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KTH Chemical Engineering and Technology

Application of defecation lime from sugar industry

in Uzbekistan

M A S H A R I P O V A S H O I R A

Master of Science ThesisStockholm 2006

KTH Chemical Engineering and Technology

Masharipova Shoira

Master of Science ThesisSTOCKHOLM 2006

APPLICATION OF DEFECATION LIME FROM SUGAR INDUSTRY

IN UZBEKISTAN

PRESENTED AT

INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor & Examiner:

Monika Olsson

TRITA-KET-IM 2006:3 ISSN 1402-7615 Industrial Ecology, Royal Institute of Technology www.ima.kth.se

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Abstract This Master Thesis “Application of defecation lime from sugar industry in

Uzbekistan” is done in the Master’s Programme in Sustainable Technology at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH).

In this project Khorezm Sugar Company, operations in the factory and environmental problems in it have been studied. Impacts of defecation lime were described. The waste causes a lot of environmental and economical problems in the region. As it is dry and consists of particles with small size, defecat is easy spread able with the wind. It swells to nearest areas and could have impact on biodiversity as well as on health of people. Different modern methods of handling the defecation lime in Europe and Asian countries and new methods that are not in practice in large scales yet, were also described. These methods, such as: use of defecation lime as a soil improver, as a fertilizer, as an additive in greenhouse soil mixture, as a sorbent to treat waste water, as a micro filler in cement production and foam concrete production and as a mineral additive in animal feeding. Advantages and disadvantages of these methods were examined. As an example the British Sugar and the LimeX division of the company were described. They obtain the same type of waste from sugar production. And use defecation lime as a soil improver to stabilize soil pH, to add organic matters to soil and improve soil structure. The defecation lime is sold by 3 brands in the company, like: LimeX 45, LimeX 70 and LimeX Super70 M. What they are doing and how they treat are described. As the main treatment method in the other sugar manufacturing companies, use of defecat as a soil improver was studied deeply. Therefore, soil characters of Uzbekistan have also been described. The fertilizer need in the country, especially in Khorezm region and crops need for organic matters were overviewed. Different treatment methods of defecation lime, which are described in the thesis, are discussed to apply them in Khorezm Sugar. During discussing and suggesting methods technological and economical features have been taken into account.

As a main type of treatment to use defecation lime in cement and foam concrete production were suggested.

Also, use defecat as a soil improver and as additional methods, use of defecation lime as an additive in greenhouse soil mixture and to use as a sorbent to treat waste water were recommended.

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Acknowledgement It was a great experience for me working on this Thesis Work at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) and visiting the British Sugar Company also learning about different methods of treatment of defecation lime.

I am very thankful to Abdusharib Ruzimov, the director of the Private Company “Javlon” for all the help and support, especially, on choosing my thesis Work theme and giving very good ideas, at all sharing his knowledge and experience.

I am very appreciative to Monika Olsson, my supervisor from the KTH, who brought me into the Waste Management field and helped at the same time. I would like to thank her for continual support during this work, for many hours discussions we had, for her every careful adjustment and remarks, for helping me to find right answers to difficult questions, for encouraging in the entire step and all the teachers at Industrial Ecology for sharing their knowledge.

I would like to thank the Management of British Sugar, that they allowed me to visit the factory and created very good conditions during my study visit.

I am very grateful to Richard Cogman, the national manager of LimeX division of British Sugar, who was always glad to help me in a lot of my questions, who gave me a lot of advices, arranged meetings with the people in all 3 factories, which we visited together, for his and his family's hospitality and for all the great memories in Norwich..

I would like to extend my gratitude to Sherzod Qurambaev, my teacher in Uzbekistan, for his valuable support in difficult times and for his advice. Also, my gratefulness goes to all teachers at Urgench State University.

My great thanks go to Dilfuza Egamberdieva, who helped me to find necessary information about agriculture of Uzbekistan, for her sharing information with me, for her understanding.

My great thanks and respect are to my special friend in London, for his everyday support and encouraging during this work, for his every time understanding, for his care and for making me not feeling lonely even from distance.

Also, I would like to thank my friends Galya and Inobat for their help in different things concerning my thesis and to other group-mates for all the times we shared in Sweden. Especially, Galya for her understanding and help, for sharing her experience and for all she has done for me.

My love, gratefulness and appreciation go to my family in Urgench in Uzbekistan, especially my brother, who always supported me from distance.

My love and gratitude to my parents for their trust on me, for their support and all they have done for me. And I am grateful to my Uzbek friends Nargiza, Sardor and others for their help and understanding.

And also the God, for his unlimited gifts and blessings… Stockholm, 2006 Shoira Masharipova

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Table of contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................... 2 Table of contents...................................................................................................................... 3 List of figures ........................................................................................................................... 5 List of tables............................................................................................................................. 6 Glossary of terms..................................................................................................................... 7

Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... 9 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11

1.1. Aim and objectives of the Diploma Project .................................................................. 12 1.2. Methodology of work.................................................................................................... 12 1.3. Outline of the report ...................................................................................................... 13 1.4. Background ................................................................................................................... 14 1.5. Problem definition......................................................................................................... 14

1.5.1. About defecation lime ............................................................................................ 15 2. Pre study of application fields of defecation lime........................................................... 16

2.1. Results of interview....................................................................................................... 16 2.2. Information from literature and Internet ....................................................................... 16

3. The study area ................................................................................................................... 17 3.1. The Khorezm Sugar Company...................................................................................... 17 3.2. British Sugar Company ................................................................................................. 17

3.2.1. Bury St Edmunds sugar factory ............................................................................. 18 3.2.2. Cantley sugar factory ............................................................................................. 19 3.2.3. Wissington sugar factory........................................................................................ 20 3.2.4. Technological operations in British Sugar Factories ............................................. 21

4. Technological process of sugar manufacturing .............................................................. 23 4.1. Raw material – sugar beet futures ................................................................................. 23 4.2. Technological process of beet sugar producing ............................................................ 24

4.2.1. Harvesting the beet................................................................................................. 24 4.2.2. Beet handling.......................................................................................................... 25 4.2.3. Diffusion process.................................................................................................... 25 4.2.4. Pulp Dryer .............................................................................................................. 26 4.2.5. Lime Kiln ............................................................................................................... 27 4.2.6. Purification and Filtration processes ...................................................................... 28 4.2.7. Evaporation process ............................................................................................... 29 4.2.8. Crystallization and Separation ............................................................................... 30 4.2.9. Molasses desugarization process............................................................................ 32 4.2.10. Packaging and Storage of product........................................................................ 33

5. Different fields of application for defecation lime.......................................................... 34 5.1. Defecat for stabilizing soil pH ...................................................................................... 34

5.1.1. Soil pH.................................................................................................................... 34 5.1.2. Liming .................................................................................................................... 35 5.1.3. Advantages of liming the soil resources ................................................................ 36 5.1.4. Measuring soil pH .................................................................................................. 37 5.1.5. Desirable pH........................................................................................................... 37

5.2. As fertilizer.................................................................................................................... 38 5.2.1. Advantages of Calcium and Magnesium ............................................................... 40

5.3. As additional material for the greenhouse soil mixtures............................................... 40

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5.4. Use of defecat as a sorbent............................................................................................ 40 5.5. As a micro filler in cement production.......................................................................... 41 5.6. In Foam concrete production......................................................................................... 42 5.7. Defecation lime in animal feeding ration as a mineral additive.................................... 42

6. Handling of defecation lime at The British Sugar.......................................................... 44 6.1. By-products of beet sugar processing in The British Sugar.......................................... 44 6.2. LimeX products and their benefits ................................................................................ 44

6.2.1. Technical Specifications and using of LimeX ....................................................... 45 6.3. Soil sampling and pH mapping ................................................................................. 47 6.4. Use of LimeX in arable agriculture, grassland and field brassica............................. 47

7. Soil character and soil use in Uzbekistan........................................................................ 49 7.1. Soil types in Uzbekistan................................................................................................ 49 7.2. Agriculture in Uzbekistan ........................................................................................ 51 7.3. Agricultural structure in the country ............................................................................. 52 7.4. Agro-ecological zones................................................................................................... 53 7.5. Soil capability, land quality and fertility of soils of Uzbekistan................................... 54 7.6. Fertilizers....................................................................................................................... 56

7.6.1. Manufacturers of fertilizers in Uzbekistan............................................................. 56 7.6.2. Fertilizer consumption............................................................................................ 57 7.6.3. Fertilizer use by crop.............................................................................................. 57 7.6.4. Organic manners .................................................................................................... 59

8. Results and discussion....................................................................................................... 60 Recommendations for further studies .................................................................................. 68

9. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 69 References .............................................................................................................................. 70 Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 73

Appendix-1. Methods of purification of raw sugar and ways of treatment of defecation lime in some countries, according to my questions (a) and answers (b) I got from interview. ... 73 Appendix-2. Handling of defecation lime in some countries of the world .......................... 78 Appendix-3. The Sugar manufacturing process in British Sugar factories {4} ................... 80 Appendix-4. Processing of sugar beet {10} ......................................................................... 81 Appendix-5. Advantages of calcium and magnesium to soil structure {19} ....................... 82 Appendix-6. pH map example – 1 {5}................................................................................. 83 Appendix-7. pH map example – 2 {5}................................................................................. 84 Appendix-8. Types and subtypes of soil in Uzbekistan {29} .............................................. 85 Appendix-9. Distribution of irrigated arable land in Uzbekistan (103 ha) {31} .................. 86 Appendix-10. Factors which negatively affect productivity of the land {32} ..................... 87 Appendix-11. Areas of land of different qualities by region (103 ha) {33}......................... 88 Appendix-12. Average grades of land by region {33}......................................................... 89 Appendix-13. Delivery of mineral fertilizers to agriculture (103 tonnes) {33} ................... 90

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List of figures Figure-1.1. Map of Uzbekistan……………………………………………………………….11 Figure-3.1.LimeX70 products storage at The Bury St Edmunds Sugar Factory …………….19 Ficure-3.2.Newly pumped and stored LimeX45 products in Cantley Sugar Factory ………..20 Ficure-3.3.Pressed LimeX70 and its storage in The Wissington Sugar Factory …………….20 Figure.3.4. Beet receiving ………...………………………………………………………….21 Figure.3.5. Beet washing…..…………………………………………………………………21 Figure.3.6. Slicing machine ……………………………………………………………….... 21 Figure.3.7. Diffusion………………………………………………………………….……....21 Figure.3.8. Filters …………………………………………………………………….….…...22 Figure.4.1. Sugar beet yield………………………………………………………….……… 23 Figure.4.2. Photosynthesis ……...……………………………………………………………23 Figure-4.3. Sugar beet content ……………………………………………………………….24 Figure-4.4. Beet handling …………………………………………………………………….25 Figure-4.5.Diffusion process …………………………………………………………………26 Figure-4.6.Pulp dryer ………………………………………………………………………...27 Figure-4.7.Lime Kiln ………………………………………………………………………...28 Figure-4.8.Purification and filtration ………………………………………………………...29 Figure-4.9. Evaporation process ……………………………………………………………..30 Figure-4.10.Crystallization and Separation ………………………………………………….31 Figure-4.11.Molasses desugarization ………………………………………………………...32 Figure-6.1. Particle size comparison of liming products …………………………………….46 Figure-6.2. Yield response when LimeX 70 is applied ………………………………………47 Figure-6.3. pH Increase on grassland where LimeX applied ………………………………...48 Figure-7.1. Dominant soil map of Uzbekistan ……………………………………………….50 Figure-7.2. Agricultural area …………………………………………………………………51 Figure-7.3. Cotton and wheat production, 1992 to 2002 ………………………………….…52 Figure-7.4. Number of different types of farms ……………………………………………...53 Figure-7.5. Soils classification on the quality (%) …………………………………………...54 Figure-8.1.Handling of defecation lime in the world …………………………..…………….60 Figure-8.2.Handling of defecation lime in the world ………………………………………...61 Figure-8.3 a) Loading (a) and spreading (b) of LimeX and the limed field (c) ……………...63

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List of tables Table-1.1.Chemical content of defecation lime in Khorezm Sugar Company ………………15 Table-3.1. LimeX production by factories (2005/06 year: estimated production/K tonnes)…18 Table-5.1. pH ranges ………………………………………………………………………....35 Table-5.2.Approximately doses of the limestone to introduce into the soil (in grams at the

depth of 20 cm on one square meter) ….................................................................36 Table-5.3. Plants and pH values suitable for them …….…………………………………….37 Table-5.4. Composition of the defecat …………………………………………………….…39 Table-5.5. Influence of the doses of the used defecat on productivity of tomato …………....39 Table-5.6. Influence of the doses of the used defecat on productivity of sugar beet …….…..39 Table-5.7. Technical requirements for lime flour ……………………………………………43 Table-6.1. Nutrients in LimeX and their amount …………………………………………….45 Table-6.2. Application rates for LimeX 70 (for 1 pH unit increase) ………………………...46 Table-6.3. Application rates for LimeX 45 (for 1 pH unit increase) ………………………...46 Table-7.1.Main types of soil by local classification and their humus content ……………….55 Table-7.2.Average standard rates of fertilizer application for the main agricultural crops (kg

nutrient/ha) …………………………………………………………………….....57 Table-7.3. Main crops, use of mineral fertilizers and yields …………………………………58 Table-7.4. Main crops: rates of fertilization ………………………………………………….58

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Glossary of terms Acidity - soil is said to be acidic if its pH value is below 7 (see also – pH and alkaline). Alkalinity – soils with pH value above 7 (see also pH and acidity). Arable land - (from Latin arare, to plough) is a form of agricultural land use, meaning land that can be used for growing crops. Arid - Lacking moisture, especially having insufficient rainfall to support trees or woody plants. Buffering - the components of a soil solution that can neutralize either an acid or a base and which maintain a constant pH. Campaign – sugar beet processing season. Carbokalk – calcium containing waste of beet sugar processing. Clay - Clay is one of the three principal types of soil, the other two being sand and loam. A certain amount of clay is a desirable constituent of soil, since it binds other kinds of particles together and makes the whole retentive of water. Crystallization – formation of crystals from a concentrated liquid. Defecate - to remove impurities, as in a chemical solution, clarify. Defecation lime – calcium containing waste from sugar industry Dolomite - a white or light-coloured mineral, essentially CaMg (CO3)2, used in fertilizer and as a construction and ceramic material. Extraction – separation one material from another, for example sugar from sugar beet. Fertilizer - Any of a large number of natural and synthetic materials, including manure and nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium compounds, spread on or worked into soil to increase its capacity to support plant growth. Humus - A brown or black organic substance consisting of partially or wholly decayed vegetable or animal matter that provides nutrients for plants and increases the ability of soil to retain water. Lime - a general term for various naturally occurring minerals and materials derived from them in which carbonates, oxides and hydroxides of calcium predominate. The chemical formula for lime is CaO (calcium oxide). Lime kiln - a kiln used to produce quicklime by the calcinations of limestone (calcium carbonate).

