo r p u rp o s e s o th e r th a n th e s u p p o se d ly n e u t r a l e n d s th is c lass f ra c t io n is c o m m it te d to .[5 2 ]

B eca u se o f th is , i t is im p o r ta n t to re a liz e th a t a g o o d d e a l o f th e c u r r e n t e m p h a s is o n a u d its a n d m o r e r ig o ro u s fo rm s o f a c c o u n ta b ili ty , o n t ig h te r c o n tro l , a n d a v is io n th a t c o m p e t i t io n w ill le a d to g r e a te r e ffic ien cy is n o t to ta l ly re d u c ib le to th e n e e d s o f n e o -lib e ra ls a n d n e o c o n s e rv a tiv e s . R a th e r , p a r t o f th e p re s s u re fo r th e s e p o lic ie s c o m e s f ro m e d u c a tio n a l m a n a g e rs a n d b u r e a u c r a t ic o ffices w h o fu lly b e lie v e th a t su c h c o n tro l is w a r r a n te d a n d ‘g o o d '. N o t o n ly d o th e s e fo rm s o f c o n tro l h a v e a n e x tre m e ly lo n g h is to ry in e d u c a t io n [53], b u t t ig h te r c o n tro l , h ig h s tak es te s tin g , a n d ( re d u c tiv e ) a c c o u n ta b il i ty m e th o d s p ro v id e m o r e d y n a m ic ro le s fo r su c h m a n a g e rs .

L e t m e b r ie f ly say m o r e a b o u t th is , s in ce th is is s ig n if ic a n t in te rm s o f th e s e lf -u n d e rs ta n d in g o f c lass a c to rs w i th in th e a d m in is tra t iv e a p p a ra tu s o f th e s ta te . T h e d e c a d e s o f a tta c k s o n s ta te e m p lo y e e s h a v e n o t o n ly h a d th e p re d ic ta b le effec ts o f lo s t e m p lo y m e n t a n d w o rs e n in g w o rk in g c o n d it io n s , a l th o u g h th e s e k in d s o f th in g s a re c o n t in u in g w ith in e d u c a t io n a n d e ls e w h e re . T h e s e a tta c k s a lso h a v e h a d p r o f o u n d effec ts o n id e n ti t ie s a n d h a v e p r o d u c e d a crisis a m o n g m a n y s ta te e m p lo y e e s a n d m a n a g e rs a b o u t d o u b ts to th e i r e x p e r tis e a n d th e i r ab ility to ‘h e lp ' t h e p u b lic .[5 4 ] N e w id e n tit ie s t h a t a re c e n te r e d a r o u n d e n h a n c e d te c h n ic a l p ro f ic ie n c y a n d a s e t o f a s s u m p tio n s th a t d e e p -se a te d p ro b le m s in e d u c a t io n a n d th e e n t i re so c ia l s p h e re c a n b e p ro v id e d b y e n h a n c in g e ffic ien cy a n d h o ld in g p e o p le m o r e r ig o ro u s ly a c c o u n ta b le fo r th e ir a c tio n s h a v e d e v e lo p e d o v e r t im e , s p o n s o re d in p a r t b y n e o -lib e ra l d is c o u rse s t h a t h a v e o p e n e d sp aces w ith in th e s ta te fo r s u c h e x p e r tise . T h is e n a b le s th o s e class f ra c tio n s w i th te c h n ic a l fo rm s o f c u l tu ra l c a p ita l c e n te re d a ro u n d a c c o u n ta b il i ty a n d m a n a g e r ia l e ffic ien cy to o c c u p y th e s e sp aces a n d to g u a ra n te e a p la c e fo r th e u se s o f th e i r k n o w le d g e . T h is is a n id e a l s i tu a t io n fo r th e p ro fe s s io n a l a n d m a n a g e r ia l n e w m id d le class. T h e y c a n see th e m s e lv e s as e n g a g in g in a m o ra l c ru s a d e - s e e in g th e m s e lv e s as b e in g e n d le s s ly re s p o n s iv e to ‘c lie n ts ' a n d ‘c o n s u m e rs ' in s u c h a w a y th a t th e y a re p a r t ic ip a t in g in th e c r e a t io n o f a n e w ly r e c o n s t i tu te d a n d m o r e e ff ic ien t s e t o f in s t i tu t io n s th a t w ill ‘h e lp e v e ry o n e ' - a n d a t th e s a m e t im e e n h a n c in g th e s ta tu s o f th e ir o w n ex p e r tise . In B o u rd ie u 's te rm s , th is a llo w s fo r p a r t ic u la r k in d s o f c o n v e rs io n s tra te g ie s , o n e s in w h ic h th e ir c u l tu ra l c a p ita l ( te c h n ic a l a n d m a n a g e r ia l ex p e r tise ) c a n b e c o n v e r te d in to e c o n o m ic c a p ita l (p o s it io n s a n d m o b il i ty w ith in e d u c a t io n a n d th e s ta te ).[5 5 ]

T h is n e e d s to b e s i tu a te d in th e w a y s in w h ic h su c h c u ltu ra l m a rk e ts a n d c o n v e r s io n s tra te g ie s o p e ra te in th e la rg e r s e t o f c lass re la t io n s in w h ic h s u c h n e w m id d le -c la ss a c to rs p a r tic ip a te . M y c la im s h e re a re c o m p lic a te d a n d I c a n o n ly o u t l in e a w id e r s e t o f a rg u m e n ts . H o w e v e r , th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e s e a rg u m e n ts a re s e r io u s i f w e a re to u n d e r s ta n d fu lly w h y all o f e d u c a tio n , in c lu d in g h ig h e r e d u c a t io n a n d w h o d o e s a n d d o e s n o t g o th e re , s e e m s to b e e x p e r ie n c in g a n u m b e r o f th e r e s t ru c tu r in g s I h a v e e a r lie r d iscu ssed .

T h is is a t im e w h e n c o m p e t i t io n fo r c re d e n tia ls a n d c u ltu ra l c a p ita l is in te n se . T h e in c re a s in g p o w e r o f m e c h a n is m s o f re s tra tif ic a tio n , su c h as th e r e tu r n o f h ig h lev e ls o f m a n d a to ry

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

387

s ta n d a rd iz a t io n , m o r e te s t in g m o r e o f te n , a n d c o n s ta n t a u d it in g o f re su lts , a lso p ro v id e s m e c h a n is m s - a n d a n in s is te n t lo g ic - t h a t e n h a n c e th e c h a n c e s t h a t th e c h ild re n o f th e p ro fe s s io n a l a n d m a n a g e r ia l n e w m id d le class w ill h a v e less com petition f ro m o th e r s tu d e n ts . T h u s , th e in t r o d u c t io n o f d e v ice s to re s tra t ify a p o p u la t io n - fo r th is is w h a t m u c h o f i t is - e n h a n c e s th e v a lu e o f th e c re d e n tia ls t h a t th e n e w m id d le class is m o r e lik e ly to a c c u m u la te , g iv e n th e s to c k o f c u ltu ra l c a p ita l i t a lre a d y p o ssesse s .[5 6 ] I a m n o t c la im in g th a t th is is n e c e s sa rily in te n tio n a l , b u t it d o e s fu n c tio n to in c re a s e th e c h a n c e s fo r m o b il i ty fo r m id d le -c la ss c h ild re n , w h o d e p e n d n o t o n e c o n o m ic c a p ita l b u t o n c u ltu ra l c a p ita l fo r a d v a n c e m e n t.[5 7 ] T h e effec ts o f su c h p o lic ie s a n d p ro c e d u re s o n w o rk in g -c la s s s tu d e n ts a n d o n s tu d e n ts o f o p p re s s e d m in o r i t ie s a re m o r e th a n a l i t t le v is ib le in a n e n t i re se rie s o f d e ta i le d a n d in s ig h tfu l s tu d ies .[5 8 ]

I w a n t to s tre ss th e im p o r ta n c e o f th is e le m e n t w i th in c o n s e rv a tiv e m o d e rn iz a t io n , n o t o n ly b e c a u s e i t a lre a d y o c c u p ie s c o n s id e ra b le p o w e r w i th in th e s ta te . I t is c ru c ia l to fo cu s o n th is g ro u p as w e ll b e c a u s e , in th e s i tu a t io n I h a v e d e sc r ib e d , I b e l ie v e th a t th is g ro u p is n o t im m u n e to id e o lo g ic a l sh ifts to th e R ig h t a n d th u s m a y n o t b e as a b le to b e se lf-c o n sc io u s a b o u t th e ro le i t m a y b e p la y in g in th e r e s t ru c tu r in g o f e d u c a tio n a l a n d so c ia l p o lic ie s I h a v e b e e n d isc u s s in g in th is a rtic le . G iv e n th e fe a r g e n e r a te d b y th e a tta c k s o n th e s ta te a n d o n th e p u b lic s p h e re b y b o th n e o ­lib e ra ls a n d n e o c o n s e rv a tiv e s , th is c lass f ra c t io n is d e c id e d ly w o r r ie d a b o u t th e f u tu r e m o b il i ty o f its c h i ld re n in a n u n c e r ta in e c o n o m ic w o r ld . T h u s , i t m a y b e d r a w n e v e n m o r e o v e r t ly to p a r ts o f th e c o n s e rv a tiv e a llia n c e 's p o s itio n s , e sp ec ia lly th o s e c o m in g f ro m th e n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e e le m e n ts w h ic h s tre ss g r e a te r a t te n t io n to t r a d i t io n a l ‘h ig h s ta tu s ' c o n te n t , g r e a te r a t te n t io n to te s tin g , a n d a g re a te r e m p h a s is o n s c h o o lin g (a n d th e e n t i re u n iv e r s i ty s y s te m ) as a s tra tify in g m e c h a n is m . T h is c a n b e s e e n in a n u m b e r o f s ta te s in th e U SA , fo r e x a m p le , w h e r e p a re n ts o f th is c lass f ra c t io n a re s u p p o r t in g c h a r te r sch o o ls t h a t w ill s tre ss a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t in t r a d i t io n a l s u b je c ts a n d t r a d it io n a l te a c h in g p ra c tic e s .

I t re m a in s to b e s e e n w h e r e th e m a jo r i ty o f m e m b e r s o f th is c lass g ro u p in g w ill a lig n in th e f u tu r e in t h e d e b a te s o v e r p o lic y . G iv e n th e ir c o n tra d ic to ry id e o lo g ic a l te n d e n c ie s , i t is p o s s ib le th a t th e R ig h t w ill b e ab le to m o b il iz e th e m u n d e r c o n d it io n s o f fe a r fo r th e f u tu r e o f th e ir jo b s a n d c h ild re n , e v e n w h e n th e y still v o te fo r , say, th e D e m o c ra ts in th e U SA o r N e w L a b o u r in th e U n ite d K in g d o m in e le c to ra l te rm s .[5 9 ] A t th e v e ry le a s t, i t w o u ld b e r o m a n t ic to a s s u m e th a t th e y w ill b e re s p o n s iv e to th e c la im s f ro m th o s e p e o p le w h o a re e m p lo y e d in in s t i tu t io n s o f h ig h e r e d u c a t io n a n d in e d u c a t io n in g e n e ra l th a t th e c o n d it io n s u n d e r w h ic h th e y a re in c re a s in g ly w o rk in g a re d a m a g in g a n d th a t th e y a re c re a t in g a n e d u c a t io n th a t is less a n d less w o r th y o f its n a m e .

R acing tow ard R eformSo fa r I h a v e d isc u sse d th e g e n e ra l te n d e n c ie s s u r ro u n d in g th e in c re a s in g m a rk e t iz a t io n o f e v e ry d a y life a n d th e g r o w th o f a n a u d i t c u l tu re , a n d h a v e a rg u e d th a t su c h te n d e n c ie s w ill h a v e d e e p ly p ro b le m a t ic effec ts . H o w e v e r , w e n e e d to b e c a re fu l n o t to r o m a n t ic iz e a p a s t in w h ic h th e s ta te w a s s u p p o se d ly r e s p o n s iv e to all its c itiz en s . As C h a r le s M ills so p o w e r fu l ly a rg u e s , u n d e r ly in g o u r v e ry id e a o f th e m o d e r n lib e ra l s ta te a n d u n d e r ly in g th e so c ia l c o m m itm e n ts fo r w h ic h it su p p o se d ly s ta n d s is a racial c o n tra c t.[6 0 ] F u r th e r , as G lo ria L ad so n -B illin g s a n d o th e rs h a v e c la im e d , in e d u c a t io n as in so m u c h else , ‘[r]a ce is a lw ay s a lre a d y p r e s e n t in e v e ry so c ia l c o n fig u r in g o f o u r liv e s '.[6 1 ] F o r th e s e v e ry re a s o n s , i t is im p e ra t iv e t h a t w e ta k e a s e c o n d lo o k a t th e w a y s in w h ic h m a rk e ts a n d a u d i t c u l tu re s fu n c t io n - th is t im e p la c in g ra c e a t th e c e n te r o f o u r an a ly sis , s in ce d if fe re n t so c ia l p o s i t io n in g s in s o c ie ty m a y g iv e d if fe re n t m e a n in g s to n e o - lib e ra l a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e p o lic ies .

T h e c ritic ism s o f m a r k e t re la t io n s a n d lo g ic s th a t I a n d o th e rs h a v e m a d e a re p o w e rfu l.[6 2 ] B u t th e s e c ritic ism s o f te n c a rry a n u m b e r o f u n a c k n o w le d g e d a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t race . T h e m a r k e t h a s b e e n m u c h less re s p o n s iv e to p a r t ic u la r g ro u p s th a n o th e rs . In d e e d , t h e s u b je c t p o s i t io n o f ‘c o n s u m e r ' h a s b e e n m u c h less av a ila b le to A fr ic a n A m e r ic a n s a n d L a t in o /a s th a n i t h a s b e e n fo r d o m in a n t g ro u p s . T h u s , b e in g a c tu a lly seen as a ‘c o n s u m e r ', as s o m e o n e w h o is a ‘r a t io n a l e c o n o m ic a c to r ' w h o u se s a u d its a n d s t ro n g fo rm s o f a c c o u n ta b il i ty to e v a lu a te o n e s in s t i tu t io n s a n d to m a k e th o u g h tf u l ch o ices , d o e s h a v e p ro g re s s iv e te n d e n c ie s w ith in i t w h e n th is p o s i t io n is c o m p a re d to th e h is to r ie s o f th e w a y s p e o p le o f c o lo r h a v e b e e n so c ia lly c o d e d in th e U SA a n d

Michael W . Apple

388

e ls e w h e re . W h e n p e o p le o f c o lo r a c tiv e ly ta k e o n th is d if fe re n t c o d in g , th e y a re n o t s im p ly b e in g in c o rp o r a te d in to d o m in a n t e c o n o m ic d is c o u rse s a n d re la tio n s ; th e y a re a lso p a r t ly e n g a g e d in a fo rm o f c o u n te r -h e g e m o n ic a c tio n , o n e e m p lo y in g d o m in a n t e c o n o m ic d isc o u rse s to s u b v e r t h is to r ic a lly p o w e r fu l ra c ia liz in g v ie w s th a t h a v e h a d im m e n s e p o w e r in so c ie ty .[6 3 ] L e t u s e x a m in e th is s o m e w h a t m o r e c lo se ly . T h e m o v e m e n t to w a r d c h o ic e a n d th e le g i t im a t io n o f p r iv a te in s t i tu t io n s fo u n d in N C L B m a k e s th is e x a m in a t io n o f e v e n g r e a te r im p o r t .

A t th e o u ts e t , a n d as I s h o w e ls e w h e re (A pp le , E duca ting the ‘R ig h t' W a y ) , r a c e h a s a lw a y s b e e n a k e y p re s e n c e in th e s t ru c tu re s o f fe e lin g s u r ro u n d in g m a rk e ts a n d c h o ic e p la n s in e d u c a tio n . M a n y o f th e s t ro n g e s t p r o p o n e n ts o f v o u c h e rs a n d s im ila r p la n s m a y c la im th a t th e ir p o s i t io n s a re b a se d o n a b e l ie f in th e e ffic ien cy o f m a rk e ts , o n th e fea r o f a s e c u la r iz a t io n o f th e sac red , o r o n th e d a n g e rs o f lo s in g th e v a lu e s a n d b e lie fs th a t g iv e m e a n in g to th e ir lives. (T h e s e la t te r tw o fears a re e sp ec ia lly p r o n o u n c e d a m o n g th e a u th o r i ta r ia n p o p u l is t re lig io u s c o n se rv a tiv e s , w h o a re a m o n g th e s t ro n g e s t p r o p o n e n ts o f b o th v o u c h e rs a n d h o m e sch o o lin g .[6 4 ]) H o w e v e r , h is to r ic a lly , n e i th e r th e e c o n o m ic n o r th e m o ra l e le m e n ts o f th is c r i t iq u e c a n b e to ta l ly s e t a p a r t f ro m th e ir p a r tia l g e n es is in th e s tru g g le s o v e r rac ia l s e g re g a tio n , o v e r b u s in g to a c h ie v e in te g ra t io n , a n d in th e loss o f a fe d e ra l ta x e x e m p tio n b y c o n s e rv a tiv e - a n d u s u a lly W h ite -o n ly - re lig io u s a c a d e m ie s . In sh o r t, th e fea r o f th e ‘ra c ia l o th e r ' h a s p la y e d a s ig n if ic a n t ro le in th is d isc u rs iv e c o n s tr u c t io n o f th e ‘p r o b le m o f th e p u b lic s c h o o l'.[6 5 ]

H a v in g sa id th is , h o w e v e r , th e r e is a lso in c re a s in g s u p p o r t fo r s t ro n g fo rm s o f a c c o u n ta b il i ty a n d fo r v o u c h e r a n d s im ila r c h o ic e p la n s a m o n g ‘m in o r i ty ' g ro u p s . G iv e n th e fa c t th a t so m u c h o f th e c o n s e rv a tiv e t r a d i t io n in th e U S A w a s ex p lic itly s h a p e d b y ra c is t a n d ra c ia liz in g d isc o u rse s a n d p ra c tic e s [66], a n d b y a s tro n g ly a n ti - im m ig ra n t h e r i ta g e as w e ll, a n d g iv e n th e fa c t t h a t m a n y o f th e c u r r e n t n e o - lib e ra l a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e a tta c k s o n th e p u b lic s p h e re h a v e h a d d is p ro p o r t io n a te e ffec ts o n th e g a in s o f p o o r c o m m u n it ie s a n d o n c o m m u n it ie s o f c o lo r , th e e x is te n c e a n d g r o w th o f s u p p o r t a m o n g s o m e m e m b e r s o f d isp o s se s se d g ro u p s is m o r e th a n a l i t t le s trik in g .[6 7 ] A c o m p le x p ro c e s s o f d isc u rs iv e a n d p o s i t io n a l d is a r t ic u la t io n a n d re a r t ic u la t io n is g o in g o n h e re , as d o m in a n t g ro u p s a t t e m p t to p u ll d isp o sse s se d c o lle c tiv itie s u n d e r th e ir o w n le a d e rs h ip a n d d isp o sse s se d g ro u p s th e m s e lv e s a t t e m p t to e m p lo y th e socia l, e c o n o m ic , a n d c u ltu ra l c a p ita l u s u a lly p o sse s se d b y d o m in a n t g ro u p s to g a in c o lle c tiv e p o w e r fo r th e m se lv e s . As w e sh a ll see , th is is n o t o n ly a b o u t n e w -m id d le -c la s s c o n v e rs io n s tra te g ie s , n o r c a n th e la b e l ‘c o n s e rv a tiv e ' b e e m p lo y e d ea sily in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e a c tio n s o f a ll th e d isp o s se s se d g ro u p s w h o d o a lly th e m s e lv e s w i th c o n se rv a tiv e ca u se s w i th o u t a t th e s a m e t im e re d u c in g th e c o m p le x ity o f th e p a r t ic u la r so c ia l fie lds o f p o w e r o n w h ic h th e y o p e ra te .

P e rh a p s th e m o s t in te re s t in g e x a m p le o f t h e p ro c e s s e s o f d is c u rs iv e a n d so c ia l d is a r t ic u la t io n a n d r e a r t ic u la t io n th a t o n e c o u ld f in d to d a y in v o lv e s th e g ro w in g A frican A m e r ic a n (a t le a s t a m o n g som e e le m e n ts o f th e A frican A m e r ic a n c o m m u n ity ) s u p p o r t fo r n e o - lib e ra l p o lic ie s su c h as v o u c h e r p la n s [68] - a n d r e m e m b e r th a t b e h in d N C L B is a m o v e m e n t n o t o n ly to c re a te s t ro n g fo rm s o f re d u c t iv e a c c o u n ta b ili ty , b u t a lso a la rg e r a g e n d a th a t in c lu d e s p ro p o sa ls fo r v o u c h e rs a n d ta x c red its . A k e y in s ta n c e is th e B lack A llia n ce fo r E d u c a tio n a l O p tio n s (B A E O ), a g ro u p o f A frican A m e r ic a n p a re n ts a n d a c tiv is ts t h a t is c h a ire d b y H o w a r d F u lle r, th e fo r m e r s u p e r in te n d e n t o f M ilw a u k e e p u b lic sch o o ls , o n e o f th e m o s t ra c ia lly s e g re g a te d s c h o o l sy s te m s in th e USA. T h e B A E O p ro v id e s v o c a l s u p p o r t , h o ld in g sch o o ls a n d e d u c a to rs a c c o u n ta b le b o th fo r th e i r m a n y fa ilu re s in e d u c a t in g c h ild re n f ro m o p p re s s e d c o m m u n it ie s a n d fo r v o u c h e r p la n s a n d s im ila r n e o ­lib e ra l p ro p o sa ls . I t h a s g e n e r a te d c o n s id e ra b le s u p p o r t w i th in B lack c o m m u n it ie s t h r o u g h o u t th e n a t io n , p a r t ic u la r ly w ith in p o o r in n e r-c ity a reas.