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LimeX – the brand, by-product of British Sugar Limestone - A common sedimentary rock consisting mostly of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, used as a building stone and in the manufacture of lime, carbon dioxide, and cement. Liming - application to the soil of calcium in various forms. Loamy - soil composed of a mixture of sand, clay, silt, and organic matter Milk of lime - Ca (OH) 2, colourless crystal or white powder. It is prepared by reacting calcium oxide (lime) with water; a process called slaking, and is also known as hydrated lime or slaked lime. Molasses - thick syrup produced in refining raw sugar and ranging from light to dark brown in colour. Purification - is the process of separating a substance of interest from foreign or contaminating elements. Salinity - the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of soils and vegetation.

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Abbreviations BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand CIS - Commonwealth of Independent States GDP - Gross Domestic Product JSC – Joint Stock Company LTD – Limited (in company names) MAWRRUz – Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources of the Republic of Uzbekistan µm - A unit of length equal to one thousandth (10-3) of a millimetres or one millionth (10-6) of a meter, also called micron pH - Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in pH units. Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil increases, the soil pH decreases thus becoming more acidic. From pH 7 to 0 the soil is increasingly more acidic and from pH 7 to 14 the soil is increasingly more alkaline or basic.

PC – Private Company PCC – Precipitated Calcium Carbonate SCLR – State Committee for Land Resources UK – United Kingdom US – United States

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1. Introduction Sugar manufacturing plant has typical environmental impacts such as: wastewater, air

emissions and solid waste. Wastewater comes from washing raw materials, from the boiler house (boiler blow-

down water), extract purification in the evaporation and boiling station (excess condensate and purification water), refining (regeneration water from the ion exchange resins), site cleaning and sometimes rainfall.

Emissions into air, occur from the boiler plant (flue gases from processes in which solid, liquid and gaseous combustibles are burnt), airborne substances (flue ash), raw material processing, extraction, juice purification and juice concentration (ammonia).

Almost all sugar manufacturing factories obtain defecation lime from the production process. In some countries it is treated in some way, but there are still some of them which do not have any solution.

The only sugar producing plant in Uzbekistan is Khorezm Sugar (in the figure-1.1, you can see the map of Uzbekistan).

Defecation lime at Khorezm Sugar Company has not been used in any purposes. However, there is a chance to use it as a raw material for other branches of industry or agriculture.

British Sugar is one of the leading sugar manufacturers in the world. They have processed and used defecation lime for about 70 years. Until now they have been using defecat in agricultural purposes.

The Company has a good environmental care. They also, make some profit from using of waste in some way. Specialists in the company control the work in a proper way and the process is managed well.

The use of waste in some way satisfies the need for raw materials in some industries applied, reduces expenditure for the new ones, clear out large areas where the waste is placed today and eliminates environmental pollution from dust of defecation lime. For example, waste from fruit processing industries can be used as a raw material in biogas production; waste from vegetable oil production is a raw material for animal feeding products production and etc. And that is the proper way for obtain sustainable future.

Figure-1.1. Map of Uzbekistan {1}

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1.1. Aim and objectives of the Diploma Project

Aim:

The aim of the Thesis Work “Application of defecation lime from sugar industry in Uzbekistan” is to learn modern ways of application of defecat (precipitated calcium carbonate - which is calcium containing waste of sugar industry) in different fields and suggest a suitable method or methods, which could be used in Uzbekistan to treat such type of waste and to eliminate it’s impact to environment.

Objectives:

• To present how the Joint Stock Company “Khorezm Shakar” carries out the treatment

of defecation lime. • To describe the environmental impacts of defecat.

• To describe modern ways of handling defecat in sugar producing companies in

Europe, as well as methods described in the literature.

• As an example to find a company which obtains the same type of waste and describe the treatment method.

• To overview soil characters of Uzbekistan; main soil types in the region and describe

different types of fertilizers used here. • To discuss and suggest a suitable method of handling defecat in Uzbekistan

considering different aspects of the region (economic, ecological, social).

1.2. Methodology of work This thesis work was done by collecting related information, using the methods listed below:

• Interview the sugar manufactures by e-mail and by phone. To find out answers to the questions with the aim to identify the treatment methods for such type of waste, by contacting directly with the people of the field.

• Search and study related information through Internet, literature and news.

• Visit to sugar producing plants, study how they are dealing with the problem and how

they are managing the same type of waste.

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1.3. Outline of the report The report of this Diploma Project consists of 9 chapters which are aimed to satisfy the aim and objectives. Briefly content of these chapters are listed below:

1. Introduction The chapter describes the aim and objectives of the Diploma Project, methodology of work, background and problem definition in the region and features of the defecation lime. 2. Pre study of application fields of defecation lime In this chapter result of interviews with people from sugar industry and result of information collected through internet about application fields of defecat. 3. The study area This chapter gives general information about Khorezm Sugar and about British Sugar Companies. Also the detailed operations of sugar production in British Sugar are described in this chapter. 4. Technological process of sugar manufacturing In this chapter general technological process of sugar beet processing is described. This is important, because from the information given here, you can find more detailed about purification process, where in sugar production defecation lime is produced. 5. Different methods of treatment of defecation lime This chapter describes all treatment methods of defecation lime and related information to the management of the waste. 6. Handling of defecation lime at The British Sugar This chapter gives detailed information about handling defecat in British Sugar, advantages of its use, application amounts and technical specifications of LimeX 7. Soil character of Uzbekistan Information about main soil types of Uzbekistan, fertility of soils and fertilizer consumption in the region are described in this chapter. Because, the main application field of defecation lime is - agriculture. 8. Discussion All information about different handling methods of defecat is discussed for advantages and disadvantages and suitable methods for handling the waste for Khorezm Sugar Company in Uzbekistan are suggested. 9. Conclusion In this last chapter the main conclusions from this Thesis Work are stated.

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1.4. Background

This Master Thesis “Application of defecation lime from sugar industry in Uzbekistan” in MSc Programme in Sustainable Technology is done at The Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, Sweden.

This work is proposed to study the ways of handling defecation lime from sugar industry in the world and find out a suitable method or methods for Khorezm Sugar Company in Uzbekistan.

Sugar is made by some plants to store energy that they don't need straight away, rather like animals make fat. People like sugar for its sweetness and its energy so some of these plants are grown commercially to extract the sugar.

Sugar is produced in 121 countries and global production now exceeds 120 Million tons a year. Approximately 70% is produced from sugar cane, a very tall grass with big stems which is largely grown in the tropical countries. The remaining 30% is produced from sugar beet, a root crop grown mostly in the mild zones of the north and in some Asian countries.

In sugar beet processing there is a purification process, from which we have calcium containing waste named defecation lime or just defecat.

1.5. Problem definition Khorezm region has a lot of ecological problems as other parts of the country do. Soil

salinity, desertification, drink water quality, a lots of problems regarding to Aral Sea and wastes from industry.

Like in all other former Soviet Union countries until the independence in 1991, agriculture Uzbekistan was mainly focused on cotton production, which afterwards made the soils to become poor in organic matters and de-structuring.

Khorezm Sugar is the only sugar manufacturing plant in Uzbekistan. The company obtains molasses, pulp and defecation lime as waste. These types of

wastes except defecation lime had been processed in some way. Defecation lime comes from raw juice purification process1. In this process the

company uses milk of lime and carbon dioxide. Calcium carbonate precipitates with removing non sugars from raw juice. Because of economical problems and lack of knowledge here since, this type of waste is not treated. The waste is placed in the territory of the plant, in the open air conditions.

It causes environmental problems as well. As it is dry and consists of small particles it is easy spread able with the wind. Therefore, it covers with particles of precipitated calcium carbonate nearby lands and water surface also. Furthermore, there occur land problems also, because of covering plant territory with “mountains of defecat”.

Nowadays, it is a really big problem for the region which has to be solved immediately in some way.

As all beet sugar manufacturers Khorezm Sugar Company obtains defecation lime

from sugar production. The waste has not been treated since the factory is in use (see chapter 3.1). Nowadays the factory has about 80000 tonnes of defecation lime which remains on the site. The piles of waste are growing each year {1}. ___________________________________________________________________________ 1 - Wider information about purification process and sugar manufacturing can be found in the chapter 4.

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Defecation lime has a number of influences, which cause environmental, land and health problems, such as:

• Environmental problems - because of its dryness defecation lime is easy

spreadable with wind. It covers all surrounding area and water surface with the particles of the waste.

• Health problems - while spreading by wind it is dangerous for health of people living nearby and has impact on biodiversity.

• Land problems - the waste remains in the territory of the plant. It causes land problems in the area, because almost 20 % of the plant area is occupied with the mixture of waste, containing defecation lime, stones and soil from the process.

• Influence on the company’s good name. The impression of the company is also assessed with the actions done for environment.

1.5.1. About defecation lime

Defecation lime is calcium containing waste of sugar industry which uses milk of lime and carbon dioxide in the purification process. This kind of waste is called press mud, PCC (Precipitated Calcium Carbonate), filter cake, defecat and defecation lime in common2. Defecat represents 8-12% to the weight of the processed beet and 5-7% of raw cane. It contains mainly, calcium carbonate, 60-85% of the dry matter. In the dry condition, precipitated lime contains also to 10-15% of organic matter, 0.7-0.8% nitrogen, 0,2-0,9% phosphorus’s, 0,5-1.0% of potassium. Fresh defecat holds to 60% of moisture, but after partial drying at the plant, humidity falls to 20-30% and waste remains approximately with 70% of dry substances {1}.

Defecation lime consists of the following substances: CaSO4; Ca (PO4)2; Fe (OH)2; K+; Na+; Ca+; NH3

+; H2O; Ca (OH) 2; CaCO3; Mg; Ba; Si; S and other organic substances (nitrogen containing and non nitrogen).

The content of the waste is a very important feature because it gives a chance for determining the type of treatment. On the basis of this, one can decide what can be done with the waste, for what it’s useful and what dangerous substances it contains.

Nutrient content of defecation lime from sugar industry is not constant. It differs from time to time and country to country. It mostly depends on the content of the sugar beet too. Chemical content of defecation lime in Khorezm Sugar is given in the table 1.1.

Table-1.1.Chemical content of defecation lime in Khorezm

Sugar Company {2} Chemical substances in defecation lime Amount

(%) Sugar 2.0 Pectin substances 1.7 Non nitrogen organic substances 9.5 Nitrogen containing organic substances 5.9 Calcium carbonate 74.2 Lime in the form of different salts 2.8 Other mineral substances (and phosphorous acid) 3.9 Total 100.0

__________________________________________________________________________________________ 2 - In this report “defecation lime” and “defecat” will be used.

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2. Pre study of application fields of defecation lime In order to find out what is done with such type of waste in other sugar producing plants, I did some interviews with the people in this field. I contacted them by e-mail and by phone, had meetings with some of them and tried to find relevant information. In the following sub parts you can find results of analyses which I had done before making a decision.

2.1. Results of interview

At the beginning of the work I visited the Khorezm Sugar Company and talked to engineer of the factory. Defecation lime is placed in the territory of the plant and has not been treated for 9 years.

I have also been in contact with engineers, managers of the sugar manufacturing plants in the other countries. I made a list of questions, which were aimed to determine the type of treatment in their plants.

At the result of contacting sugar manufacturing companies, I have found that most of them use this type of waste as a soil amendment to stabilize soil pH and to improve soil structure. Results are given in the Appendix 1.

2.2. Information from literature and Internet Because of difficulties in getting direct contacts with all sugar manufacturing plants and with the purpose of getting broader information and to compare them, I decided to gather information both from literature and through internet about application of defection lime. The results of these studies are outlined in the Appendix 2.

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3. The study area

3.1. The Khorezm Sugar Company

The “Khorezm Sugar” is the only sugar producing plant in Uzbekistan. The company was launched in 1998 and its total cost amounts to US $ 83.25. Budget funds and US $ 25 million by the Turkish Eximbank financed the project. The plant is located in Yangibazar, Khazarasp district, Khorezm region.