A se n se o f th e la n g u a g e th a t u n d e rp in s th e B A E O 's c o m m itm e n t c a n b e s e e n in th e fo llo w in g q u o te :

O u r c h ild re n a re o u r m o s t p re c io u s r e s o u rc e . I t is o u r re s p o n s ib ili ty to lo v e th e m , n u r tu r e th e m a n d p r o te c t th e m . I t is a lso o u r re s p o n s ib ili ty to e n s u re th a t th e y a re p ro p e r ly e d u c a te d . W i th o u t a g o o d e d u c a tio n , th e y w ill [n o t] h a v e a re a l c h a n c e to e n g a g e in th e p ra c t ic e o f f re e d o m : th e p ro c e s s o f e n g a g in g in th e f ig h t to t r a n s f o r m th e ir w o rld . (h t t p : / / w w . b a e o . o rg )

T h e B A E O 's m is s io n is c lear:

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

389

Michael W . Apple

T h e B lack A llia n ce fo r E d u c a tio n a l O p tio n s is a n a t io n a l , n o n p a r t is a n m e m b e r o rg a n iz a t io n w h o s e m is s io n is to a c tiv e ly s u p p o r t p a re n ta l c h o ic e to e m p o w e r fam ilie s a n d in c re a se e d u c a tio n a l o p tio n s fo r B lack c h ild re n . (h t t p : / / w w w .b a e o .o r g )

T h e u s e o f la n g u a g e h e re is s trik in g . T h e la n g u a g e o f n e o - lib e ra lis m (ch o ic e , p a re n ta l e m p o w e rm e n t , a c c o u n ta b ili ty , in d iv id u a l f re e d o m ) is r e a p p r o p r ia te d a n d s u tu r e d to g e th e r w i th id e a s o f c o lle c tiv e B lack f re e d o m a n d a d e e p c o n c e rn fo r th e c o m m u n i ty 's c h ild re n . T h is c re a te s s o m e th in g o f a ‘h y b r id ' d is c o u rs e t h a t b le n d s to g e th e r m e a n in g s f ro m m u lt ip le p o lit ic a l so u rc e s a n d a g e n d a s . In s o m e w a y s , th is is s im ila r to th e lo n g h is to ry o f c r itica l c u l tu ra l an a ly se s th a t d e m o n s t r a te th a t p e o p le fo rm b r ic o la g e s in th e i r d a ily liv e s a n d c a n e m p lo y la n g u a g e a n d c o m m o d it ie s in w a y s u n d re a m e d o f b y th e o r ig in a l p ro d u c e r s o f th e la n g u a g e a n d p ro d u c ts .[6 9 ]

W h ile th is p ro c e s s o f r e a r t ic u la t io n a n d u s e is im p o r ta n t to n o te , i t is e q u a lly e s se n tia l to r e c o g n iz e s o m e th in g th a t m a k e s th e c re a t iv e b r ic o la g e in w h ic h th e B A E O is e n g a g e d s o m e w h a t m o r e p ro b le m a tic . A v e ry la rg e p o r t io n o f th e g r o u p 's fu n d in g c o m e s d ire c tly f ro m c o n se rv a tiv e s o u rc e s su c h as t h e B ra d ley F o u n d a tio n . T h e B ra d le y F o u n d a tio n , a w e l l -k n o w n s p o n s o r o f c o n s e rv a tiv e c a u se s , h a s n o t o n ly b e e n in th e f o re f ro n t o f p ro v id in g s u p p o r t fo r v o u c h e rs a n d p r iv a t iz a t io n in itia tiv e s , b u t a lso is o n e o f th e g ro u p s th a t p r o v id e d s ig n if ic a n t s u p p o r t fo r H e r r n s te in & M u rra y 's b o o k The Bell Curve [70], a v o lu m e th a t a rg u e d th a t A frican A m e r ic a n s w e re o n a v e ra g e less in te l l ig e n t th a n W h ite s a n d th a t th is w a s g e n e tic in n a tu re .

T h u s , i t w o u ld b e im p o r ta n t to a sk a b o u t th e n a tu r e a n d effec ts o f th e c o n n e c tio n s b e in g m a d e b e tw e e n r ig h tis t id e o lo g ic a l a n d f in an c ia l so u rc e s a n d th e B A E O itself. I t is n o t in c o n s e q u e n tia l th a t n e o - lib e ra l a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e fo u n d a t io n s p ro v id e n o t o n ly fu n d in g b u t a lso m e d ia v is ib ility fo r ‘m in o r i ty ' g ro u p s w h o s u p p o r t - e v e n c r itic a lly - th e i r ag en d a s . T h e g e n e s is o f su c h fu n d in g is n o t in c o n s e q u e n tia l . D o e s th is m e a n th a t g ro u p s su c h as th e B A E O a re s im p ly b e in g m a n ip u la te d b y n e o - lib e ra l a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e fo u n d a t io n s a n d m o v e m e n ts ? A n a n s w e r to th is q u e s t io n is n o t easy , b u t e v e n w i th m y c a u tio n s s ta te d a b o v e i t is c e r ta in ly n o t a s im p le ‘y e s '.

In p u b lic fo ru m s a n d in d iscu ss io n s t h a t T o m P e d ro n i a n d I h a v e h a d w i th s o m e B A E O le a d e rs , th e y h a v e a rg u e d th a t th e y w ill u s e a n y fu n d in g so u rc e s av a ila b le so th a t th e y c a n fo llo w th e ir o w n sp ecific p r o g r a m o f a c tio n . T h e y w o u ld a c c e p t m o n e y f ro m m o r e l ib e ra l so u rc e s ; b u t B ra d le y a n d o th e r c o n s e rv a tiv e fo u n d a tio n s h a v e c o m e f o rw a rd m u c h m o r e read ily .[7 1 ] In th e m in d s o f th e B A E O le a d e rs , th e A frican A m e r ic a n ac tiv is ts a re in c o n tro l , n o t th e c o n s e rv a tiv e fo u n d a tio n s . T h u s , fo r th e B A E O , th e y see th e m s e lv e s as s tra te g ic a lly p o s i t io n in g th e m s e lv e s in o r d e r to g e t fu n d in g f ro m c o n s e rv a tiv e s o u rc e s . W h a t th e y d o w i th th is fu n d in g , su c h as th e ir s t ro n g (a n d w ell- a d v e r t is e d in th e m e d ia ) s u p p o r t fo r v o u c h e r p la n s ( a l th o u g h th is s u p p o r t to o is c o n t in g e n t a n d s o m e tim e s d e p e n d s o n lo c a l p o w e r re la tio n s ) , is w h o lly th e ir d e c is io n . F o r th e m , th e sp ace p ro v id e d b y e d u c a tio n a l m a rk e ts c a n b e r e o c c u p ie d fo r B lack c u ltu ra l a n d / o r n a t io n a l is t p o litic s a n d c a n b e e m p lo y e d to s to p w h a t s e e m s to th e m ( m o re th a n a l i t t le a c c u ra te ly in m y o p in io n ) to b e a w a r o n B lack ch ild re n .

H o w e v e r , w h ile I h a v e a g o o d d e a l o f r e s p e c t fo r a n u m b e r o f th e le a d e rs o f th e B A E O , i t is im p o r ta n t to r e m e m b e r th a t th e y a re n o t th e o n ly o n e s s tra te g ic a lly o rg a n iz in g o n th is so c ia l fie ld o f p o w e r . L ike th e B A E O , g ro u p s a ff ilia ted w ith , say, th e B ra d le y F o u n d a t io n a lso k n o w exactly w h a t th e y a re d o in g a n d k n o w v e ry w e ll h o w to e m p lo y th e a g e n d a s o f th e B A E O fo r th e i r o w n p u rp o s e s , p u rp o s e s t h a t in th e lo n g t e r m o f te n m a y r u n d ire c tly c o u n te r to th e in te re s ts o f th e m a jo r i ty o f th o s e w i th less p o w e r a t b o th th e n a t io n a l a n d re g io n a l lev e ls . Is i t re a lly in th e lo n g ­t e r m in te re s ts o f p e o p le o f c o lo r to b e a ffilia ted w i th th e s a m e g ro u p s w h o p ro v id e d fu n d in g a n d s u p p o r t fo r b o o k s s u c h as H e r r n s te in & M u r ra y 's T he Bell Curve? I th in k n o t , a l th o u g h o n c e a g a in w e n e e d to r e c o g n iz e th e c o m p le x itie s in v o lv e d h e re .

I a m c e r ta in t h a t th is k in d o f q u e s t io n is c o n s ta n tly ra is e d a b o u t th e c o n s e rv a tiv e s ta n c e s ta k e n b y th e p e o p le o f c o lo r w h o h a v e m a d e a llian ces w ith , say , n e o -lib e ra ls a n d n e o c o n s e rv a tiv e s - a n d b y th e ac tiv is ts w i th in t h e B A E O itself. W h e n m e m b e r s o f g ro u p s w h o a re c o n s is te n tly ‘o th e re d ' in th is s o c ie ty s tra te g ic a lly ta k e o n id e n ti t ie s t h a t s u p p o r t d o m in a n t g ro u p s , su c h q u e s t io n in g is n a tu ra l a n d I b e l ie v e e ssen tia l. H o w e v e r , i t is a lso c ru c ia l to r e m e m b e r th a t m e m b e r s o f h is to r ic a lly o p p re s s e d a n d m a rg in a l iz e d g ro u p s h a v e alw ays h a d to a c t o n a t e r r a in th a t is n o t o f th e ir c h o o s in g ; h a v e a lw ay s h a d to a c t s tra te g ic a lly a n d c re a tiv e ly to g a in s o m e m e a s u re o f s u p p o r t f ro m d o m in a n t g ro u p s to a d v a n c e th e ir cau se s.[7 2 ] I t is a lso th e ca se t h a t m o r e re c e n tly , n a t io n a l a n d lo c a l le a d e rs o f th e D e m o c ra t ic P a r ty in th e U S A h a v e to o o f te n a s s u m e d th a t B lack s u p p o r t is s im p ly there, th a t

390

i t d o e s n o t n e e d to b e w o rk e d fo r.[7 3 ] B e c a u se o f th is , w e m a y see th e f u r th e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f ‘u n u s u a l a llia n c e s ' o v e r specific issu es su c h as e d u c a tio n a l p o lic ie s . W h e n th is is c o u p le d w i th s o m e o f th e ta c i t a n d / o r o v e r t s u p p o r t w i th in s o m e c o m m u n it ie s o f c o lo r n o t o n ly fo r v o u c h e r p la n s , b u t a lso fo r an ti-g a y , a n ti-a b o r t io n , p ro -s c h o o l p ra y e r , a n d s im ila r in itia tiv e s , th e s u tu r in g to g e th e r o f s o m e B lack g ro u p s w i th la rg e r c o n s e rv a tiv e m o v e m e n ts o n p a r t ic u la r issu e s is n o t to ta lly su rp ris in g .[7 4 ]

T h e e x is te n c e a n d g r o w in g p o w e r o f c o m m it te d m o v e m e n ts su c h as th e B A E O , th o u g h , d o e s p o in t o u t t h a t w e n e e d to b e c a re fu l a b o u t s te r e o ty p in g g ro u p s w h o m a y p u b lic ly s u p p o r t n e o ­lib e ra l a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e p o lic ie s a n d w h o b e lie v e th a t th in g s su c h as N C L B h o ld p ro m is e as f irs t s tep s to w a r d a m o r e re s p o n s iv e a n d a c c o u n ta b le e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e ss . T h e ir p e rs p e c tiv e s n e e d to b e e x a m in e d c a re fu lly a n d ta k e n se r io u s ly , n o t s im p ly d ism is se d as to ta l ly m is g u id e d , as p e o p le w h o h a v e b e e n d u p e d in to u n th in k in g a c c e p ta n c e o f a h a rm fu l s e t o f id e o lo g ie s . T h e r e a re c o m p lic a te d s tra te g ic m o v e s b e in g m a d e o n a n e q u a lly c o m p le x so c ia l f ie ld o f p o w e r . I m a y - a n d d o - s tro n g ly d isa g re e w i th a n u m b e r o f th e p o s i t io n s th a t g ro u p s s u c h as th e B A E O tak e . H o w e v e r , to a s s u m e th a t th e y a re s im p ly p u p p e ts o f c o n s e rv a tiv e fo rce s is n o t o n ly to b e to o d ism iss iv e o f th e ir o w n a t te m p ts a t so c ia l m a n e u v e r in g , b u t I a lso b e l ie v e th a t i t m a y b e ta c it ly ra c is t as w e ll.

S ay in g th is d o e s n o t m e a n th a t w e n e e d to w e a k e n th e a rg u m e n ts a g a in s t a u d i t c u l tu re s a n d th e m a rk e t iz a t io n a n d p r iv a t iz a t io n o f s c h o o lin g a n d th e la rg e r s o c ie ty th a t I a r t ic u la te d e a rlie r in th is a rtic le . V o u c h e r a n d ta x c re d it p la n s ( th e la t t e r u l t im a te ly m a y a c tu a lly b e m o r e d a n g e ro u s ) w ill still h a v e s o m e e x tre m e ly p ro b le m a t ic e ffec ts in th e lo n g te rm . O n e o f th e m o s t im p o r ta n t effec ts c o u ld b e a dem obiliza tion o f so c ia l m o v e m e n ts w i th in c o m m u n it ie s o f co lo r. S ch o o ls h a v e p la y e d c e n tra l ro le s in th e c r e a t io n o f m o v e m e n ts fo r ju s t ic e . In e s sen ce , r a th e r th a n b e in g p e r ip h e ra l re f le c tio n s o f la rg e r b a t t le s a n d d y n a m ic s , s tru g g le s o v e r s c h o o lin g - o v e r w h a t s h o u ld b e ta u g h t , o v e r th e r e la t io n s h ip b e tw e e n sc h o o ls a n d lo c a l c o m m u n it ie s , o v e r th e v e ry e n d s a n d m e a n s o f th e in s t i tu t io n i ts e lf - h a v e p ro v id e d a c ru c ib le fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f la rg e r so c ia l m o v e m e n ts to w a r d e q u a li ty .[75] T h e s e c o lle c tiv e m o v e m e n ts h a v e tr a n s f o r m e d o u r d e fin itio n s o f r ig h ts , o f w h o s h o u ld h a v e th e m , a n d o f th e ro le o f th e g o v e r n m e n t in g u a ra n te e in g th e s e r ig h ts . W i th o u t o rg a n iz e d , c o m m u n ity -w id e m o b il iz a t io n s , th e s e tr a n s fo rm a t io n s w o u ld n o t h a v e o c c u rre d .

T h is is u n d e r th r e a t c u rre n tly . I h a v e a rg u e d e ls e w h e re th a t d e fin itio n s o f d e m o c ra c y b a s e d o n p o sse s s iv e in d iv id u a lism , o n th e c it iz e n as o n ly a ‘c o n s u m e r ', a re in h e re n t ly g r o u n d e d in a p ro c e ss o f d e ra c in g , d e c lass in g , a n d d e g e n d e r in g .[7 6 ] T h e s e a re th e v e ry g ro u p s w h o h a v e e m p lo y e d s tru g g le s o v e r e d u c a tio n a l access a n d o u tc o m e s to fo r m th e m s e lv e s as se lf-c o n sc io u s a c to rs . I f i t is th e case , as I s tro n g ly b e l ie v e i t is, t h a t i t is th e o rg a n iz e d e ffo rts o f so c ia l m o v e m e n ts th a t u l t im a te ly h a v e le d to th e t r a n s f o r m a t io n o f o u r e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m in m o r e d e m o c ra tic d ire c tio n s[77] - a n d th is h a s b e e n e sp ec ia lly th e ca se fo r m o b il iz a t io n s b y p e o p le w h o h a v e b e e n la b e le d as s o c ie ty 's ‘o th e rs ' - th e lo n g - te rm effec ts o f n e o -lib e ra l d e fin it io n s o f d e m o c ra c y m a y b e t r u ly tra g ic fo r c o m m u n it ie s o f c o lo r (a n d w o rk in g -c la s s g ro u p s) , n o t ‘o n ly ' in in c re a s in g in e q u a lit ie s in sch o o ls[78], b u t a lso in le a d in g to a v e ry re a l lo ss o f th e im p e tu s fo r collective s o lu t io n s to p re s s in g so cia l p ro b le m s . O n c e a u d i t c u l tu re s d is c re d it t h e v e ry id e a o f p u b lic s c h o o lin g , i f all p ro b le m s a re s im p ly ‘s o lv e d ' b y in d iv id u a l ch o ic e s in a m a rk e t , th e n c o lle c tiv e m o b il iz a t io n s t e n d to w i th e r a n d p e rh a p s e v e n d isa p p e a r . G iv e n th e c ru c ia l ro le p la y e d b y o rg a n iz e d m o v e m e n ts s u r ro u n d in g e d u c a t io n in th e fo r m a t io n a n d g r o w th o f m o b il iz a t io n s a m o n g A frican A m e r ic a n s , L a t in o /a s , a n d m a n y o th e r c o m m u n it ie s o f c o lo r a g a in s t th e d e n ia l o f th e ir r ig h ts , th is is n o t s o m e th in g to b e w e lc o m e d . If h is to ry is a n y g u id e h e re , t h e re s u lts w ill n o t b e p le a sa n t. T h u s , a l th o u g h s h o r t - te r m s u p p o r t fo r n e o -lib e ra l a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e p o lic ie s m a y s e e m s tra te g ic a lly w is e to s o m e m e m b e r s o f less p o w e r fu l g ro u p s , a n d m a y in fa c t g e n e r a te s h o r t - te r m m o b il iz a t io n s , I r e m a in d e e p ly w o r r ie d a b o u t w h a t w ill h a p p e n o v e r tim e .[7 9 ] I t is th e lo n g - te rm im p lic a tio n s o f in d iv id u a tin g p ro c e sse s a n d id e o lo g ie s , a n d th e ir e ffec ts o n th e n e c e s s ity o f la rg e r a n d c o n s ta n tly g r o w in g so cia l m o b il iz a t io n s t h a t a im to w a r d s u b s ta n tiv e t r a n s fo rm a t io n s w i th in th e p u b lic sp h e re , t h a t n e e d to b e o f c o n c e rn as w e ll.

O th e r p o in ts s h o u ld b e a d d e d h e re a b o u t w h a t m ig h t b e ca lle d th e p o lit ic a l e c o n o m y o f e v e ry d a y life. I a rg u e d e a rlie r t h a t m a rk e t iz a t io n a n d c o m m o d if ic a t io n , w h e n a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e s h r in k in g o f s ta te re sp o n s ib il i ty , in te n s if ie s th e la b o r o f th e ‘c o n s u m e r '. T h is p ro c e s s re le g a te s to th e in d iv id u a l o r th e fam ily all o f th e ta sk s o f in f o r m a t io n g a th e r in g a n d e v a lu a t io n . T h is o f te n en ta ils a n e x te n s iv e a m o u n t o f w o rk , e sp ec ia lly fo r th o s e c o m m u n it ie s a n d fam ilie s w i th fe w e r

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

391

e c o n o m ic re s o u rc e s , less te c h n ic a l skill, u n d e r - r e s o u rc e d o r c lo se d l ib ra r ie s a n d so c ia l se rv ice c e n te rs , a n d th e e m o tio n a l a n d p h y s ic a l b u rd e n s o f s im p ly p ro v id in g fo r h u m a n n e e d s in a n u n fo rg iv in g e c o n o m y . S ince , as V a n D u n k & D ic k m a n s h o w , th e m a jo r u r b a n a re a s w h e r e m a rk e t iz in g te n d e n c ie s s u c h as v o u c h e rs a re n o w in p la c e a re d o in g a v e ry p o o r jo b o f m a k in g in fo rm a t io n o n sch o o ls , c u rr ic u la , te a c h in g , e tc . easily av a ila b le to th e p u b lic a n d e sp ec ia lly to p o o r p e rs o n s o f c o lo r [80], th is p u ts th e s e ‘c o n s u m e rs ' a t a s e r io u s d is a d v a n ta g e .

E v e n w i th th e s e d ifficu ltie s , th e r e is s o m e th in g m u c h m o r e c o m p lic a te d id e o lo g ic a lly th a n m e e ts th e e y e g o in g o n h e re . As I n o te d e a rlie r, a n d as P e d ro n i a n d I h a v e d isc u sse d a t g re a te r le n g th [81], w h e n p e rs o n s o f c o lo r ta k e u p th e p o s i t io n o f ‘r a t io n a l e c o n o m ic a c to r ', o f c o n s u m e r , th is d o e s h a v e c o u n te r -h e g e m o n ic p o ss ib ilitie s a n d d o e s p ro v id e fo r o p p o r tu n i t ie s fo r d if fe re n t so c ia l c o d in g s . H o w e v e r , w h ile n o t in g th is - a n d i t m u s t b e n o te d - p o ss ib ilitie s a re j u s t th a t, p o ss ib ilitie s . T h e y r e q u ir e o b je c tiv e m a te r ia l c o n d it io n s a n d re s o u rc e s in p e o p le 's l iv e d e n v iro n m e n ts in o rd e r fo r th e m to b e a c te d u p o n . S u c h p o ss ib ilitie s m a y n o t b e ea s ily a c te d u p o n u n d e r th e c o n d it io n s o f n e o - lib e ra l r e s t ru c tu r in g in th e e c o n o m y , in so c ia l a n d c u ltu ra l se rv ice s, h e a l th ca re , a n d in so m u c h m o r e in u r b a n a n d ru ra l c o m m u n it ie s p o p u la te d b y th o s e w h o a re s e e n as th e c o n s t i tu t iv e o u ts id e rs in th is so c ie ty .[8 2 ]

O n P ossib ilitiesI b e g a n th is a r tic le w i th a c r itica l o v e rv ie w o f c e r ta in te n d e n c ie s w ith in o u r so c ie tie s . I p o in te d to th e s te a d y g r o w th o f n e o -lib e ra l r e s t ru c tu r in g s o f in s t i tu t io n s a n d id e n tit ie s , a n d to th e h a rd a n d c re a tiv e id e o lo g ic a l w o rk th a t su c h tr a n s fo rm a t io n s r e q u ire . In th e p ro c e ss , I n o te d th a t c o m m o d if ic a t io n a n d a u d i t c u l tu re s te n d to re in fo rc e e a c h o th e r a n d th a t th e s e p ro c e s s e s a re p la y e d o u t o n m u lt ip le te r ra in s , w i th e d u c a t io n b e in g o n e o f th e m o s t s ig n ifican t.