The main product of the company is granulated sugar. The product is sold for consumption and for industry reprocessing as well.

The plant was originally designed to process 3000 tonnes of sugar beet a day which to be grown by farmers in Uzbekistan. For several years the plant’s production capacity was not fully met because sugar beet yield were at low levels. At that time, the production process needed 350.000 tonnes of sugar beet a year, but in 2000 they had refined just 96.000 tonnes.

In November 2001 the plant was reconstructed by “Shakar Investment LTD”, an Uzbek-American joint venture. That was done in order to provide the company with sugar cane during sugar beet shortage and extra seasonal period also. In this turn the Joint Venture established additional sugar refinery equipment. The company receives sugar cane from Brazil.

Present time “Khorezm Sugar” can refine and produce sugar both from sugar cane and sugar beet. Sugar beet is processed only in the months of September, October and November. The rest of the time the company produces sugar only from raw sugar.

Currently, the company employs 920 people. Today 100 % of the production is sold on the internal market {3}.

Solid waste arises from raw material treatment (earth, plant remains), the steam generator (ash), defecation lime, molasses and sugar beet press.

Molasses, which offer 1.25 % of the raw cane processed, is used in preparation of acid, baking and nutrient yeast.

Sugar beet press (or djom), which present 25-30 % of sugar beet processed is used as a stern for animal feeding in agriculture.

Defecation lime, which present 5-7% of raw cane and 8-12% of sugar beet processed, is not used in any purposes yet.

The company produces about 10 000 tonnes of defecat per year. Since the factory is in use, defecation lime is not treated yet, and is placed in the territory of the Khorezm Sugar plant.

3.2. British Sugar Company British Sugar is the leading supplier of sugars to the UK, providing more than half the country's sugar requirements. Approximately 7000 farmers contract with British Sugar each year to provide around 9 million tonnes of raw material: sugar beet, which is grown on 135,000 hectares. The majority of the country's sugar beet production is concentrated in the eastern counties of England from Yorkshire down to Essex with a smaller area grown in the West Midlands. The free-draining well structured soils which are predominant in these regions are essential for successful sugar beet agriculture. British Sugar operates six factories which produce about 1.3 million tonnes of white sugar each year from beet. The processing season, known as the 'campaign', usually lasts from September until the end of February.

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The British beet sugar industry began in the early 1900's and the first factory was built by the Dutch at Cantley in Norfolk in 1912. During the 1920's a further 17 factories were erected and until the 1930's, the crop was processed by 13 autonomous companies in 18 factories throughout the country in an unplanned and uncoordinated operation {4}.

British Sugar operates six manufacturing sites in the UK that produce about 1.3 million tonnes of white sugar each year from sugar beet. These manufacturing sites (factories) are:

1. Allscott 2. Bury St.Edmunds 3. Cantley 4. Newark 5. Wissington 6. York All factories listed above produce LimeX (brand for defecation lime in British Sugar)

from beet sugar processing. Amount of waste they get is shown in the table-3.1.

Table-3.1. LimeX production by factories (2005/06 year: estimated production/K tonnes) {5}

Factory LimeX45 LimeX70

Allscott 28 12

Bury 0 75

Cantley 55 0

Newark 0 45

Wissington 0 110

York 0 54

During my study visit to British Sugar in November, 2005 I have visited 3 factories,

which are: Bury St.Edmunds, Cantley and Wissington. In the chapter-3.2.1.you will find more information about these 3 sugar manufacturing plants.

3.2.1. Bury St Edmunds sugar factory

Bury St Edmunds sugar factory was built in 1925. The factory employs a permanent workforce of 100 rising to 175 during the processing campaign which lasts, on average, about 150 days. The factory operates 24 hours a day throughout the campaign. The factory has an installed capacity to process 12,000 tonnes of beet a day. Around 1.85 million tonnes of beet are processed every year, with more than 660 lorry loads accepted each day {6}. The daily output of crystal sugar is about 1,300 tonnes. Sugar produced at Bury St Edmunds is stored in five silos with a combined storage capacity of 70,000 tonnes. Some of

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the beet processed is stored as thick juice in six large tanks with a combined capacity of 164,000 tonnes to be fully refined into crystal sugar during the late spring and early summer. About 70,000 tonnes of LimeX70 is produced each campaign and sold to farmers to correct acidity, add some nutrients, and improve the structure of the soil (see figure 3.1) {6}.

3.2.2. Cantley sugar factory Cantley sugar factory has a special place in the history of this country's sugar industry. Built in 1912, it was the first British beet sugar factory. Cantley factory employs a permanent workforce of 110 rising to 155 during the processing campaign which lasts, on average, about 140 days. The factory operates 24 hours a day throughout the campaign. The factory processes in excess of 1.3 million tonnes of beet every year. On average 380 lorry loads are accepted each day. The factory can process up to 9,000 tonnes of beet a day, with an average daily throughput of 8,500 tonnes. Around 1,150 tonnes of crystal sugar are produced every day. Sugar is stored in six silos, each with a storage capacity of 10,000 tonnes. Some of the beet processed is stored as thick juice in large tanks with a combined capacity of 44,000 tonnes to be fully refined into crystal sugar during the late spring and early summer {6}. In addition granulated sugar mainly in sacks, caster and extra fine sugar is also supplied from this factory. LimeX45 is produced each campaign and sold to farmers to correct acidity, add nutrients and improve the structure of the soil (see figure 3.2)

Figure-3.1.LimeX70 products storage at The Bury St Edmunds Sugar Factory (Pictures taken by Shoira Masharipova)

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3.2.3. Wissington sugar factory Wissington sugar factory was built in 1925. The factory has a permanent workforce of approximately 150 rising to 330 during the processing campaign which lasts, on average, about 22 weeks. This is followed by a juice refining operation which lasts a further 22 weeks. The factory operates 24 hours a day throughout the campaign and juice refining period. Approximately 2.4 million tonnes of beet are processed every year. Up to 900 lorry loads are accepted each day and the factory is able to process excess of 16,000 tonnes of beet a day. Wissington is the largest of the company’s factories with a daily output of crystal sugar reaching up to 1,500 tonnes. Sugar produced at Wissington is stored in seven silos with a combined storage capacity of 97,000 tonnes. Some of the beet processed is stored as thick juice in ten large tanks, to be fully refined into crystal sugar during the late spring and early summer. White crystal sugar is dispatched from the factory in bulk road tankers, 25 kg and 1 tonne bags. In addition, Wissington factory distributes a range of liquid sugars. Over 100,000 tonnes of LimeX70 is produced each campaign and sold to farmers to correct acidity, add some nutrients, and improve the structure of the soil (see figure 3.3) {6}.

Figure-3.3.Pressed LimeX70 and its storage in The Wissington Sugar Factory (Pictures taken by Shoira Masharipova)

Figure-3.2.Newly pumped and stored LimeX45 products in Cantley Sugar Factory (Pictures taken by Shoira Masharipova)

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Fig.3.4. Beet receiving {6}

Fig.3.5. Beet washing {6}

Fig.3.6. Slicing machine {6}

Fig.3.7. Diffusion {6}

3.2.4. Technological operations in British Sugar Factories Located in East England, the North-East and the East and West Midlands, six state-of-the-art processing plants match anything in the oil, chemical and power industries for complexity. Together, they process around 9 million tonnes of sugar beet during each production campaign. They produce 1.3 million tonnes of sugar per year. They satisfy more than half the UK's sugar requirements and supply export markets. The extraction and production of white sugar from beet takes place on the same factory site. Beet Sugar manufacturing process of sugar and explanations of process stages in UK are described below (sugar manufacturing process scheme in British Sugar you can find in the Appendix-3). Each year's crop yields between eight and ten million tonnes of sugar beet. Around 3,500 lorry loads of sugar beet are delivered daily to British Sugar's factories which take in more than 400,000 tonnes of beet each week during the processing season (campaign); this is completed by the end of February.

Sampling On arrival, a sample of the sugar beet is taken from the load and tested to measure the sugar content and to determine the amount of soil, tops or leaves present in the load. These analyses, combined with the weight of the vehicle entering and leaving the factory, enables the calculation of the quantity of sugar delivered and hence the payment due (Fig.3.4.).

Cleaning Sugar beet floats in water and in the cleaning stage of the process it is moved around in large quantities of water, allowing the beet to pass through machinery which 'catches' stones but allows the beet to float over the top. Weeds and other trash are also removed before the beet enters the factory, where it is sliced into thin slices called 'cossettes' (Fig.3.5.).

Slicing The slicing machines work in a similar manner to a kitchen grater and the cossettes they produce have a 'V' cross section. This ensures the largest possible surface area is presented to maximise the sugar extraction stage (Fig.3.6.).

Diffusion Sugar is extracted from the beet by diffusion. This process takes place in a large vessel and in simple terms is akin to brewing tea in a teapot. The cossettes are mixed with hot water at around 70°C for a period of time and the sugar simply passes from the plant cells into the surrounding water by the diffusion process (Fig.3.7.).

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Fig.3.8. Filters (Picture taken by

Shoira Masharipova)

The vegetable material left behind from this stage is mechanically pressed to extract as much remaining sugar and water as possible and, after the addition of molasses, is dried to produce animal feed products. It is this drying process which gives rise to the familiar plume of steam rising from the factory. The liquid resulting from the diffusion process is dark in colour and is called raw juice. Purification This juice is passed through an important purification stage called carbonation. This involves mixing the juice with milk of lime and adding carbon dioxide gas. During this process, the carbon dioxide and the milk of lime re-combine to produce calcium carbonate which precipitates out, taking most of the impurities from the juice with it. This lime which contains important trace elements is sold as a soil improving agent under the LimeX brand.

Evaporation The pale yellow juice which remains is called thin juice and while much purer it is still relatively low in sugar content. It passes to the next stage of the process - evaporation - where the water is boiled off in a series of evaporator vessels to increase the solids content of the juice from the previous 16 per cent in thin juice to 65 per cent in the thick juice. The concentrated juice passes through filters (Fig.3.8.), after which it is ready for the final stage of the process; or it can be stored and brought back into the factory during the summer to produce crystal sugar.

Crystallisation The crystallisation process takes place in vacuum pans which boil the juice at lower temperatures under vacuum. When the juice reaches a predetermined concentration it is 'seeded' with tiny sugar crystals which provide the nucleus for larger crystals to form and grow. When the crystals reach the desired size the process is stopped and the resultant mixture of crystal sugar and syrup - known as massecuite - is spun in centrifuges to separate the sugar from the 'mother liquor'. The sugar crystals are washed and after drying and cooling, are conveyed to storage silos. Some sugar remains in the separated liquid so it is boiled again in a further set of vacuum pans to produce raw sugar. This process is repeated a third time resulting in final product sugar and molasses. Raw and final product sugars are re dissolved into the thick juice.

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Figure.4.1. Sugar beet yield (Picture taken by

Shoira Masharipova)

Figure.4.2. Photosynthesis {8}

4. Technological process of sugar manufacturing

Sugar is a form of simple carbohydrates, which supplies as a best energy for human body. In the family of simple sugar lie three main forms of sugar known as glucose, fructose and sucrose. Sucrose when consumed will be broken down by human bodies into glucose and fructose. Sucrose is the most common form of sugar found in our diet.

Sugar is found almost in every fruit and vegetable. In a balanced diet that consists of protein, carbohydrate, fibre and fats, carbohydrate remains the most important sources of our energy. While the digestion and conversion of complex carbohydrate (such as rice, potato etc) into glucose by our bodies requires a longer time, simple sugar such as a piece candy or a cup of beverage would help if we need a quick support of energy.

Sugar is made by some plants to store energy that they don't need straight away, rather like animals make fat. People like sugar for its sweetness and its energy so some of these plants are grown commercially to extract the sugar.

Sugar is produced in 121 countries and global production now exceeds 120 million tons /year. Approximately 70% is produced from sugar cane, a tall grass with big stems which is largely grown in the tropical countries. The remaining 30% is produced from sugar beet, a root crop grown mostly in the mild zones of the north and in some Asian countries {7}.

In sugar beet processing there is a purification process, from which we obtain calcium containing waste, which is called defecation lime or just defecat. As it is the waste only from sugar beet processing, in my thesis work I will describe sugar producing process from sugar beets.

4.1. Raw material – sugar beet futures Sugar beet is a temperate climate biennial root

crop (fig.4.1). It produces sugar during the first year of growth in order to see it over the winter and then flowers and seeds in the second year. It is therefore sown in spring and harvested in the first autumn/early winter for industrial use. In the photosynthesis process, CO2 of the atmosphere and the soil moisture with the help of sunlight form the sugars (carbohydrates) (fig.4.2):

The beet stores the sucrose in the bulbous root. Typical sugar content for fully grown beets is 17% by

weight but the value depends on the variety and it does vary from year to year and location to location. This is substantially more than the sucrose content of mature cane but the yields of beet per hectare are much lower than for cane so that the expected sugar production is only about 7 tons per hectare while sugar cane is 100 tons per hectare {7}.

6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2

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Figure-4.3. Sugar beet content {9}

The sugar beet contains 14-17% sugar, 76-78% water, 4-5% insoluble dry ingredients, and 2-3% soluble dry ingredients (nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous organic and inorganic components (figure-4.3.) {9}.

4.2. Technological process of beet sugar producing

Processing of sugar beet into granulated sugar consists of a chain of physical and chemical operations with the object being to preserve the natural sugar and remove all other materials (in the Appendix-4 you can see flow chart of sugar beet).