T h e r e h a s b e e n e x c e p tio n a l w o rk d o n e o n th e w a y s in w h ic h class w o rk s in a l te re d c o n te x ts s u c h as th e se . F o r ex a m p le , m id d le -c la ss p a re n ts o f te n h a v e a s to re o f c u l tu ra l a n d so c ia l c a p ita l th a t e n a b le s th e m to e m p lo y su c h th in g s as a u d its a n d ‘c h o ic e ' in e d u c a t io n as p a r t o f c o m p le x c o n v e r s io n s tra te g ie s th a t g u a ra n te e th e ir o w n c h ild re n 's a d v a n ta g e .[8 3 ] T h e r e is a lso a n e m e rg in g b o d y o f w o r k o n h o w th is is r e la te d to g e n d e re d la b o r , p a r t ic u la r ly th e w o r k o f m o th e rs .[8 4 ] H o w e v e r , th e r e h a s b e e n less a t te n t io n p a id to th e w a y s in w h ic h m e m b e r s o f h is to r ic a lly o p p re s s e d ‘m in o r i ty ' g ro u p s , p a r t ic u la r ly p o o r p e rs o n s o f co lo r, strategically d e a l w i th issu es o f a c c o u n ta b ili ty , m a rk e t iz a t io n , p r iv a t iz a t io n , a n d ‘c h o ic e ' in th e U SA .[85]

P a r t o f m y in te re s t in th is a r tic le h a s b e e n to p ro v id e a c o n te x t fo r a s e r io u s d isc u ss io n b o th o f t h e m e a n in g a n d th e effec ts o f su c h s tra te g ic a c tio n s o n th e p a r ts o f th o s e w h o m u s t a c t o n a te r r a in in w h ic h h is to r ic a lly g r o u n d e d p o w e r re la tio n s a n d s tru g g le s ta k e o n e v e n m o r e c o m p lic a te d fo rm s . T h e y r e q u ir e a m u c h m o r e n u a n c e d re a d in g th a n o u r u s u a l c r itic a l ap p ra isa ls a re a p t to do . W e m u s t c o n t in u e to e n g a g e in th e c ritica l w o r k o f d e ta il in g th e w a y s in w h ic h c o n s e rv a tiv e m o d e r n iz a t io n is r e s t ru c tu r in g o u r liv e s a n d in s t i tu t io n s . B u t th is n e e d s to b e d o n e w i th a th o r o u g h , a n d h is to r ic a lly g ro u n d e d , u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e n e e d to b r o a d e n th e ‘w e ' a n d , h e n c e , to r e c o g n iz e th e c o n tra d ic to ry a n d m u lt ip le d a ily re a litie s t h a t g o v e r n th e s e effects.

In th is a r tic le I h a v e a lso d is c u s se d s o m e o f th e w a y s in w h ic h c e r ta in e le m e n ts o f c o n se rv a tiv e m o d e r n iz a t io n h a v e h a d a n im p a c t o n e d u c a t io n a t m u l t ip le lev e ls . I h a v e p o in te d to th e g r o w th o f c o m m o d ify in g lo g ic s a n d th e a u d i t c u l tu re t h a t a c c o m p a n ie s th e m . In th e p ro c e ss , I h a v e h ig h lig h te d a n u m b e r o f d a n g e rs th a t w e c u r r e n t ly face.

H o w e v e r , I h a v e a lso u r g e d u s n o t to a s s u m e th a t th e s e c o n d it io n s c a n b e r e d u c e d to th e a u to m a tic w o rk in g s o u t o f s im p le fo rm u la s . W e n e e d a m u c h m o r e n u a n c e d a n d c o m p le x p ic tu re o f c lass re la t io n s a n d class p ro je c ts to u n d e r s ta n d w h a t is h a p p e n in g - a n d a m o r e se n s itiv e a n d h is to r ic a lly g r o u n d e d an a ly s is o f th e p la c e o f ra c ia l d y n a m ic s in th e v is io n b o th o f ‘a w o r ld o u t o f c o n tro l ' t h a t n e e d s to b e p o lic e d a n d o f ‘c u ltu ra l p o l lu t io n ' th a t th r e a te n s ‘re a l k n o w le d g e ' in th e g r o w th o f m a rk e ts a n d a u d i t c u ltu re s . I h a v e a lso u r g e d u s to l is te n c a re fu lly to t h e c r it iq u e s c o m in g f ro m c o lle c tiv e v o ic e s w i th in o p p re s s e d c o m m u n it ie s a n d n o t to a s s u m e th a t o n e c a n r e a d o f f th e ir p o s i t io n s b y r e d u c in g th e ir a g e n c y to s im p ly e x p re ss io n s o f r ig h tis t id e o lo g ic a l fo rm u la s . B e c o m in g m o r e n u a n c e d a b o u t s u c h c o n s t i tu t iv e d y n a m ic s w ill n o t g u a ra n te e th a t w e ca n in te r r u p t th e te n d e n c ie s u p o n w h ic h I h a v e fo c u s e d h e re . B u t i t is o n e e s se n tia l s te p in u n d e r s ta n d in g th e g e n e s is o f w h a t is a t s ta k e in a s e r io u s p o litic s o f in te r ru p t io n .

Michael W . Apple

392

I f th e is su e o f in te r r u p t io n is n o t to o n ly b e a n a c a d e m ic o n e , h o w e v e r , i t r e q u ire s s o m e th in g else . W e n e e d to th in k m o r e c le a rly a b o u t w h a t n e e d s to b e d e fe n d e d a n d w h a t n e e d s to b e c h a n g e d . J u s t as M a rx r e m in d e d u s t h a t c a p ita lism m ig h t a c tu a lly b e a n im p r o v e m e n t o v e r fe u d a lism , w e m a y n e e d to ta k e s e r io u s ly th e p o ss ib il i ty t h a t s o m e o f th e in tu i t io n s b e h in d n e w m a n a g e r ia l im p u lse s a n d a u d its m a y a lso c o n s t i tu te a n im p r o v e m e n t o v e r p re v io u s v is io n s o f e d u c a tio n a l p o lic ie s a n d p ra c tic e s . L e t m e say m o r e a b o u t th is .

T h e r e is a c o m p lic a te d a n d s o m e tim e s c o n tra d ic to ry p o litic s a t w o r k h e re . S ch o o ls a n d u n iv e rs it ie s h a v e b e e n v e ry re a l s ites o f c u l tu ra l co n flic t: o v e r c o lle c tiv e m e m o r y , o v e r w h a t c o u n ts as le g i t im a te k n o w le d g e , o v e r v o ic e a n d p a r t ic ip a t io n , a n d o v e r th e ir so c ia l a n d e d u c a tio n a l a im s a n d effec ts . T a k e th e u n iv e rs ity , fo r ex am p le . I t h a s a lso b e e n a s ite o f c o n s id e ra b le c o n flic t o v e r w h o c a n a n d c a n n o t g o to it. T h e in te n s e s tru g g le s o v e r th e u n iv e rs i ty 's g e n d e re d a n d r a c e d h ir in g p ra c tic e s , o n e s in w h ic h i t h a s ta k e n d e c a d e s to e v e n b e g in to a d d re ss th e c u ltu ra l a n d so cia l im b a la n c e s in s e r io u s w a y s , s ta n d as e lo q u e n t w itn e s s to th e c o n t in u in g n a tu r e o f th e p ro b le m s th a t n e e d to b e faced . B eca u se o f th is , s o m e fo rm s o f p u b lic a c c o u n ta b il i ty - to a s k u n iv e rs it ie s to p ro v id e e v id e n c e th a t th e y a re ta k in g s e r io u s ly th e ir so c ia l re sp o n s ib il i t ie s c o n c e rn in g h ir in g p ra c tic e s , fo r e x a m p le - w e re a n d c o n t in u e to b e p a r t ia l v ic to rie s . A n d th e s a m e n e e d s to b e sa id a b o u t th e d e m a n d fo r fo rm s o f a c c o u n ta b il i ty in o u r p u b lic sch o o ls .

F u r th e rm o r e , e le m e n ta ry , m id d le , a n d s e c o n d a ry sch o o ls , a n d in s t i tu t io n s o f h ig h e r e d u c a t io n a re in c re a s in g ly c o m p le x p la ce s f in an c ia lly a n d o rg a n iz a tio n a lly . B eca u se o f th is as w e ll, (dem ocratically in c lin ed ) m a n a g e m e n t skills a re in d e e d n e c e s sa ry . B y n o t ta k in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d r e f in e m e n t o f th e s e skills a n d d is p o s itio n s se r io u s ly , w e m a y b e c re a t in g a sp a c e th a t w ill p re d ic ta b ly b e filled w i th th o s e c o m m it te d to n e o - lib e ra l a n d n e w -m a n a g e r ia l im p u lse s . T h e is su e is n o t w h e th e r o r n o t w e n e e d a c c o u n ta b ili ty , b u t th e k in d s o f lo g ic s o f a c c o u n ta b ili ty , a n d th e q u e s t io n o f a c c o u n ta b il i ty to w h o m , th a t te n d to n o w g u id e th e p ro c e s s o f p u b lic sc h o o ls a n d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . A n a l te rn a t iv e to th e e x te rn a l im p o s i t io n o f ta rg e ts , p e r f o r m a n c e c r ite r ia , a n d q u a n tif ia b le o u tc o m e s - b u t o n e th a t still ta k e s th e is su e o f p u b lic a c c o u n ta b il i ty s e r io u s ly - n e e d s to a n d c a n b e b u ilt.[8 6 ] H o w e v e r , u n lik e c u r r e n t fo rm s , i t w o u ld n e e d to re s t , a n d to b e c o n s ta n tly re b u il t , u p o n th e c o n s t i tu t io n o f ‘p ro c e ss e s o f [c ritica l] d e l ib e ra t io n th a t e n a b le u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d a g re e m e n t o u t o f d iffe rin g a c c o u n ts o f p u b lic p u r p o s e a n d s e rv ic e '.[87] A k e y h e re , o f c o u rse , is w h a t a n d w h o c o u n ts as th e ‘p u b lic ', a n d w h o s e v o ic e s a re h e a rd .

As N a n c y F ra s e r a n d C h a r le s M ills h a v e a rg u e d a n d as I n o te d e a rlie r, t h e p u b lic s p h e re h a s h is to r ic a lly b e e n c o n s tru c te d as a g e n d e r e d a n d ra c e d sp a c e .[88] T h e p re v a il in g d e fin itio n s o f ‘p u b lic ' a n d ‘p r iv a te ' w e r e b a s e d o n a p a r t ic u la r a s s e m b la g e o f a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t w h o w a s a le g i t im a te p a r t ic ip a n t a n d w h o w a s n o t. B e c a u se o f th is , t h e s im p le a s s e r t io n th a t p u b lic sch o o ls a n d th e u n iv e rs i ty p la y c ru c ia l ro le s b a s e d o n th e ir im p o r ta n c e as p a r t o f th e p u b lic s p h e re is a n in su f f ic ie n t d e fe n se . Y es, th e y n e e d to b e d e fe n d e d a n d th e p u b lic s p h e re is c e r ta in ly u n d e r a tta ck . B u t, w h a t k in d o f p u b lic sp h e re (s ) d o w e h a v e in m in d ? H o w s h o u ld ‘i t ' b e re c o n s t i tu te d ? H o w w o u ld th is r e c o n s t i tu t io n b e in te g ra te d in to w h a t F ra s e r calls a p o litic s o f r e d is t r ib u t io n a n d a p o litic s o f re co g n itio n ? [8 9 ] In m o r e e v e ry d a y w o rd s , g iv e n th e c r itic ism s th a t h a v e b e e n m a d e o f th e w a y s in w h ic h th e p u b lic s p h e re in g e n e ra l a n d sc h o o ls a n d u n iv e rs it ie s in p a r t ic u la r h a v e a c tu a lly o p e ra te d o v e r t im e , w h a t n e e d s to c h a n g e to ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e s e c ritic ism s?

W h a t w e s h o u ld n o t b e d o in g is d e fe n d in g all o f th e a c tu a lly e x is tin g p ra c tic e s o f o u r p u b lic sch o o ls a n d u n iv e rs it ie s , s in ce m a n y o f th e s e m a y b e d is c r im in a to ry , c lassist, sex ist, rac is t, o r h a v e a h is to ry th a t is b a s e d in e litism . In s te a d , w e m u s t a sk w h a t specifically d o w e w is h to d e fen d? In a sk in g th is q u e s t io n , as I m e n t io n e d e a rlie r , w e m a y n e e d to re c o g n iz e th a t th e r e a re e le m e n ts o f g o o d se n se as w e ll as b a d se n se in th e c r itic ism s th a t a re m a d e a b o u t s ch o o ls a n d u n iv e rs it ie s . T h e sp ace o f c r it ic ism h as b e e n ta k e n u p b y n e o -lib e ra l c la im s a n d m a n a g e r ia l im p u lse s . B u t th is d o e s n o t m e a n th a t o u r e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m d id n o t n e e d to c h a n g e o r t h a t a s im p le r e tu r n to th e p re v io u s fo rm a n d c o n te n t o f e d u c a t io n is a n y w h e re n e a r a su ffic ien t s e t o f p o lic ies .

L e t u s b e h o n e s t . I f a s im p le r e tu r n to p a s t p ra c tic e s is n e i th e r p o s s ib le n o r w ise , i t is h a rd to sp ec ify in a d v a n c e o th e r th a n in b r o a d s tro k e s th e e x a c t c h a ra c te r o f th e k in d s o f m o d e ls o f s t ru c tu re s , p ra c tic e s , a n d d e l ib e ra tiv e a g e n c y th a t s h o u ld g u id e p u b lic life in s id e a n d o u ts id e o f o u r e le m e n ta ry , m id d le , a n d s e c o n d a ry sc h o o ls a n d in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . As R a y m o n d W illia m s r e m in d e d u s , th e ‘c o m m o n ' h a s to b e c o n t in u o u s ly b u ilt , s in ce w h a t c o u n ts as th e c o m m o n is th e n e v e r - e n d in g p ro c e s s o f c r itica l d e l ib e ra t io n o v e r th e v e ry q u e s t io n o f th e c o m m o n itself.[90] T h is

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

393

m o r e c ritic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g is e v a c u a te d u n d e r th e aeg is o f th e lo g ic s o f m a rk e ts a n d a u d its , s in ce w e d o k n o w th a t w h a t is c u r r e n t ly b e in g b u i l t / im p o s e d is o f te n d e s tru c t iv e , e v e n in its o w n te rm s o f a s s u m in g th a t e s ta b lis h in g m a rk e ts a n d a u d its w ill r e s to r e re s p o n s iv e n e s s a n d e v e n tru s t .

S tu a r t R a n s o n s u m m a riz e s th e s e a rg u m e n ts in t h e fo l lo w in g w ay:T h is n e o - lib e ra l r e g im e c a n n o t re a liz e its p u r p o s e o f in s t i tu t io n a l a c h ie v e m e n t a n d p u b lic t ru s t . A c h ie v e m e n t g ro w s o u t o f th e in te rn a l g o o d s o f m o t iv a t io n to im p ro v e ( th a t fo llo w s re c o g n i t io n a n d th e m u tu a l d e l ib e ra t io n o f p u rp o s e ) r a th e r th a n th e e x te rn a l im p o s i t io n o f q u a n tif ia b le ta rg e ts , w h ile p u b lic t r u s t fo llo w s d e l ib e ra t io n o f c o m m o n p u r p o s e o u t o f d if fe re n c e a n d d isco rd , r a th e r th a n th e fo rce s o f c o m p e t i t io n th a t o n ly c re a te a h ie ra rc h y o f c lass a d v a n ta g e a n d ex c lu s io n .[9 1 ]

R a n s o n is n o t s a n g u in e a b o u t th e p o s s ib ility o f b u ild in g a p u b lic s p h e re t h a t b o th c h a lle n g e s th e n e o -lib e ra l a n d n e o c o n s e rv a t iv e c o n s tr u c t io n o f a n a u d i t c u l tu re a n d c o m m o d if ic a t io n a n d g o e s b e y o n d th e l im its o f o ld e r v e rs io n s o f w h a t c o u n ts as th e p u b lic s p h e re . H o w e v e r , h e d o e s a r tic u la te a se n se o f w h a t is r e q u ir e d to d o so. A r e c o n s t i tu te d v is io n o f th e p u b lic a n d a s e t o f p ra c tic e s a n d s t ru c tu re s t h a t s u p p o r t i t a re g r o u n d e d in th e fo llo w in g :

T r u s t a n d a c h ie v e m e n t c a n o n ly e m e rg e in a f r a m e w o r k o f p u b lic a c c o u n ta b il i ty t h a t e n a b le s d if fe re n t a c c o u n ts o f p u b lic p u r p o s e a n d p ra c t ic e to b e d e l ib e ra te d in a d e m o c ra t ic p u b lic sp h e re : c o n s t i tu te d to in c lu d e d iffe ren c e , e n a b le p a r t ic ip a t io n , v o ic e a n d d is se n t, th r o u g h to c o lle c tiv e ju d g m e n t a n d d e c is io n , t h a t is in t u r n a c c o u n ta b le to th e p u b lic .[9 2 ]

S u c h a v is io n is n o t s im p ly u to p ia n . In d e e d , ta k e th e h is to ry o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . T h is h is to ry - f ro m e a rly m e c h a n ic s in s t i tu te s to ‘p e o p le 's u n iv e rs i t ie s ', to th e c o n s tru c t io n o f co lleg es th a t w e re a n d a re o rg a n ic to h is to r ic a lly B lack c o m m u n it ie s a n d s tru g g le s , to th e m a n y a t te m p ts a t c r e a t in g c lo se r c o o p e ra tiv e c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n u n iv e rs it ie s a n d in p a r t ic u la r te a c h e r e d u c a t io n p ro g ra m s a n d c u ltu ra lly , p o litic a lly , a n d e c o n o m ic a lly d isp o s se s se d g ro u p s [93] - su g g e s ts t h a t th e r e is a r ic h s to re h o u s e o f k n o w le d g e o n p o ss ib ilitie s fo r d o in g th is . B u t th is r e q u ire s th e r e s to r a t io n o f m e m o r y . T h u s , h is to r ic a l w o r k is a b so lu te ly e s se n tia l i f w e a re to g o fo rw a rd . H e re I d o n o t m e a n a n o s ta lg ic lo n g in g fo r a n im a g in e d p a st; b u t a n h o n e s t a p p ra isa l o f th e lim its a n d p o ss ib ilitie s o f w h a t h a s b e e n d o n e b e fo re . A n d h e re w e n e e d to l is te n to a m u c h b r o a d e r a r ra y o f v o ic e s , in c lu d in g P a u lo F re ire , M iles H o r to n , W .E .B . D u B o is , C a r te r W o o d s o n , a n d th e v o ic e s o f th e th o u s a n d s o f te a c h e rs ( m o s t o f w h o m w e re a n d a re w o m e n ) a n d c o m m u n i ty ac tiv is ts w i th in th e m u lt ip le o p p re s s e d c o m m u n it ie s w i th in th is n a t io n w h o s tru g g le d to b u i ld a n e d u c a t io n th a t w a s re s p o n s iv e to th e liv e s a n d h o p e s o f th e i r s tu d e n ts .

T h e ta s k is n o t o n ly h is to r ic a l, h o w e v e r . T h e r e a re c o n c re te e x a m p le s o f sy s te m ic e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m in a n u m b e r o f n a t io n s - in p a r t ic u la r in P o r to A le g re , B razil. T h e re , th e su ccesses s u r ro u n d in g th e ‘c it iz e n sc h o o l ' a n d th e p ro c e s s o f p a r t ic ip a to ry b u d g e t in g p r o v id e p o w e r fu l in s ta n c e s o f w h a t c a n b e d o n e to b u ild a n e d u c a t io n th a t ta k e s th e c o m p le x itie s o f c lass, race , g e n d e r , a n d o th e r so c ia l p o s i t io n in g s s e r io u s ly a n d e n h a n c e s th e p r e s e n t a n d f u tu r e liv e s o f t h e le a s t a d v a n ta g e d p e o p le o f a c o m m u n ity .[9 4 ] W h a t is h a p p e n in g in P o r to A le g re a lso d e m o n s tr a te s s o m e th in g else . B y re v e rs in g th e in te rn a t io n a l p a t te r n s o f w h o is th e te a c h e r a n d w h o is th e ta u g h t - b y h a v in g th e S o u th te a c h th e N o r th a b o u t ‘w h a t w o rk s ' in p o w e r fu l m o d e ls o f s c h o o l r e f o r m - w e a re a lso c h a lle n g in g th e m a n n e r in w h ic h in f o r m a t io n f lo w s f ro m th e im p e r ia l c e n te r to th e su p p o se d ly less a d v a n c e d p e r ip h e ry .

T h e re sp o n s ib il i t ie s a n d o p p o r tu n i t ie s d o n o t e n d th e re . U n d o u b te d ly , w i th in e a c h a n d e v e ry in s t i tu t io n o f e d u c a t io n a t a ll lev e ls , w i th in th e c rev ice s a n d c rack s so to sp eak , th e r e a re c o u n te r - h e g e m o n ic p ra c t ic e s b e in g b u i l t a n d d e fe n d e d . B u t th e y a re to o o f te n is o la te d f ro m e a c h o th e r a n d n e v e r g e t o rg a n iz e d in to c o h e r e n t m o v e m e n ts a n d s tra te g ie s . P a r t o f th e ta s k is to m a k e p u b lic th e su ccesses in c o n te s t in g th e c o n tro l o v e r c u rr ic u la , p e d a g o g y , a n d e v a lu a t io n - o v e r all o f o u r w o rk . [95] W h ile p u b lic ‘s to ry te l l in g ' m a y n o t b e su ffic ien t, i t p e r fo rm s a n im p o r ta n t fu n c tio n . It k e ep s a liv e a n d r e m in d s o u rs e lv e s o f th e v e ry p o s s ib ility o f d if fe re n c e in a n ag e o f au d its , c o m m o d if ic a t io n , a n d d is re sp ec t.