The total time from beet washing to white sugar is about twelve hours. Depending upon sugar content of the beet, 100 tonnes of beet will give approximately 12-14 tonnes of sugar and 3-4 tonnes of molasses {11}.

White crystal sugar production involves a great many processing stages, such as:

1. Harvesting 2. Beet Handling 3. Diffusion 4. Pulp Dryer 5. Lime Kiln 6. Purification & Filtration 7. Evaporation 8. Crystallization & Separation 9. Molasses desugarization 10. Packaging and Storage

There follows descriptions of the main unit operations of the beet sugar production.

4.2.1. Harvesting the beet

The harvesting of the sugar beet starts about at the end of September and continues for about 2-3 months. Production of sugar from the beet is a continuous process. Once the campaign starts it continues 24 hours a day, seven days a week, until the entire beet is processed. Harvesting is also done by mechanical ways. Today's mechanical harvester is particularly original. It not alone takes the root out of the ground; it also cleans it and cuts off the top of the plants. The leaves are a valuable source of animal feed.

Sugar beets are usually transported to the factory by large trucks.

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Figure-4.4. Beet handling {10}

4.2.2. Beet handling Beet handling (figure-4.4.) in the factory includes weighting, sampling and unloading. The Lorries drive over a weighbridge where their weight is automatically measured. At the same time a sample of the particular load is taken to determine the sugar percentage and the amount of tare in the overall load. Tare may consist of clay, stones, beet tops, etc. It is deducted from the gross weight of the load in order to determine the net weight of clean beet delivered. The farmer is paid a predetermined price per tonne of clean beet delivered. There are two systems of unloading - dry unloading and wet unloading. When dry unloading, the beet is conveyed from the lorry by a series of conveyer belts to open air silos where it is stored. In wet unloading the beet is washed from the lorry by means of a powerful jet of water. Beet is transferred from the silos to the factory by means of water. In route to the production process, stones and grass are removed in a series of stone and grass catchers.

The beet is thoroughly washed before processing to remove all traces of clay and sand. The beets then flow into a beet washer where they are rubbed together to be cleaned. From the washer, they are elevated to the top of the factory where a final rinsing and de-watering takes place on a roller-spray table. The beets are then conveyed into a hopper where they are fed into the beet slices.

4.2.3. Diffusion process

The actual sugar is inside the beet and has to be extracted. The sugar beets are fed from the slicing hopper into the slicing machines where very sharp knives cut them into long noodle-like pieces called cossettes. Emerging from the slicing machines, the cossettes fall onto a conveyor belt to be weighed and fed into the diffusion system. Here the sugar is removed from the beets by hot water "washing" or diffusing the sugar from the beets. Sugar is then extracted from the beet by diffusing it out with hot water up to 70oC. This is done in a large vessel specially designed for this purpose (figure-4.5.).

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Figure-4.5.Diffusion process {10}

Beet slices are fed in continuously at one end and hot water at the other end. The beets are fed into the bottom of the diffuser and are moved upward through the diffuser where they emerge with 2% of the sugar left in them. The spent beets are called wet pulp and processed in presses and dryers to become livestock feed. Hot water is fed into the top of the diffuser and flows down through the beets continuously extracting the sugar from the beets and emerges from the diffuser as sugar water called "raw juice". This contains about 14% sugar and is black in colour. The extraction process uses a process called osmosis where the sugar is passed through the porous membrane on the beet's cell wall, while some of the non-sugars are retained by the cell.

4.2.4. Pulp Dryer

The wet pulp (90-92% water) from the diffuser is sent to pulp presses. The pulp presses squeeze the pulp in order to remove as much water as possible. And then it is called pressed pulp (72-78% water) and is either sold as livestock feed or sent to the dryer for further processing. The water pressed out of the pulp is sent back to the diffuser to recover the sugar in it. The rotary drum pulp dryers are direct fired by oil, gas or coal and dry the pulp to 12% moisture (figure-4.6.). The dried pulp can be sold but is normally compacted into pellets for easier handling and stored in a bulk warehouse for future sales. Pressed pulp is sold for short-term use while pellets store for longer periods, but both are used for livestock feed.

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Figure-4.6.Pulp dryer {10}

4.2.5. Lime Kiln

In sugar factory the lime kiln (figure-4.7.) supplies the burned lime and carbon dioxide for the purification processes. Limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated to 10930C in a vertical shaft lime kiln using hard coal or natural gas. The heating process releases carbon dioxide from the limestone reducing the calcium carbonate to calcium oxide. The calcium oxide (burned lime) is then mixed with sweet water to form milk of lime in a lime slacker. The milk of lime is mixed with the juices in the purification system and the carbon dioxide is pumped directly to the purification system.

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Figure-4.7.Lime Kiln {10}

4.2.6. Purification and Filtration processes

At the diffusion stage other substances are extracted from the beet as well as the sugar. But before sugar can be produced in a white crystalline form it is necessary to remove as many of these non-sugars as possible. This part of the process is referred to as juice purification.

The main raw materials used in the purification are lime and carbon dioxide gas which are got by burning limestone in a kiln. These substances are added to the juice causing non-sugars to be precipitated out of the solution.

The raw juice moves through various stages of purification and filtration (figure-4.8.) to remove non-sugars. It is first heated to 85o C and then sent to the pre liming, where most of the non-sugars are precipitated by gradual pH elevation (progressive pre liming). From pre liming, the juice flows through the main liming where the rest of the lime is added on its way to the first carbonation station.

Here carbon dioxide gas from the lime kiln is bubbled through the limed juice where it reacts with the lime to form calcium carbonate and adsorbs some of the non-sugars. This process is tightly controlled to give the juice the proper pH or alkalinity leaving the first carbonation station.

Now the carbonated juice flows to a clarifier where the precipitated calcium carbonate formed in first carbonation is settled out. This leaves a clear juice to be sent to heaters and on to the second carbonation system. The defecation lime left behind in the bottom of the clarifier is removed and fed to vacuum drum filters where it is washed to recover the sugar

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Figure-4.8.Purification and filtration {10}

left in it. The washed defecat has about 1% of the sugar from the beets in it and is sent to a lime pond. The washed water with the recovered sugar is called "sweet water" and is sent to the lime house to be mixed with the burned lime to be recycled to the purification system.

In the second carbonation system, carbon dioxide gas is again bubbled through the juice reacting with the residual lime to form calcium carbonate precipitate. The amount of gas is controlled by pH to obtain the proper alkalinity and the carbonated juice is sent to the second carbonation filters where the calcium carbonate precipitate is removed. This precipitate is sent to the defecat tank and then to the drum filters for processing with the precipitate from first carbonation. The clear juice moves on to sulphuring where sulphur dioxide is added to the juice to remove some colour forming materials that would carry through to the finished sugar and to adjust the pH to allow for easier boiling in the evaporators and vacuum pans in further processing.

4.2.7. Evaporation process

The purified juice is a sugar solution containing approximately 14% sugar and 1% non-sugars. In order to turn the sugar into a crystalline form it is necessary to concentrate this solution. This is done by boiling off water from the solution in large vessels known as evaporators (figure-4.9.). The sulphated juice is now called "thin juice" and is heated and fed into the evaporators. The evaporation station consists of 4 to 6 evaporator bodies that contain tubes. Steam is fed to the outside of the tubes and the juice is on the inside of the tubes. The heat transfers from the steam to the juice. This evaporates some water from the juice helping to concentrate it while the steam is condensed. The water evaporated in one evaporator becomes the steam feeding the next evaporator while the juice travels from one effect to the next. The thin juice enters the evaporators at 13 to 15% solids and leaves the station at 60%

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Figure-4.9. Evaporation process {10}

solids and is called thick juice. The multiple effect station allows 2.5 to 2.8 pounds of water to be evaporated per every pound of steam fed to the first effect of the evaporator station.

4.2.8. Crystallization and Separation

The thick juice from the evaporator station is sent to the high melting machine where the high and low raw sugars are dissolved in it through vigorous agitation and heat. The melted juice is then heated and filtered and further concentrated through the "concentrator" to 70 to 75% solids. This is then called standard liquor and is fed to the white pan where white sugar is crystallized from solution. Crystallization takes place in a batch process when water is evaporated from the solution in the vacuum pan. Finely ground sugar is used to "seed" the pan and each seed crystal grows into a typically sized sugar crystal. More and more water is evaporated forcing more and more sugar to crystallize on each sugar crystal. The solution is concentrated to 92% solids and consists of sugar crystal surrounded by syrup of sugar-water and this is call white massecuite. The massecuite batch is dropped into a mixer that then feeds the white centrifugals.

The white centrifugals separate the sugar crystals from the syrup in the massecuite by spinning the sugar against a screen while the syrup spins through the screen. Hot water is used to wash the residual syrup from the crystal and the spinning helps to partially dry the sugar. The white sugar is then conveyed to the granulator for further drying and cooling. The finished sugar is then sifted for lumps and moved on to the bulk sugar bins for storage. The bulk storage "conditions" the sugar before it is loaded for bulk shipment or sent to the warehouse for packaging.

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Figure-4.10.Crystallization and Separation {10}

The white centrifugal produce two syrups, the high wash is higher purity syrup that is recycled to the high melter. The green is the lower purity syrup from the white centrifugals and it still contains a considerable amount of sugar. It is sent to the high raw vacuum pan for processing. Here again, seed crystals and evaporation are used to remove sugar from the syrup solution and deposit it on the sugar crystal. The high raw massecuite (sugar crystal and sugar syrup mixture) is sent to a mixer and then to another set of centrifugals to separate the sugar crystal from the syrup (figure-4.10.). The sugar crystals made here are not a good enough quality to sell as white sugar (they look like raw sugar) so they are sent to the high melter to be re-dissolved and re-processed in the white pan. This pan, mixer and centrifugal system are called the high raw system.

The syrup leaving the high raw centrifugals is called machine syrup. It is an even

lower purity than the high green syrup but still contains enough sugar that it needs for further processing. The machine syrup is sent to the low raw system that contains one additional piece of equipment as compared to the high raw system. The low raw vacuum pan is used to crystallize sugar out of solution but instead of feeding the low raw massecuite straight to the low raw mixer and centrifugals, the low raw massecuite is sent to a crystallizer where cold water is used to continue the crystallization process for an additional 48 hours. From here it is sent to a reheating and to the low raw centrifugals where sugar crystals are separated from the syrup called molasses. The sugar crystals are sent to the high melting for re-processing in the white pan. The molasses is about 50% sugar by weight and this is sent to the Scottsbluff facility where about 80% of this sugar is recovered. The molasses is another place in the

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Figure-4.11.Molasses desugarization {10}

process where sugar is lost. About 10-15% of the sugar from the beets leaves the sugar factory in molasses. This is the biggest loss of sugar in a standard sugar factory.

4.2.9. Molasses desugarization process

The molasses is sent to the molasses desugarization system (figure-4.11). This operation removes about 80% of the sugar in the molasses. The molasses must be treated to remove some non-sugars that will cause processing problems in the separation process. These non-sugars consist of calcium, magnesium and suspended solids. The molasses is softened by replacing non-sugars with sodium and filtering the precipitates formed in the reaction. The pre-treatment process consists of dilution, heating, soda ash addition (sodium source), reactors (softeners) and filtering. The filtering process uses plate and frame filters to squeeze the softened molasses through filter leaves, while the precipitated non-sugars remain behind.

The softened molasses is sent to the separation (ion exclusion) process. The columns are loaded with a resin that attracts certain chemicals while letting other chemicals pass through quickly. This difference in travel time is used to separate the molasses into a sugar fraction, a betaine fraction and a residual molasses fraction. The fractions are then concentrated and the sugar fraction is stored for processing in the sugar end of the Scottsbluff factory into white sugar while the betaine and molasses fractions are sold as by-products.

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4.2.10. Packaging and Storage of product

The final sugar is white and ready for use, whether in the kitchen or by an industrial user such as a soft drink manufacturer.

Dry sugar is stored in sugar silo which has air conditioning, so the sugar can be kept for a longer time. For the expedition sugar is packed in 50, 25 kg bags, or a commercial packing in 1 kg and 2 kg bags. It can also be delivered unpacked in tanks. Before packing, it is important that all sugar be cooled below 45° C (113° F). At higher temperatures it hardens in the bag or silo and can develop colour. Beet sugar factories store white sugar in silos during production and pack sugar year-round to meet the current market {10}.

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5. Different fields of application for defecation lime Defecation lime from sugar industry can be handled in a different ways according to

conditions in the area, like:

1. Distance from plant to the handling station. 2. Soil conditions (pH, fertilizer need, types of crops to be grown, etc.). 3. Need for such type of “secondary raw material”. 4. Regulations in economical, social and ecological field of the region.

Defecation lime from purification process is treated in different ways in the different

countries of the world. Possible methods of handling defecat are listed below: 1. Liming material as soil pH stabilizer and improver; 2. As fertilizer; 3. Component of mixed greenhouse soil; 4. Sorbent, to treat waste water from other branches of industry; 5. Additional material in cement production; 6. In foam concrete production 7. Additional minerals for animal feeding and others.

As a result of interviewing some sugar manufacturing plants it was shown that almost

all countries use it as a soil amendment to stabilize soil pH and to improve soil structure. But, there should be certain conditions of the soil to handle it in such way such as described in the chapter 7.

5.1. Defecat for stabilizing soil pH Defecation lime from sugar industry is an important complementary nutrient source

(for more information about ingredients see the chapter-1.5.1.). To the quality of root-crops, for example to the productivity of sugar beet significantly influences the pH of soil solution. Its optimum value, depending on soil types varies in the range of 6.0-7.0. On the loamy soils favourable pH reaction is from neutral to weak-alkaline. For the light soils weakly acid reaction is acceptable.