W e h a v e su cce ss fu l m o d e ls fo r d o in g th is , su c h as th e c ru c ia l d iscu ss io n s o f re s p e c tfu l a n d su cce ss fu l p e d a g o g ic w o r k d o n e b y m y c o lle a g u e G lo ria L ad son -B illing s .[96 ] I m p o r ta n t re s o u rc e s c a n a lso b e fo u n d in th e c r itica l e d u c a t io n jo u r n a l R e th in k in g Schools a n d in th e b o o k D em ocratic Schools.[97] In th a t b o o k , J a m e s B ean e a n d I s a w o u r ro le as re s e a rc h e rs v e ry d iffe ren tly . W e a c te d

Michael W . Apple

394

as ‘s e c re ta r ie s ' fo r so c ia lly c ritica l e d u c a to rs a n d m a d e p u b lic th e ir s to r ie s o f b u ild in g c u rr ic u la a n d p e d a g o g ie s th a t e x p re ss ly e m b o d ie d R a n s o n 's v is io n o f a r e c o n s t i tu te d p u b lic s p h e re b a s e d o n d iffe ren c e , p a r t ic ip a t io n , v o ic e , a n d d issen t. T h e b o o k w e n t o n to sell h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s o f co p ie s in m u lt ip le la n g u a g e s . W h ile D em ocratic Schools w a s a b o u t p r im a ry , m id d le , a n d s e c o n d a ry sch o o ls , a n d c a n p ro v id e im p o r ta n t e x e m p la rs o f h o w e d u c a t io n b a s e d o n ‘th ic k ' d e m o c ra c y ca n a c tu a lly w o rk in re a l sc h o o ls in re a l c o m m u n it ie s , i t a lso p o in ts to th e w a y s in w h ic h su c h s tra te g ic in te r r u p t io n s c a n p r o c e e d in o th e r in s t i tu t io n a l c o n te x ts .

T h is , th e n , is a n o th e r ta sk . C a n w e , to o , a c t as s e c re ta rie s fo r s o m e o f o u r c o lle a g u e s in e d u c a t io n a n d fo r th e ac tiv is ts in m u lt ip le c o m m u n it ie s , m a k in g p u b lic th e ir p a rtia l , b u t still su ccessfu l, re s is ta n c e s to th e re g im e o f r e g u la t io n th a t w e a re c u r r e n t ly ex p e rien c in g ? T h e n a rra t iv e s o f th e i r (o u r ) p o l i t ic a l /p e d a g o g ic liv e s c a n b e a r w itn e s s to th e p o ss ib il i ty o f ta k in g s tep s to w a r d b u ild in g a r e c o n s t i tu te d p u b lic s p h e re w ith in th e sp ace s in w h ic h w e liv e a n d w o rk . A n d c a n w e c o n s ta n tly h o ld o u r d e fin itio n s o f w h o th e ‘w e ' is u p to c ritica l s c ru t in y so th a t i t b e c o m e s a m o r e d e c e n te re d u n i ty t h a t b u ild s m u lt ip le m o v e m e n ts t h a t c h a lle n g e th e n e o -lib e ra l, n e o c o n s e rv a tiv e , a n d n e w -m a n a g e r ia l im p u lse s th a t s ta n d b e h in d N C L B ?

N o tes[1] Jack Jennings (2003) F rom th e W h ite H o u se to th e School H ouse, in W illiam L ow e Boyd & D ebra

M itetzky (Eds) American Educational Governance on Trial, pp. 291-309 (Chicago: U n iversity o f Chicago Press).

[2] M y descrip tion h e re draw s on Jennings' clear exposition o f th e m ajo r elem ents o f N o C hild Left Behind. See Jennings, F rom the W h ite H o use to th e School H ouse , pp. 299-302.

[3] M ary Lee Sm ith, w ith L inda M iller-Kahn, W alte r H einecke & Patricia F. Jarvis (2004) Political Spectacle and the Fate o f American Schools (N ew York: R outledgeFalm er).

[4] M ichael W . A pple (2001) Educating the ‘R ight' W ay: markets, standards, God, and inequality, 2nd Edn. (N ew York: R outledge); M ichael W . Apple (2006) ‘W e A re th e N ew O ppressed ': gender, cu lture , and the w o rk o f h o m e schooling, in M ichael W . A pple & K risten L. Buras (Eds) The Subaltern Speak: curriculum, power, and educational struggles (N ew York: R outledge).

[5] M ichael W . A pple (2000) Official Knowledge: democratic education in a conservative age, 2nd edn (N ew York: R outledge).

[6] A ngela V alenzuela (Ed.) (2005) Leaving Children Behind: how ‘Texas-style' accountability fails Latino youth (Albany: S tate U niversity o f N ew Y ork Press). See also Linda M cN eil (2000) The Contradictions o f School Reform (N ew York: R outledge); Pau line L ipm an (2004) High Stakes Education (N ew York: Routledge).

[7] M ichael W . A pple (in press) W h a t C an W e L earn fro m Texas ab o u t N o C hild Left Behind?Educational Policy.

[8] A ngela V alenzuela (2005) A ccoun tability and th e P rivatization A genda, in V alenzuela, Leaving Children Behind, pp. 263-294.

[9] Apple, Educating the ‘R ight' W ay.[10] Apple, Official Knowledge; Apple, Educating the ‘R ight' Way; M ichael W . A pple et al (2003) The State and

the Politics ofKnowledge (N ew York: R outledge). T his vo lu m e also pays particu lar a tten tio n to a fo u rth g roup , th e au th o rita rian popu lis t conservative evangelical m ov em en t, and a g row ing p resence in the struggles over educational policy and practice.

[11] Eric F on er (1998) The Story o f American Freedom (N ew York: N orton).[12] See M ichael W . A pple (1996) Cultural Politics and Education (N ew York: T eachers C ollege Press);

L aw rence L evine (1996) The Opening o f the American Mind: canon, culture, and history (Boston: Beacon Press); Apple, Official Knowledge; A m y B inder (2002) Contentious Curricula (Princeton: P rinceton U niversity Press); M ichael W . A pple (2004) Ideology and Curriculum, 3rd edn (N ew York: R outledge).

[13] Ira Shor (1992) Empowering Education (Chicago: U niversity o f C hicago Press); M ichael W . A pple & Jam es A. B eane (Eds) (1999) Democratic Schools (Buckingham : O p en U niversity Press); Stanley A ron ow itz (2000) The Knowledge Factory (Boston: B eacon Press); M cNeil, The Contradictions o f School Reform ; L ipm an, High Stakes Education.

[14] Apple, Educating the ‘R ight ' Way; Sm ith et al, Political Spectacle.

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

395

Michael W . Apple

[15] Apple, The State and the Politics o f Knowledge.[16] Bob Jessop (2002) The Future o f the Capitalist State (Cam bridge: Polity Press).[17] C olin Leys (2003) Market-driven Politics: neoliberal democracy and the public interest, p. 3 (N ew York:

Verso).[18] Jo h n C hubb & T e rry M oe (1990) Politics, Markets, and American Schools (W ashington: Brookings

Institu tion). See also Sheila S laughter & L arry Leslie (1999) Academic Capitalism (Baltim ore: Johns H opkins U niversity Press); Sheila S laughter & G ary R hoades (2004) Academic Capitalism and the New Economy (Baltim ore: Jo hn s H opkins U niversity Press); and R obert R hoads & Carlos A lberto T orres (Eds) (2006) The University, State, and Market: the political economy o f globalization in the Americas (Stanford: S tan fo rd U niversity Press).

[19] Leys, Market-driven Politics, p. 4.[20] Ibid.[21] See Em ily V an D u nk & A nneliese D ickm an (2003) School Choice and the Question o f Accountability (N ew

H aven: Yale U niversity Press) fo r h o w this w orks, and does n o t w ork , in plans to m arketize education.

[22] Apple, Official Knowledge; Leys, Market-driven Politics, p. 4.[23] Leys, Market-driven Politics, p. 4.[24] Jü rg en H aberm as (1971) Knowledge and Human Interests (Boston: B eacon Press).[25] Apple, Educating the ‘R ight' Way; Jessop, The Future o f the Capitalist State; Apple, The State and the Politics

o f Knowledge.[26] Leys, Market-driven Politics, pp. 35-36.[27] Ibid., p. 42; See also M ichael B. Katz (2001)The Price o f Citizenship (N ew York: M etropo litan Books);

D avid Shipler (2004) The W orking Poor (N ew York: Knopf).[28] M ark O lssen (1996) In D efense o f th e W elfare State and o f Publicly P rovided E ducation , Journal o f

Education Policy, 11, p. 340.[29] Apple, Educating the ‘R ight' W ay.[30] Leys, Market-driven Politics, p. 70.[31] Ibid.[32] Ibid., p. 71.[33] Ibid., p. 73.[34] D aniel L iston & K enneth Z e ich ner (1991) Teacher Education and the Social Conditions o f Schooling (N ew

York: R outledge); Apple, Educating the ‘R ight' Way; D ale Johnson , B onnie Jo hnson , S tephen Farenga, & D aniel Ness (2005) Trivializing Teacher Education (Lanham , M D: R ow m an & Littlefield).

[35] Jo h n C larke & Jan e t N ew m an (1997) The Managerial State (T housand Oaks: Sage).[36] O f course, this is a d ifferentia ted experience. In th e USA, superm arkets are less ap t to ev en be fo und in

inner-city ne ig hb o rh o o ds p op u la ted by p o o r persons o f color.[37] S tephen Ball (1994) Education Reform (Buckingham : O p en U niversity Press); Apple, Educating the

‘R ight' W ay.[38] Leys, Market-driven Politics, p. 108.[39] M ichael W . A pple (1995) Education and Power (N ew York: R outledge); Apple, Official Knowledge.[40] Apple, Educating the ‘R ight' Way; L ipm an, High Stakes Education.[41] See D avid H o g an (1982) E ducation and Class F orm ation , in M ichael W . A pple (Ed.) Cultural and

Economic Reproduction in Education (Boston: R outledge and Kegan Paul); Apple, Official Knowledge. For the w ays in w h ich race has b een and is a crucial dynam ic, see C harles Mills (1997) The Racial Contract (Ithaca: C ornell U niversity Press); G loria Ladson-Billings & D avid G illborn (Eds) (2004) The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in M ulticultural Education (London: R outledgeFalm er); M ichelle Fine, Lois W eis, L inda Pow ell & L. M un W o n g (Eds) (2005) O ffW hite, 2nd ed n (N ew York: R outledge); C am eron M cC arthy, W arre n C richlow , G reg D im itriadis & N adine D olby (Eds) (2005) Race, Identity, and Representation in Education, 2nd edn (N ew York: R outledge).

[42] Leys, Market-driven Politics, pp. 211-212.[43] Apple, Official Knowledge.