An increased acidity represses plants and vital activity of soil micro organisms and encourages the development of diseases.

Therefore all soils which have pH value of < 5.5 need liming. Defecation lime, which contains 40-70% of carbonate calcium, 10-15% of organic matter, 0.3-0.8% of nitrogen, 0.2-1% of phosphorus and 0.4-0.8% of potassium is quite good amendment in this case{12}.

5.1.1. Soil pH Soil pH, or soil reaction, is an indicator of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is

measured in pH units. The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. Soil pH affects the solubility of minerals or nutrients essential for plant growth. Soils with 4.0-5.0 pH value are strongly acid. They can have high concentrations of soluble aluminium, iron and manganese, which may be toxic to the growth of some plants.

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Soils are become acidic as a result of:

• Rainwater leaching away basic ions - calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium;

• Carbon dioxide from decomposing organic matter and rain water forming weak organic acids;

• Decay of organic matter and ammonium and sulphide fertilizers. Descriptive terms associated with certain ranges in soil pH are shown in the table-5.1.

Table-5.1. pH ranges {13}

Acidity(alkalinity) conditions

pH values Examples

Extremely acid less than 4.5 Lemon = 2.5 Very strongly acid 4.5 – 5 tomatoes=4.5 Strongly acid 5.1 – 5.5 cabbage=5.3 Moderately acid 5.6 – 6.0 potatoes=5.6 Slightly acid 6.1 – 6.5 Cow’s milk – 6.5 Neutral 6.6 – 7.3 blood=7.3 Slightly alkaline 7.4 – 7.8 Eggs = 7.6 – 7.8 Moderately alkaline 7.9 – 8.4 Sea water = 8.2 Strongly alkaline 8.5 - 9 Very strongly alkaline > 9.1 Lime=12

5.1.2. Liming

Acid soils are unfavourable for most plants. The acidity of soils to different degree is dangerous for the plants. It suppresses them and stops normal increase and development. There are plants which grow better on soils of slightly acid and even neutral pH. The majority of garden plants do better on the middle soils. Acidity of the soil affects plants not only directly, but also indirectly. Acid soils do not dry in spring and then in summer time rapidly dry up and are covered by crust. The nutrients contained in the acid soils, are badly managed by plants. In such soils the substantial part of some introduced fertilizers (for example, phosphoric) is converted to the inassimilable form. Acidification of soil is accompanied, furthermore, by the accumulation of substances which are harmful for the plants. In the acid soils the bacteria will also develop badly. Liming is better done in the period of preparation of the soil, but it is also possible after this period. In sections occupied with fruit and berry plants, it is possible to introduce lime at any time, but in sections for wild strawberries, lime must be introduced only after plants finally strike root not earlier than 2 months after sawing, which will give an increase yield. Lime is added in spring or in autumn before the deep working of soil.

For liming the soil a lot of substances can be used. Mostly, ground limestone is used. This is the basic lime fertilizer. Besides it, other lime containing substances are possible to use. These are: slaked lime, ground dolomites, ground chalk, lake lime, dolomite flour and diverse wastes of the industry: defecation lime from sugar industry, cement mill, burned dolomite dust, gas lime, carbide lime, peat ashes and many others {14}.

On the soils with the increased acidity lime added at the higher doses. The doses of lime introduced depend on a number of conditions: from the acidity of soil and its mechanical

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composition, from the composition of the soil and how deep in the soil it is added. In the table-5.2.exemplary doses of lime, according to soil pH, are shown.

Table-5.2.Approximately doses of the limestone to introduce to the soil (in grams at the depth of 20 cm on one square meter) {14}

The soil

Acidity of the soil (pH) Clay and loamy Sandy and sandy loam

Very strong (ph=4 and below) 500-600 and more 300-400 Strong (ph=4.1-4.5) 400-500 250-300 Average (ph=4.6-5.0) 300-400 200-400 Weak (ph=5.1-5.5) 300-250 Do not limed Close to the neutral (ph=5.5-6.0) Do not limed Do not limed

Excessively high doses of lime are harmful. If the lime is introduced in large doses,

some elements of nourishment will have reduced absorption by plants, (for example, potassium and some others that are converted to less soluble forms).

As a rule, lime should be contributed at the depth of 20 cm, but, when it is contributed at the incomplete doses, it is sealed in small particles and added to 4-6 cm depth.

Frequency of liming data, with the condition of the introduction of the total dose, it must be done only time in 10-12 years. But, if it is added at small doses, then the soil should be limed frequently, and the sum of doses should be the sum same as the total dose {14}. Repeated liming is depending on the soil and the content of the nutrient in the soil.

5.1.3. Advantages of liming the soil resources

By supplying nutrients to the crop and preventing soils to become more acid we will get long term benefits. To reach profitability and productivity we need to preserve soil healthy a sustainable.

Soil can become more acid over time, even under natural conditions. Many soils, particularly in high rainfall areas, become more acid over time, even under natural conditions. Some farming activities such as fertilizer application and crop removal make this process go faster. Most soils used for growing sugarcane in wet tropics of north Queensland are already acidic. The capacity of the soils to store nutrients and supply them to plant roots will be reduced with further acidification.

Therefore soil’s capacity to hold important nutrients including calcium, magnesium and potassium should be improved.

The waste lime from sugar production can decrease the quantity of soluble aluminium and manganese in soil profile. Also, it will reduce the risk of additional acidification. The amount of lime needed depends on the soil type, to difference in soil pH, buffering and cation exchange capacity, which means soil’s nutrient holding ability of the soil.

It means that liming may be very important even the soil has sufficient calcium. The effects of lime application need to be evaluated over several years, because economic responses may not appear for several years after the primary application. After liming physiological and biochemical processes are normalized in the soils. Conditions for the vital activity of the soil micro organisms are improved as well. And many of them possess antagonistic activity against the pathogens.

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5.1.4. Measuring soil pH

Soil pH provides various clues about soil properties. The most perfect method of determining it is by a pH meter.

There is maybe considerable variation in the soil pH from one part of the territory to another. Therefore the sample should be collected from several locations, combined and thoroughly mixed before taking sub sample for testing.

pH value can be identified using ordinary, inexpensive pH test kits, but result which is obtained from this method is maybe not so perfect. It is based on colour chart matching which tells pH of the solution.

5.1.5. Desirable pH Many plants can tolerate pH ranges between 5.2 and 7.8, but most plants grow better

in mineral soils when soil pH is between 6.0 and 7.0. This regulation is relevant to most of the commonly grown fruits, vegetables, flowers and trees. Potatoes tolerate a wide range in soil pH. Below, the table-5.3.gives the most favourable ranges of the acidity of soil solution for some cultures.

Table-5.3. Plants and pH values suitable for them {15}

The plant pH value Lucerne 7.2 – 8.0 Sugar beet 7.0 – 7.5 Cabbage 7.0 – 7.4 Cucumbers 6.4 – 7.5 Onions 6.4 – 7.5 Corn 6.0 – 7.5 Soya 6.5 – 7.5 Pea 6.0 – 7.0 Bean 6.4 – 7.1 Lettuce 6.0 – 7.0 Sunflower 6.0 – 6.8 Millet 5.5 – 7.5 Oats 5.0 – 7.5 Radish 5.0 – 7.3 Carrot 5.6 – 7.0 Tomatoes 5.0 – 8.0 Potatoes 4.5 – 6.3

Some plants, such as Lucerne, sugar beet, cabbage, cotton plant grow only on the

neutral and weak alkaline soils, with pH value of 7-8. Plants, such as clover, cucumbers, corn, legumes, wheat, barley and etc are very

sensitive to the increased acidity. They better develop on the neutral and slightly acid soils, with the pH value of 6-7. For some plants: radish, tomatoes, millet are characteristic the wide interval pH 4.5-7.5, they can satisfactorily grew in the acid and weak alkaline reaction, for others – relatively narrow interval pH.

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Under potatoes, it is desirable to introduce lime with the significant content of magnesium {16}.

5.2. As fertilizer

The chemical compositions of the defecation lime show that it is not only a lime, but also a complex fertilizer. With 40 tonne/ha of defecat macro elements: 120(N):100(P):180(K), also microelements: 0.06 kg/ha of Zinc, 0.44-0.48 kg/ha of copper can be introduced {17}. As result of applying defecation lime, there was increase in:

• the content of organic matter in the soil; • in the sum of exchange bases; • capacity of absorption; • the degree of saturation by bases,

There were also changes in soil acidity: from slightly acid to neutral. One of the most

important conditions of the soil is fermentative activity which is due to a change in the fertility of the soil. As a result of applying the defecat an increase in the protease activity of soil is established. Favourable combination of the physic-chemical properties of soil in the descriptions with the defecat assisted for the invigoration of the activities of nitrogen fixating bacteria to 8 - 24%. The action of manure on the urea’s activity of soil was weaker in comparison with the defecation lime. But with the introduction into soil of a fertilizer containing 90(N):60(P):60(K) a decrease at the amount of nitrogen fixating bacteria, which is connected with the acidification of the soil.

The productivity of agricultural crops is the resulting factor of a change in the fertility

of soil under the effect of the fertilizers. Application of a defecat resulted in an increase in the productivity of grain of winter wheat, improvement in its quality: raised the general glassiness of grain, increased the content of protein and gluten in the grain.

Thus, the application of a defecat, facilitating an improvement in the soils physic-chemical properties, increase the activity of biochemical processes in the soil and an important method of an increasing the soil fertility and productivity of crops.

The composition of defecation lime, includes a significant quantity of both the basic

nutrients, and the microelements, as shown in the table 5.4 (a; b). There are six or seven heavy metals used in the agriculture as micro elements in this type of waste. They are not dangerous for plants in small quantities.

The influence of different doses of defecation lime on the productivity of tomato (table 5.5.) and sugar beet (table 5.6.) yield is different.

Joint application of defecation lime with urea gives the highest addition of harvest - 7,

37 t/ha, that corresponds to an increase in the harvest of tomatoes by 25, 1%; the harvest of sugar beet with the indicated doses of defecat and urea increases to 7, 6 t/ha or to 28, 8% {17}. With an increase in the doses of defecat soil activity raises, microbiological processes in the soil increases and output of carbon dioxide increase too.

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Table-5.4. Composition of the defecat {17} a) main substances;

b) The other elements;

Table-5.5. Influence of the doses of the used defecat on productivity of tomato {17}

Table-5.6. Influence of the doses of the used defecat on productivity of sugar beet {17}

It is concluded that the defecation lime contains similar nitrogen; phosphorus and

potassium, as there are 0.16 N, 0.13 P and 1.57 K (in tonnes) in the content of manure with the composition {18}.

In dry condition

Compounds N P2O5 K2O Ashes

Amount (%) 0,34 0,54 0,85 88,20

Compounds Cd Mn Sr Zn Ni Co Pb

Amount (m/kg) - 130 10,0 30,1 17,0 2,63 8,9

Increase of the yield №

Options Medium harvestt/ha

t/ ha %

1 Without defecat 29,7 - -

2 Defecat, 10 t/ha 32,3 2,58 8,3

3 Defecat, 20 t/ha 32,8 3,09 10,4

4 Defecat, 30 t/ha 34,7 4,99 16,8

5 Defecat, 40 t/ha 36,0 6,33 21,3

6 Defecat, 50 t/ha 37,0 7,18 24,5

7 Defecat, 30 t/ha + urea 37,2 7,35 25,1

Increase of the yield №

Options Medium harvestt/ha

t/ ha %

1 Without defecat 26,3 - -

2 Defecat, 10 t/ha 27,2 0,8 3,0

3 Defecat, 20 t/ha 28,6 2,2 8,3

4 Defecat, 30 t/ha 31,8 5,4 20,5

5 Defecat, 40 t/ha 32,9 6,5 24,6

6 Defecat, 50 t/ha 33,4 7,0 25,0

7 Defecat, 30 t/ha + urea 34,0 7,6 28,8

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5.2.1. Advantages of Calcium and Magnesium

Calcium is a special element which is responsible for many important agricultural properties of soil. Some of these properties such as increase and development of plants strongly depend on the saturation of the soil absorbing complex by this element. In the soil absorbing complex the cations of calcium and ions of hydrogen (which makes soil acidic) are situated in the dynamic balance. Therefore two components: the quantity of calcium ions and the acidity level of the soil should be taken into consideration.

The importance of calcium is defined by its multi action both on the entire plant, including the physiological properties of root system and to the number of population of phytopathogens in the soil. As there is also magnesium in the defecation lime, this also acts in favourable ways with calcium (in the Appendix-5 you can see the main advantages of calcium and magnesium for the soil structure and for plants) {19}.

5.3. As additional material for the greenhouse soil mixtures Defecation lime contains many valuable minerals and organic nitrogen-bearing matter

and in combination with other fertilizers and fertile soil is very effective the cultivation of seedlings in the greenhouse soil. However, to get the proper result, fertile and structural soil must be used. Defecat is composted together with organic matter. Rich fertile soil, in two or three months becomes a nourishing soil for greenhouses and hot-houses.

This compost is akin to traditional greenhouse compounded mixture of turf earth, humus and the sand in relationship 6:3:1.

Compost should be turned over twice. After 3 months it is ready to use. The technology of the preparation of such nourishing it compounded it consists of the

mechanical agitation of components before the formation of uniform mass. That can be done in the following relationships {20}: The preparation of such nourishment is given in the following 3 relationships (a, b, c):

a) Components Soil Defecat Manure Chicken manure (%) 40 20 20 20

b)

Components Soil Defecat Manure Chicken manure (%) 30 20 25 25

c)

Components Soil Defecat Manure (%) 40 40 20

5.4. Use of defecat as a sorbent

This is the effective, low-power-consuming and cheap method of the utilization of defecat. It is provided by the modification of its surface with the aid of the process of thermolysis and the method of obtaining the effective sorbent for the purification of waste water from the organic impurities and the suspended matters.

The specific surface area of product composes 400 - 600 m2/g. It should be noted that a quantity of adsorbed organic matter on the surface of CaCO3 depends on the pollution of

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beet by the earth, the period of ripening beet and degree of the diffusion of organic matter from the beet, which can reach 20% and it is above {21}.

Thermolysis of the defecat is done in a temperature range in which the adsorbed surface organic matters form the intermediate product, CaCO3 +C (carbon-black). This product possesses high sorption properties with respect to fats, petroleum products and other organic matter.

The obtained powder has next features:

• is dark grey or black colour; • structure is refined; • possesses with a high degree of dispersion; • optimum radius of particles from 0,5 to 1 µm; • high chemical stability to different destructive circumstances; • high absorptive power on oils and fats; • low density in limits of 2650 - 2750 kg/m3; • high hydrophobic; • And the most important: it is ecologically clean and safe in the application.

Studies of the degree of purification of waste in a dairy industry combine with the sorbent and it is allowed to determine the optimum temperature of thermolysis, which is equal to 6000C {21}.

In contemporary enterprises for processing of milk a large quantity of the adsorbent highly contained with the organic contaminators is formed.

The mechanism of the process of cleaning works in a way so that the finely dispersed particles of thermolysed defecat cover the balls of fat and as a result of hydrophobic interaction and under the action of the force of gravity (with the specific concentration of sorbent) destroys the emulsions and coagulate particles. The precipitated sediment is easily separated with the aid of a vertical sump or centrifugation. 98.6% of the fat can be removed and a considerable amount of waste is reduced {21}.

5.5. As a micro filler in cement production

Defecation lime can be used as micro filler in the concrete production process. Concrete produced in such way is used for cement manufacture.

At the preparation of cement, defecation lime from sugar refinery with a humidity of 2-4% is mixed up in a mixer or in a ball mill with hot Portland cement.

The composition of defecation lime which was used to fulfil this technology was(mass in %): calcium carbonate -74,2; sugar -2,0; nitrogen-free organic matter-9,5; nitrogen-0,9; lime in the form of salts of different acids-2,8; other mineral substances -3,0; pectin substances -1,7. The quantity of defecation lime, introduced into the Portland cement, does not exceed 40 % of its mass.

While mixing with Portland cement, defecation lime is heated to a temperature of 12000C. At this heating level organic components burn down and form ashes and mineral components become more active.

At the preparation of concrete or solution compounded defecation lime is dried to a constant mass at a temperature of 12000C. Depending on designation of the compound the lime is added to 32-40% of the weight. Defecation lime with particles less than 0,071 mm and dried to a constant temperature becomes an active additive. This allows increased strength and density of concrete block {22}.

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5.6. In Foam concrete production

As it is known, the presence in the cement mixtures of mineral fillers is very desirable, because of the final reduce in the cost of the product, the decrease of shrinkage phenomenon in the process of hardening and the organize structure of the cement stone.

Quarts sand with the volumetric mass of less than 400 kg/m3 is traditional filler for foam concrete {23}. Because of the high density these materials are optional for use. Instead, defecation lime can be used as filler in foam concrete production. In this type of waste, calcium carbonate is formed in the small porous particles with the size to 0.5 mm. Defecat has its porosity as a result of flow of the chemical reaction between calcium and carbon dioxide in the sugar beet juice. The solid bodies of the calcium carbonate are pinched with the mixture of carbon dioxide and the air (see the chemical and symbolic reactions above). This hypothesis is one of the theoretical prerequisites for the use of this waste. Therefore its apparent density is significantly lower than in sand and cement. This property allows them to retain in the foam considerably more prolonged time. Foam concrete, which contains defecat, proved to be more crack proof {23}. This due to a fact that the contact zone between the porous particle of carbonate and the grain of cement become the most durable part of the cement – lime conglomerate, since here cement hydrates more deeply than in the cement-cement or cement-quartz contact zone. This is because the particles of porous filler during a long time will return the contained water, which is not with the contact with the monolithic particle of mineral filling to the cement. At the same time, the yield of water creates vacuum, as a consequence of that they are sealed and additionally strengthened by the atmospheric pressure of the contact zone. The production experiments (obtaining blocks with the sizes of 390x188x190 mm) showed that with the use of defecat foam concrete is formed with the density of 250 kg/m3 and the strength of 0.5 m Pa. When only cement is used the strength of foam concrete does not increase 0.3 m Pa {23}. In the process of the hardening of foam concrete with the use of defecat shrinkage and crack formation are apparent to considerably smaller degree.

5.7. Defecation lime in animal feeding ration as a mineral additive

In animal feeding as a calcium source, two types of product: sandbank or lime stone are used.

Sandbank of stern is widely used as a calcium additive with the feeding of all forms of animals. It consists of Ca - 37%, F - 0.18%, K - 0.5%, Na – 0.3%, Cr (silicon and others).

To suckling-pigs chalk is given in a quantity to 1% and to adult up to 2% to the dry matter of a ration.

Lime stones for animals should have following content: Ca – 32.6%, Mg – 2.8%, Cr – 3.5%, Fe – 0.0%, S – 0.2%. Quantity of pure calcium in the lime flour must be 36-38%.

2Ca + 3 CO2 2 Ca CO3

=+

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Usually, the calcite, magnesite, siderite, cockle-shell croup (for birds) and the defecation lime are used as a source of calcium for animals {24}. Lime stones intended for animal feeding, must satisfy following requirements:

• lime flour should be manufactured only from the completely clean, white and small lime;

• not to be polluted by the earth or by sand; • The grinding of produced lime stones should be produced at the mills to the

external thinness of grinding. The thinness of the particles of the flour is determined by sifting 100 g of hinge through the collection of the round porous sieves. The best thinness of grinding is not more than 0.15-0.20 mm.

• A quantity of clean grinding Ca in the standard lime flour must be 36-38%.

Instead of chalk it is possible to feed animals with slaked lime after 5-6 months of slaking. In the content of the lime flour it is permitted a mixture of silica to 1% and magnesium to 0.5-0.6% {25}.

Fluorine (F) and arsenic (As) are harmful for animals. Sometimes, there are F and As in the lime in a significant quantity. Therefore, in processing lime stones for the mineral of feeding, samples should be taken for analysis of F and As. In the composition of feeding, fluorine to 0.1 %, arsenic to 0.005% is permitted. The poisonous substance must not exceed 0.08 %. {26}. Lime flour is a yellow or grey powder produced from calcium containing wastes of different industry branches with the help of mechanical processing.

In the table technical requirements for lime flour are shown (table-5.7.). Table-5.7. Technical requirements for lime flour {25}

Content (%)

CaCO3 + Mg 85 % Humidity > 15 % On-screen residue with the size of cells is not more 0.25 mm 1 mm 5 mm 10 mm

55 % 30 % 8 % Absent

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6. Handling of defecation lime at The British Sugar Both Khorezm Sugar and British Sugar obtain defecation lime from beet sugar production. As the defecation lime is not treated in Khorezm Sugar I will describe only the method of handling the waste in British Sugar.

6.1. By-products of beet sugar processing in The British Sugar From beet sugar production British Sugar obtains a number of by-products, which are used in different purposes, by taking good care of the environment. The company transforms all of its inputs into sustainable products. Nothing is wasted there: in briefly, all of them are used as valuable animal feed; fertilizer; soil conditioner or in power generation process. In depth:

• The sugar beet itself - after the sugar is extracted, marketed for high-energy animal feed;

• Molasses - the final syrup from which no more sugar may be extracted, is used as a feedstock by the fermentation industry;

• The small amount of soil adhering to the sugar beet - is marketed to landscapers, architects and farmers, ensuring that this valuable non-renewable resource is used in a sustainable way;

• The lime products produced as part of the purification process are sold under the LimeX brand for soil conditioning;

• Even the stones delivered along with the sugar beet are separated, graded and washed and sold to the construction industry.

Further on I will concentrate on calcium containing waste of British Sugar – LimeX

products, their features and use in agriculture.

6.2. LimeX products and their benefits

The LimeX products are co-products of beet sugar manufacturing which uses limestone as an important component in the purification process of raw juice.

Specific products which are sold at the LimeX business division of British Sugar plc are necessary for improving soil acidity and increase the fertility in arable and grassland rotations. These types of products have development more than 70 years through UK and are valuable both from environmental and economical point of view.

The LimeX has a Soil Association approval3 and can be used with complete confidence with organic farming systems.

The LimeX collection includes specific products for agricultural use and the

horticulture market. These are: 1. LimeX 70 – friable pressed lime, easily spreadable and perfect for the correction of soil acidity and general conditioning;

__________________________________________________________________________________________ 3 – Soil Association (SA) is the UK’s largest organic certification organization. It's also the only certification body linked to a committed charity, promoting organic food and farming.

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2. LimeX 45 – traditional liming product, shares many of the benefits of LimeX70 and has an excellent soil conditioning properties;

3. LimeX Super70M – has been specifically developed for use in the mushroom casing market. This type of product provides the finished case with considerable advantages over the lime materials including moisture retention, pH stability and crop yield.

LimeX is available across the UK from the six British Sugar factories in the UK –

York, Newark, Downham Market, Cantley (Nr Norwich), Bury St Edmunds and Telford.

LimeX products have exclusive benefits which have been proven more than 80 years {27}:

Optimises pH to maximise yields and profitability; Rapidly corrects soil acidity for better return on expenditure; Persistent pH control for better return on expenditure; Supplies useful plant nutrients; Improves soil structure at higher rates; Compatibility with organic systems.

The product has following features:

Very fine particle size - ensures fast-acting and lasting ph correction;

Dry substance level - minimises dust when spreading; Nutrient content - provides useful contribution to

soil fertility; Organic approval - via the Soil Association; Storage robustness - offers on-farm flexibility.

LimeX contains nutrients which are valuable in plant growing and long term soil fertility. Nutrients in LimeX and their amount are shown in the table-6.1.

Table-6.1. Nutrients in LimeX and their amount {27}

Nutrient LimeX70 (kg/tonne)

LimeX45 (kg/tonne)

Total P2O5 10 7 Total MgO 7 5 Total SO3 5 3

6.2.1. Technical Specifications and using of LimeX

LimeX has very fine particle size which is a main reason for its performance. The chart below shows how LimeX compares with other liming products in passing through various sieves. As you can see, LimeX displays a considerable performance advantage with the 150 µm sieve. This fine level of particle size results in the twin advantages of rapid action and longevity of effect (Figure-6.1.).

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Figure-6.1. Particle size comparison of liming products {28} Application rates of liming products vary from field to field and from types of crop which is going to be grown there (amount of application of LimeX products are shown in the tables 6.2.and 6.3.

Table-6.2. Application rates for LimeX 70 (for 1 pH unit increase) {28}

N Soil type Arable 20 cm depth tonnes hectare (tonnes/acre)

Grassland 15 cm depth tonnes hectare

(tonnes/acre) 1 Sands 9.0 (3.6) 7.5 (3.0) 2 Light 10.5 (4.3) 7.5 (3.0) 3 Medium and Clay 12.0 (4.9) 9.0 (3.6) 4 Organic 16.5 (6.7) 10.5 (4.3) 5 Peat/Peaty 24.0 (9.7) 10.5 (4.3)

Table-6.3. Application rates for LimeX 45 (for 1 pH unit increase) {28}

N Soil type Arable 20 cm depth

tonnes hectare (tonnes/acre)

Grassland 15 cm depth tonnes hectare

(tonnes/acre) 1 Sands 12.0 (5.0) 10.0 (4.0) 2 Light 14.0 (6.0) 10.0 (4.0) 3 Medium and Clay 16.0 (6.5) 12.0 (5.0) 4 Organic 20.0 (8.0) 14.0 (6.0) 5 Peat/Peaty 32.0 (13.0) 14.0 (6.0)

LimeX products have to be stored correctly in order to keep friability and spreading

characteristics. Rainfall can have a negative effect especially on LimeX 70, because, afterwards the product will have a reduced amount of dry substances. Therefore, covered storage of product is recommended.

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6.3. Soil sampling and pH mapping

LimeX brand has additional offers to customers, like soil sampling and pH mapping services.

Soils are not homogenous and the pH can vary considerably from one spot in the field to another. It also varies with depth.

The LimeX team provides these offers taking into account the specific crop rotation and requirements of each individual enterprise. Optional nutrient testing is also possible which makes detailed analyses of soil. These measurements result in a comprehensive map with pH values which enhance them to recommend an application level of LimeX to adjust the area to its optimum pH.

Field maps assist haulers to locate tipping points and ensure spreading contractors to have the specific “field by field” detail they require for overall or part treatment (examples of maps you can find in Appendices 6 and 7).

The company has delivery, back-loading, spreading and technical help services as well which are very useful for their customers.