396

[44] D avid M arquand (2000) The Progressive Dilemma, pp. 212-213 (London: Phoenix Books).[45] T heda Skocpol (2003) Diminished Democracy (N orm an: U niversity o f O k lahom a Press).[46] Katz, The Price o f Citizenship.[47] N ancy Fraser (1989) Unruly Practices (M inneapolis: U niversity o f M inneso ta Press); R obin D.G. Kelly

(1993) W e Are N o t W h a t W e Seem: re th ink ing black w orking-class opposition in th e J im C row south , Journal o f American History, 80, pp. 75-112. See also M ichael W . A pple & T ho m as Pedroni (2005) C onservative A lliance Building and African A m erican Support fo r V o ucher Plans, Teachers College Record, 107, pp. 2068-2105. H o w ev er, on h o w oppressed peop le a ttem p t to tactically take up the subject position o f th e co nsu m er and rearticu la te it to fu rth e r th e ir o w n collective interests.

[48] Leys, Market-driven Politics, p. 220.[49] Apple, The State and the Politics o f Knowledge.[50] Skocpol, Diminished Democracy.[51] Basil B ernstein (1996) Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity (Philadelphia: T ay lo r & Francis); Apple,

Educating the ‘R ight ' Way.[52] Basil B ernstein m akes an im p o rta n t d istinction b e tw een those fractions o f th e n e w m iddle class th a t

w o rk for th e state and th a t g ro up w h ich w orks in th e p rivate sector. T h ey m ay have different ideological and educational com m itm en ts. See Basil B ernstein (1990) The Structuring o f Pedagogic Discourse (N ew York: R outledge). For m o re on th e w ays ‘in te rm ed ia te ' classes and class fractions opera te and in te rp re t the ir w orlds, see P ierre B ourdieu (1984) Distinction (Cam bridge, MA: H arv ard U niversity Press); Erik O lin W rig h t (1985) Classes (N ew York: Verso); Erik O lin W rig h t (1997) Class Counts (N ew York: C am bridge U niversity Press); E rik O lin W rig h t (Ed.) (1998) The Debate on Classes (N ew York: Verso).

[53] Apple, Ideology and Curriculum.[54] C larke & N ew m an , The Managerial State.[55] B ourdieu , Distinction.[56] See B ourdieu , Distinction; P ierre B ourdieu (1988) Homo Economicus (Stanford: Stanford U niversity

Press); P ierre B ourdieu (1996) The State Nobility (Stanford: S tanford U niversity Press).[57] S tephen Ball (2003) Class Strategies and the Education M arket (London: R outledgeFalm er); Sally Pow er,

T o n y Edw ards, G eoff W h itty & V alerie W igfall (2003) Education and the Middle Class (Buckingham : O p en U niversity Press).

[58] See Apple, Cultural Politics and Education; Apple, Official Knowledge; D avid G illborn & D eb o rah Youdell (2000) Rationing Education (Buckingham : O p en U niversity Press); M cNeil, The Contradictions o f School Reform; Apple, Educating the ‘R ight ' Way; L ipm an, High Stakes Education.

[59] Ibid.[60] Mills, The Racial Contract. See also M ichael O m i & H o w ard W in an t (1994) Racial Formation in the

United States (N ew York: R outledge).[61] G loria Ladson-Billings (2004) Ju st W h a t is C ritical Race T h eo ry and W h a t is it D o ing in a N ice Field

Like Education? In Ladson-Billings & G illborn, The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in M ulticultural Education,p. 51 .

[62] See G illborn & Youdell, Rationing Education; Apple, Educating the ‘R ight ' Way; and G eoff W hitty , Sally P o w er & D avid H alp in (1998) Devolution and Choice in Education (Buckingham : O p en U niversity Press).

[63] T h om as Pedroni, S trange Bedfellows in the M ilw aukee ‘P aren ta l C hoice ' D ebate, unp ub lished Ph.D . d issertation , T h e U niversity o f W isconsin-M adison, 2003; A pple & Pedroni, C onservative Alliance Building.

[64] See Apple, Educating the ‘R ight ' Way, fo r m ore on this.[65] Ibid.[66] ‘P rogressive' trad itions in th e USA w ere n o t free o f such racializing and racist logics. See, fo r exam ple,

S teven Selden (1999) Inheriting Shame (N ew York: T eachers C ollege Press).[67] T hat, say, a n u m b er o f African A m erican groups, ones th a t are m aking alliances w ith distinctly

conservative m ovem ents, exist and are g row ing says som eth ing ve ry im p o rtan t ab o u t th e fascination w ith iden tity politics am on g m an y progressive scholars and activists in educatio n and elsew here. T oo

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

397

Michael W . Apple

often w ritin g on iden tity (w rongly) assum es th a t iden tity politics is a ‘g ood th ing ', th a t people inexorably m ove in progressive d irections as th ey pu rsu e w h a t N ancy Fraser w o u ld call a politics o f recognition . See N ancy Fraser (1997)Justice Interruptus (N ew York: R outledge). Yet, any serious study o f rightist m o v em en ts dem o nstra tes th a t iden tity politics is ju s t as ap t to take, say, angry and retrogressive form s - anti-gay, racist nativism , an ti-w om en , etc. For m an y such people, ‘w e ' are the n e w oppressed, w ith th a t ‘w e ' n o t including m o st people o f color, fem inists, ‘sexual deviants', im m igrants, an d so on. H ow ev er, as I n o te d earlier, even peop le w ith in these ‘despised ' groups them selves m ay take on such retrogressive identities.

[68] See, for exam ple, T e rry M oe (2001) Schools, Vouchers, and the American Public (W ashington: B rookings Institution).

[69] Paul W illis (1990) Common Culture (Boulder: W estv iew ).[70] R ichard H e rrn ste in & C harles M urray (1994) The Bell Curve (N ew York: T h e Free Press).[71] In this regard , T o m P ed ron i's ongoing research on th e BAEO and sim ilar groups is o f considerable

im portance . See Pedroni, S trange Bedfellows. See also A pple & Pedroni, C onservative Alliance Building.

[72] D avid L evering Lewis (1993) W.E.B. DuBois: biography o f a race, 1868-1919 (N ew York: H en ry H olt);D avid L evering Lewis (2000) W .E.B. DuBois: the fig h t fo r equality and the American century (N ew York: H en ry H olt).

[73] Pedroni, S trange Bedfellows.[74] A ngela D illard (2001) Guess W ho’s Coming to Dinner Now? (N ew York: N e w Y ork U n iversity Press).[75] H ogan , E duca tion and Class Form ation; Apple, The State and the Politics o f Knowledge.[76] Apple, Educating the ‘R ight’ W ay. See also Ball, Education Reform.[77] Apple, Official Knowledge.[78] See G illborn & Youdell, Rationing Education; M cNeil, The Contradictions o f School Reform; Apple,

Educating the ‘R ight’ W ay; L ipm an, High Stakes Education; A ngela V alenzuela, Leaving Children Behind.[79] Ibid. A ngela D illard, Guess W ho's Coming to Dinner Now? is v ery fair in h e r assessm ent o f w h a t the

im plications o f such su pp o rt m ay be. She n icely show s the contrad ictions o f the a rgum ents and logic o f th e people she focuses upon . In do in g so, she draw s u p o n som e o f th e m o re cogent analyses o f the relationsh ip b e tw een dem ocracy and the m a in ten ance o f th e public sphere o n th e one hand , and an expansive and rich u n d erstand ing o f w h a t it m eans to be a citizen on the o ther. R eaders o f h e r d iscussion w o u ld also be w ell served to connec t h e r argum ents to th e h istorical struggles o ver the very m eanings o f o u r concepts o f dem ocracy, freedom , and citizenship, such as those fou nd in F oner's illum inating book, The Story o f American Freedom. D illard 's discussion, ho w ever, is substantive and useful.

[80] V an D u nk & D ickm an, School Choice and the Question o f Accountability. It is u sually w o m en w h o m usttake on th e responsibilities th a t th e state sheds. T hus, g ender realities and politics m u st m ake u p a key co m p o n en t o f any serious critical analysis here.

[81] Pedroni, S trange Bedfellows; A pple & Pedroni, C onservative A lliance Building.[82] Katz, The Price o f Citizenship.[83] See G illborn & Youdell, Rationing Education; Ball, Class Strategies and the Education Market; P ow er et al,

Education and the Middle Class.[84] Alison Griffith & D o ro th y Sm ith (2005) Mothering fo r Schooling (N ew York: R outledge).[85] T h ere has b een som e discussion o f th e dangers o f v o u ch er plans by African A m erican nationalist

activists and scholars. See L. Bush (2004) Access, School C hoice, and Indep enden t Black Institutions, Journal o f Black Studies, 34, pp. 386-401. O n Black activism and th e w ays in w h ich co nsu m er struggles have led to positive effects b o th w ith in d o m in an t W hite-con tro lled econom ic and political institu tions and w ith in Black m obilizations as well, see S.K. Sewell (2004) T he ‘N ot-buying ' P ow er o f the Black C om m u nity , Journal o f African American History, 89, pp. 135-151.

[86] For m o re o n this, see V alenzuela, Leaving Children Behind; Apple, W h a t C an W e L earn fro m Texas?[87] S tuart R anson (2003) Public A ccoun tability in th e Age o f N eo-liberal G overnance, Journal o f Education

Policy, 18, p. 470.[88] Fraser, Unruly Practices; Mills, The Racial Contract.

398

[89] Fraser, Justice Interruptus.[90] See R aym ond W illiam s (1989) Resources o f Hope (N ew York: Verso).[91] Ranson, Public A ccountability , p. 476.[92] Ibid. For som e cautions on seeing this as sim ply a liberal m od el o f ‘de liberation ', see Jam es Avis (2003)

R e-thinking T ru st in a P erform ative C ulture: th e case o f education , Journal o f Education Policy, 18,pp. 315-332.

[93] A n accoun t o f a co n tinu ing a ttem p t to o rgan ize core aspects o f un iversity life and w o rk a rou n d theseconcerns can be fo und in Apple, Official Knowledge.

[94] See Apple, The State and the Politics o f Knowledge, pp. 193-219.[95] W ith in th e field o f education , th e jo u rn a l Teaching Education has a ttem p ted to institu tionalize this task

b y consisten tly pub lish ing accounts o f critical teach ing w ith in u n d erg rad u a te classes in teacher ed ucation and in g radu ate classes as well.

[96] G loria Ladson-Billings (1994) The Dreamkeepers (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass).[97] A pple & Beane, Democratic Schools.

A udit Cultures, Commodification, and Class and Race Strategies

M ICHAEL W . APPLE is th e J o h n B asco m P ro fe s so r o f C u r r ic u lu m a n d In s t ru c t io n a n d E d u c a tio n a l P o lic y S tu d ie s a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f W isc o n s in , M a d iso n , USA. A m o n g h is m a n y b o o k s a re T he S ta te an d the Politics of K now ledge , t h e s e c o n d e d i t io n o f h is a w a rd -w in n in g b o o k E duca ting the ‘R ig h t ' W a y , a n d The Subaltern Speak, w i th K ris te n B uras.

Correspondence: P ro fe s so r M ic h a e l W . A p p le , U n iv e rs ity o f W isc o n s in -M a d iso n ,T e a c h e r E d u c a t io n B u ild in g R o o m 528E , 225 N o r th M ills S tre e t, M a d iso n , W I 53706, U SA (a p p le @ e d u c a t io n .w is c .e d u ).

399