6.4. Use of LimeX in arable agriculture, grassland and field brassica

LimeX is used widely in arable rotations, particularly where acid-sensitive crops are grown. Sugar beet is a perfect example of it. The fine particle size gives excellent reactivity and rate of pH correction. A recent reactivity comparison undertaken by British Sugar demonstrated LimeX 70 to be significantly more reactive than competitor products. In practice, other replicated trials in sugar beet have shown that an application of LimeX 70 can increase yield by around 20 % where pH is below its optimum level (figure-6.2.).

Figure-6.2. Yield response when LimeX products are applied {28}

Liming trials conducted by the University of Newcastle upon Tyne completed in 1998 demonstrated LimeX70’s ability to raise pH more rapidly than a traditional limestone product. In addition, yield responses were highest where LimeX70 was applied, along with increases in nitrogen uptake and hence protein formation (figure-6.3.).

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Figure-6.3. pH Increase on grassland where LimeX applied {28}.

Intensive field brassica crops can be at risk of Clubroot. Clubroot is caused by a minute, resting spore Plasmodiophora brassicae that can lay dormant for at least two decades before striking at a valuable crop. In badly infested land entire crops can be completely written off but even with more patchy infection the disease causes uneven maturity, reduced yields and poor quality – many cases the affected crop is simply not worth harvesting.

Controlling Clubroot requires active husbandry tackling the conditions that favour the pathogen responsible, principally soil acidity, calcium deficiency and poor drainage.

LimeX products are very positive in this case also. It has been successful using LimeX in field brassica to rise acidity and prevent impact of Clubroot.

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7. Soil character and soil use in Uzbekistan

By provincial division scheme, Uzbekistan belongs to the Middle Asian soil-climatic province, which has a climate of continental (arid) subtropics and specific soils, differing from the soils of more northern regions of Eurasia. In the system of latitude soil-climatic zones, the plain part of Uzbekistan belongs to southern zone – zone of deserts with grey-brown, desolate, sandy and takir soils. In the system of vertical zones (altitude zones), in the eastern part of the Republic, there are sierozems of piedmonts and law mountains, brown and greyish mining and forestry soils of moderate altitude mountainous zone and light brown meadow-steppe soils of high mountains. Rational use and protection of the soil takes significant place in the protection and use of nature recourses. Soil recourses are limited by area and quality. Their current conditions arouse anxiety, because for the last 30-50 years, the content of humus and nutrition elements in the soil became poor and the soils are exposed to salinity, water and wind erosion, pollution with heavy metal and agro chemicals. In some places alkalinisation, soil degradation is taking place, the biologic activity is decreasing, and finally, soil fertility is decreasing. In connection with this, we have a task to rationalise the use of land recourses and intensify soil protection measures. In this chapter, you will find useful information about the main soil types of Uzbekistan and their fertility. It is important to explain the soil character of the region in this project, because mainly the type of waste which I am focused on is used as a fertilizer to improve soil conditions.

7.1. Soil types in Uzbekistan The genesis of the soil forming rocks in Uzbekistan is very varied. This combined with the complexity of the structure of the soils, the different hydro-geological conditions, an arid continental climate and the vegetation has led to the formation of many different soils. In Uzbekistan, the soils are of high-altitude belts and desert zones (Appendix-8) {29}. Under influence of difference natural factors on territory of Uzbekistan the following types of soil have arisen: flood-lands-alluvial, greyish, desert sandy, desert, takir, salt-marshes, greyish-brown deserts, irrigated greyish, light greyish, usual greyish, mountain-brown and high-mountain. The aridity of climate of Uzbekistan is the reason for poorly expressed soil formation processes on its territory. The time factor plays an important role in the soil forming processes. The geological age of different surfaces determines the nature of the soil types developing on them. So, on ancient Palaeocene and Neocene surface of plains the greyish-brown soils are formed, on new Quaternary surfaces the takirs and takir soil develops {29}. Weak structure, high salinity and small contents of humus are typical for arid soils. In genetic and classification attitudes soils of plains of Uzbekistan are different from soils off foothill plains, foothills and mountains. The western part of mountain systems of Tyan-Shan and Pamiro-Alay, including foothills plains, form the area of high zone. The border between desert soils zone and soils of high zone are located in the low border of foothill plain, where the zone of greyish and higher greyish begin, which is wide-spread on foothills and low hills. The soil cover of media high mountains presented with brown and brown mountain-forest soils. High mountain zone is characterized by the development of light-brown and meadow-steppe high mountain soils.

The country is divided into three climatic zones, northern, central and southern (figure-7.1.).

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Figure-7.1. Dominant soil map of Uzbekistan {30}

In natural conditions soils of desert zone differ from other soils by meaning a low fertility. However at irrigation especially when using fertilizers the fertility of such soils increase very much. With conditions of moistening, accumulation and decomposition of organic substances the irrigated lands are distributed on the following types: meadow-oasis and swampy-oasis soils of desert zone, takir-oasis soils, and meadow-oasis and swampy-oasis soils of greyish zone.

The soils of the plain The distinctions is in the mechanical structures of rocks, in deserts of various type, inherent to the plain area of Uzbekistan (sandy, gyps, salt-marshes), and non-homogeneous agro hydrological properties in the soil profile. For soil of plains of Uzbekistan insignificant content of humus is characteristically. It is explained by the receiving of small amounts of organic materials in the soil and their quick mineralization in conditions of arid climate.

The geographic wide-spreading of greyish-brown soils on territory of Uzbekistan connect with desert higher plains, Platos and with low hills. There are Plato Usturt, central and south part of Kizilkum, and small fragments of Karshi steppe and Lower Surkhandarya.

Desert sandy soils and sands dominated a wide territory of Kizilkum. These soils also form a relatively small part of the Karshi steppe, Lower Kashkadarya and centre of Fergana valley. Desert soils include territory, located on a height 400-500 m above sea level, and takes 70% of the area of Uzbekistan. In deserts you find greyish-brown, sandy, takir soils and grey lands. Because of strong heat, the substances in soil very quickly disintegrate and mineralize. Therefore the composition of soil is less rich in humus. The Plato Usturt and in the low hills of Kizilkum and near foothill of Nuratau contain wide-spread greyish-brown soils, in which the content of humus is law (0, 3-1, 0%), it’s usually salty and therefore the vegetation is thin. Here small cattle graze. In Kizilkum, Lower Zarafshan, Central Fergana and Mirzachul we have sandy valleys wide-spread desert sandy soils with a content of 0, 3-0, 6% humus. The vegetation doesn’t grow very well there.

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Desert takir soils and takirs are located in deltas of dried in ancient rivers, as well as dried lake plains. The main regions of their distribution are South Aral zone, Lower Zerafshan and Kashkadarya, as well as the Assak-Audan depression on Usturt.

Meadow and swampy soils in the plain part of country are mainly plain and river deltas. The main region their distribution is the Amudarya delta. However, in connection with reduction of water of Aral and decreasing level of ground water on territories of the delta-alluvial plain of Lower Amudarya their areas after 1960 is reduced.

Irrigated soils in Uzbekistan are also widespread basically on plains and river deltas, where they form the special oasis types. All diversities of soil of foothill-mountainous areas of the republic with vertical zone contain three main soil-climatic zones, each of which is characterized by specific soil structure and structure of topsoil. Soils of mountainous slopes of northern exposition are more humidified and therefore differ by containing high amount humus. Soils of slopes of solar exposition are more out washed and weak in humus. The intensive development of new agricultural land promoted to extensive growth of ground area use, owing to improvement of the soil - meliorative condition of old irrigated zone, except of grasslands, got the secondary attention; rotation of crops, usage of large doze of mineral fertilizers, different chemical weed-kill’s and pest-kill’s on struggle with pests and weeds. All this has caused a development in large scales of salinity, erosion, sand-transfer, reduction of fertility of soil etc. For increase of soil fertility it is necessary radical improvement of the meliorative conditions, such as high-grade crop-rotations, rational reduction of inflowing of organic and mineral fertilizers, deep flare of able layer, creation of soil-protection wood-planting etc.

7.2. Agriculture in Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan is divided into 12 oblasts or provinces and the autonomous Karakalpakstan Republic. Agriculture accounts for 26 percent of the country's GDP. The total land area of Uzbekistan amounts to 44.9 million ha, of which 23.5 million ha are in pasture. A total of 4.3 million ha are irrigated, of which 3.3 million ha are irrigated arable land and one million ha irrigated pasture (Appendix-9). There is a rain fed arable area of 0.8 million ha. Yields in the rain fed area are low but the area makes an important contribution to national grain production {31}. However, in view of their extent, these areas play an important role in grain production (Figure-7.2.).

Figure-7.2. Agricultural area (in 2000) {32}

Prior to independence in 1991, the monoculture of cotton led to problems of land degradation. A new agricultural structure has been put into place. The family farms account for more than 60 percent of the agricultural production.

Cotton production has fallen. Prior to independence the monoculture of the crop has

led to problems of land degradation, especially from salinization and water logging. However, cereal production has increased substantially. In the figure-7.3 you can see and compare cotton and cereal production.

Figure-7.3. Cotton and wheat production, 1992 to 2002 {32}

The average crop production capacity of pastureland is only 0.2 tonnes cereal

equivalent per ha but this land provides 60 percent of livestock forage. The agricultural areas are situated in the basin of the Aral Sea and on the extensive

plains and foothills. Most of the land is exceptionally well suited to mechanical cultivation and the prevailing temperatures permit the cultivation of a large variety of vegetables, fruits and berries, cereals and cash crops, including medium-fibre cotton. In the south the valuable fine-fibre varieties of cotton are grown.

Each year 25 000 ha of new irrigated land is brought into cultivation and more than 45 000 ha of old irrigated arable land reclaimed.

7.3. Agricultural structure in the country Since the independence of Uzbekistan (1991 year), a number of laws and decrees have

been issued in order to establish a legal framework for the establishment of mixed economy enterprises, businesses, farms and private domestic plots. The farms include cooperative farms and family farms. The land is on long-term lease from the state. The family owned farms account for more than 60 percent of agricultural production.

The social structure of agriculture has changed fundamentally from year 1991. The economic independence of agricultural enterprises has been extended. There have been several other structural changes in agriculture. For example, the cotton monopoly inherited from the former centrally controlled Soviet system and so-called all-union division of labour, have been abolished. During the Soviet period, Uzbekistan was mostly oriented towards the production of cotton for the textile and military industries of the Soviet Union. After independence Uzbekistan reduced cotton production by expanding production of grain,

53

vegetables and other crops, which previously did not satisfy domestic requirements. In the figure-7.4.quantity of different farm types is shown.

Figure-7.4. Number of different types of farms (in 2000) {32}

7.4. Agro-ecological zones

The irrigated areas are located in three climatic zones, northern, central and southern. 1. The northern climatic zone comprises the Republic of Karakalpakstan, the

Khorezm region and the foothill districts of Tashkent and Samarkand. This zone has the shortest vegetative growth period (180 to 200 days). In this zone crops such as cotton, rice, melon, vegetables and different fruit trees are grown. The summer temperatures range from 35 °C to 42 °C during the day and 20 °C to 28 °C at night {31}.

The first sub zone of the northern climatic zone includes the northern districts of the Republic of Karakalpakstan and Khorezm region. The soils are old-irrigated, hard and loamy. The average water penetration is low and the water is highly saline. The ground water has a high salt content (12 to 30 g/litre).

The second sub zone (foothill areas of Tashkent and Samarkand) of the northern climatic zone has sierozems and sierozem meadow soils, with a low salt content. The ground water contains little salt (1 to 3 g/litre); the vegetative period is 200 days; the amount of rainfall is 360 to 400 mm a year, falling mostly in the winter and early spring.

2. The central climatic zone includes the Fergana valley, Tashkent and Samarkand. In this zone, the vegetative period is 200 to 220 days, evaporation is higher than rainfall.

In this climatic zone, crops such as cotton, wheat, barley, grapes, tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes and other vegetable and fruit crops are grown.

In the first sub zone of the central climatic zone (the Fergana Valley, Tashkent, Sir-Darya and Samarkand regions), the soils are gleysols and meadow soils, non-saline or of low salinity, with good hydro-physical properties. The vegetative period is 190 to 200 days, rainfall 320 to 380 mm, falls mainly in winter and spring.

In the second sub zone (Sir-Darya, Jizzakh and Samarkand regions); the vegetative period is 190 to 200 days, the rainfall 240-270 mm per year. The soils are typical gleysols, non-saline, gleysol-meadow soils and meadow soils.

In the third sub zone (the new irrigation zone of Jizzakh, Samarkand and part of Kashkadarya), the soils are typical gleysols and meadow soils, non-saline or of low salinity. The annual rainfall is from 220 to 240 mm, 75 percent falling outside the vegetative period {31}.

3. The southern climatic zone includes the Bukhara and Surhandarya regions. The vegetative period is 240 to 260 days. In this zone, subtropical crops such as melons, fine fibre cotton and various vegetable and fruit crops are grown.

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In the first sub zone (Kashkadarya region and the southern districts of Bukhara), typical gleysols, light gleysols and desert soils are well developed. The climatic conditions of this sub zone are characterized by a long vegetative period of 230 to 260 days; the rainfall of 140 to 180 mm per year is insufficient. The maximum temperature reaches 45 °C to 50 °C. This explains the high degree of evaporation.

In the second sub zone, soils are meadow gleysols, old-irrigated land, slightly alkaline. The climate is continental. The vegetative period is 250 to 260 days and the annual rainfall does not exceed 80 to 120 mm.

In the third sub zone, subtropical crops and late ripening varieties of fine fibre cotton are grown on irrigated land. The vegetative period is 250 to 260 days; rainfall is insufficient at 70 to 100 mm {31}.

7.5. Soil capability, land quality and fertility of soils of Uzbekistan Soil capability in Uzbekistan is defined by a number of inherent properties (agro-physical, agrochemical, capacity of biologically active layer etc.) and estimated on fertility class. Quality class is a comparative rating of soil quality (natural and acquired) at an average level agricultural practice and intensification of agriculture. Class of fertility is established on most constant attributes (soil texture and parent materials, skeleton, gypsum) and characterizes potential class fertility. The group of fertility is determined to dynamic attributes (genetic characteristic, salinity, cultivation degree, moisture) and characterizes fertility in present conditions.

Land quality means how much the amount of the yield it gives, how rich the biodiversity here is and how efficient the use of it. The higher the land productivity, the greater will be the cost savings. Land productivity measures the wealth generated on a piece of land.

Soil classification by quality of Uzbekistan, you can see in figure-7.5.

Figure-7.5. Soils classification on the quality (%) {33}

There are number of factors which affect land productivity (Appendix-10) {32}. The main factor in the qualitative assessment of land is its fertility and this is

determined by 'bonitation'. The 'bonitation' of land is the comparative assessment of the land quality, and productivity with a representative level of agricultural activity. Bonitation involves an analysis of the soil properties, both natural and human-induced, that determine its

55

crop carrying capacity, both its natural productive capacity and that obtained through agricultural activities.

The bonitation carried out in the period 1989 to 1990 for irrigated land has a 100-degree scale. The highest score is attributed to soils with the highest fertility, or 4 tonnes of cotton per hectare. A yielding capacity is 0, 4 centners per hectare gives a value of one.

The categories of land suitable for irrigation are defined as: I - Very good land capable of producing 81-100 percent of the potential yield II - Good land capable of producing 61-80 percent of the potential yield III - Moderate quality land capable of producing 41-60 percent of potential yield IV, V - Poor land capable of producing 40 percent of potential yield

The Appendices-11 and 12 shows different land qualities and grades of land by region

{33}. At present content of the humus in the soil, which is basis of its fertility, has decreased

by 30-40%. Soils with the very low humus content (0.4 to 1%) occupy about 40% of total irrigated area, and low productivity soils cover 0.5 million hectares. Main types of soils by local classification and its humus content are shown in the table-7.1.

As a result of only irrigational erosion, soil carry-over can achieve 100-500 t/ha, and annual losses of the humus can constitute 500-800 kg/ha, nitrogen 100-120 kg/ha, phosphorus 75-100 kg/ha and over.

The main causes of fertility degradation are the monoculture of cotton that caused loss of humus, exhaustion of the soil and its physical and chemical qualities. Cotton monoculture enquired a large-scale application of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides. Huge chemical doses (from 20 to 90 kg of pesticides and 300-500 kg of mineral fertilizers per one hectare) and the highly intensive agricultural practices resulted in soil fertility loss. This process can be stopped and reversed only if sustainable cropping systems are introduced based on the conservation or enhancement of soil organic matter.

Table-7.1.Main types of soil by local classification and their humus content {34}.

The control for quality of chemical fertilizers is not executed, though it is known, that some kinds of fertilizers contain the heavy metals. The improvement of situation depends not so much from reduction of use of fertilizer, but also from technology of application and storage of fertilizers. For example, fractional entering of fertilizers has allowed reducing the loads on soil, ground and surface water.

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7.6. Fertilizers

Mineral fertilizer products The most frequently used straight nitrogen fertilizers are ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, urea and anhydrous ammonia. Seventy to 80 percent of the nitrogen is applied as ammonium nitrate. Urea is used mostly in regions with a wet and warm climate; in regions with more severe climatic conditions, it is less effective. Straight fertilizers with a low content of nitrogen are gradually losing their importance - the importance of ammonium sulphate has declined during the last few years. The main form of liquid nitrogen is anhydrous ammonia.

The main straight phosphate fertilizer is super phosphate. However, in recent years its use has been considerably reduced, phosphate being applied mainly in complex fertilizers, whose proportion in total usage has been increasing for the last 10 to 15 years.

The main form of potassium fertilizers remains potassium chloride. In Uzbekistan it is applied directly to the soil. Some 15 percent to 20 percent of the total potash is in the form of chlorine-free potassium fertilizers, essentially potassium sulphate, used for tobacco, grapes, potato and citrus. All potash requirements are imported from the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) {33}.

As regards NP products, "ammonium super phosphate" contains 21 percent to 22 percent of nutrient and is produced in two forms: the first form has an N: P2O5 ratio of 1:0.7 and contains 13 percent of N and 9 percent of P2O5, the second has an N: P2O5 ratio of 1:0.5 and contains 14 percent of N and 7 percent of P2O5. These fertilizers also contain 38 percent to 42 percent of S as sulphate ions. There are also two forms of "sulphoammofos". The first contains about 30 percent of nutrient, 18 percent of N and 12 percent of P2O5 with an N: P2O5 ratio of 1:0.7. The second contains about 26 percent of nutrient, 17 percent of N and 9 percent of P2O5, with an N: P2O5 ratio of 1:0.5. These fertilizers also contain 45 percent to 48 percent of S as sulphate ions {33}.

7.6.1. Manufacturers of fertilizers in Uzbekistan There are number of fertilizer producers in Uzbekistan, such as:

• Samarkand Chemical Plant, which produces: ammofos, ammonium sulphate and other NP products; • Chirchik Industrial Association, “Elektrochimprom”, produces: ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate; • Industrial Association “Fergana azot”, produces: urea and ammonium nitrate; • Kokand Super phosphate Plant, produces: single super phosphate; • Industrial Association “Navoiy azot” produces: ammonium nitrate.

In 2001 about 650 thousand tonnes of mineral fertilizers were due to be produced in Uzbekistan, but only 83 percent of the expected amount was in fact produced. Uzbekistan normally imports potassium fertilizers and exports nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers. Uzbekistan annually exports 15 percent to 18 percent of total nitrogen fertilizer production and 10 percent to 12 percent of total phosphate fertilizer production. The destinations are nearby countries (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and more distant countries (Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, China and others) {33}.

7.6.2. Fertilizer consumption The distribution of fertilizers in Uzbekistan is carried out by the state joint-stock companies «Uzhimprom» and «Uzselhozhimiya». In all the regions (oblasts) of Uzbekistan, many stores have been opened for selling mineral fertilizers to cooperatives, individual farmers and to the population (the totals for Uzbekistan are given in the Appendix-12).

7.6.3. Fertilizer use by crop The extent of mineral fertilizer use on different crops in the various regions of Uzbekistan is determined by a combination of complex factors. The most important are soil and climatic conditions in Uzbekistan, the soil nutrient content, the crop yields, the use of organic fertilizers, the relationship between the prices for the fertilizers and those of agricultural products. The average rates recommended by the scientists of Uzbekistan for the main crops are given in the table-7.2. {33}4.

Table-7.2.Average standard rates of fertilizer application for the main agricultural crops (kg nutrient/ha) {33}

Crops Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P2O5) Potash (K2O) Cereals - Irrigated land 150 to 200 100 to 120 50 - Arid land 50 to 60 40 to 50 - Cereals for seed 180 to 220 120 to 140 85 to 90 Rice 200 to 220 140 to 145 150 to 180 Cotton - Average fibres 215 to 240 145 to 165 95 to 110 - Fine fibres 230 to 250 155 to 165 100 to 110 Kenaff 160 to 180 130 to 140 80 to 90 Tobacco 120 to 150 80 to 100 40 to 45 Potatoes 120 to 150 85 to 100 60 to 75 Vegetables 145 to 200 100 to 110 70 to 75 Gourds 50 to 75 100 to 110 45 to 80 Fodder roots 220 90 60 Maize for silage 200 90 60 Established alfalfa 100 90 to 100 50 to 60 Orchards and vineyards 120 to 130 85 to 90 65

__________________________________________________________________________________________ 4 – All information in this chapter is taken from reference 33.

58

The quantities and rates of application of mineral fertilizers in Uzbekistan are shown in the tables-7.3.and 7.4. The rates of application of mineral fertilizer to cotton have been declining in recent years in relation to recommendations. In the case of cereals it is the other way round and rates have been increasing.

Table-7.3. Main crops, use of mineral fertilizers and yields {33}

Use of mineral fertilizers, thousand tonnesCrop/year Total N P2O5 K2O

Yield (t/ha)

Cotton 1998 385 290 69 26 2.1 1999 411 299 83 30 2.4 2000 355 291 62 2 2.2 Cereals 1998 266 214 30 22 2.3 1999 259 221 36 2 2.3 2000 247 201 35 11 2.7

Table-7.4. Main crops: rates of fertilization {33}

Rates, (kg/ha) Crop/yearTotal N P2O5 K2O

Cotton 1998 253 191 45 17 1999 270 197 54 19 2000 256 210 45 1.2 Cereals 1998 203 164 23 16 1999 197 169 27 1.3 2000 182 148 26 8

In Uzbekistan, the rate of application of fertilizers per hectare on grain crops in the past reached nearly 250 kg/ha; today it is about 180 kg/ha. Farm managers as a rule consider that it is unprofitable to apply the average recommended rates of fertilizer application if the ratio between the expenditure and the profit is not at least 1:2 to 1:3. It should also be noted that part of the cereal crop is grown under partial irrigation in zones with insufficient moisture, where the usage of larger quantities of fertilizers is less effective. According to the assessments of the Institute of Soil Science and Agro Chemistry of the State Committee of the Land Resources of the Republic of Uzbekistan, at the present time in Uzbekistan the overall use of mineral fertilizers has become 20 percent to 30 percent less than is recommended by the scientific institutions. This is confirmed by data provided by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources of the Republic of Uzbekistan (MAWRRUz), which show that in all the regions studied, fertilizers are applied on cotton, cereals and potatoes at lower rates than those recommended by scientific establishments.

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7.6.4. Organic manners The systematic use of farm manure for 30 years on the typical gleysols in Uzbekistan has doubled their humus content (from 0.83 percent to 1.65 percent). Annually 17 018 million tonnes of organic manure are produced in Uzbekistan. This is equivalent to the annual application of 80 to 90 kg of nitrogen, 40 to 45 kg phosphate and 50 to 60 kg potassium per hectare of cropland. The possibilities of storing and applying organic manure are not used completely. Less than a quarter of Uzbekistan's need for organic manure is satisfied. Instead of the 20 to 30 tonnes of manure per hectare of cropland that are required, only 4.8 tonnes are applied. At the same time, the annual losses of animal manure, resulting from discharge into water is nine millions tonnes. The total loss resulting from poor management amounts to 15 million tonnes, which could be used to fertilize an additional 750 thousand ha, taking 20 t/ha as the average {35}. The rational and effective application of manure would increase the productivity of agriculture and decrease the pollution of the environment.

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8. Results and discussion

The main purpose of this report was to suggest a suitable method or methods for Khorezm Sugar Company to handle the defecation lime. Different kinds of treatment were described (see chapter 5).

In this chapter these methods will be discussed for applying them in Khorezm region and some suggestions for solving the problem will be proposed.

Defecation lime is a calcium containing waste from sugar industry. As it was mentioned in the chapter 1.5.1, it mainly contains of calcium carbonate. This is because in purification process in beet sugar producing milk of lime and carbon dioxide are used for removing non sugar substances from the content of raw sugar juice. After processing the mixture of milk of lime and raw juice with carbon dioxide all non sugars are precipitated. And this we call defecation lime or defecat.

There are still some companies which do not have any solution for defecation lime handling. Khorezm Sugar Company is one of them. From sugar production Khorezm Sugar Company obtains defecation lime as well. The waste has a number of impacts both on environmental and on economy (see chapter 1.5). The waste has not been treated since the factory was established. Therefore, this is one of the main problems in the area which has to be solved immediately.

At the beginning of the work some analyses were done among sugar manufacturing companies (see chapter 2). According to these analyses, sugar manufacturing factories in the world use defecation lime as a soil improver; or recycle the waste; use it as a fuel; use it as rich organic fertilizer after composting process; landfill the waste or just remain it on the site. As a result of these analyses it has been understood that a large amount of them use defecation lime as a soil improver, to stabilize acidity and to improve soil structure, which emphasizes yield response.

You can see the result of these analyses in the figures 8.1 and 8.2 (the values are based on the numbers of the answers I got).

Figure-8.1.Handling of defecation lime in the world

(According to the results of interview)

62.5 %

12.5 % 12.5 % 12.5 %

0

20

40

60

80

100

Soil improver Brick kilns Biofertilizer Sorbent

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Figure-8.2.Handling of defecation lime in the world

(According to information from literature and internet) When we look at the use of defecation lime as a soil improver to stabilize soil pH, it looks like a proper way of handling defecat.

Most plants grow best in slightly acid soil with a pH between 6.0 and 7.0. When the pH value of the soil falls below 6.0, availability of nutrients such as phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium is decreases. However, availability of the metallic micronutrients like zinc, manganese, copper, aluminium and iron increase as the pH decreases.

The more acid the soil, the more aluminium will be dissolved into the soil solution. When pH value of the soil drops below 5.5, it could become toxic to plants. Parent material of the soil, rainfall, leaching, fertilizers and plant uptake affect soil acidity. For example, rainfall passing through the soil leaches basic cations (such as Ca2+, Mg+, K+) into drainage water; hydrogen is added in the form of ammonia-based fertilizers, (NH4+) , urea-based fertilizers [CO(NH2)2] and other amino acids (transformations of these sources of N into nitrate (NO3

-) releases H+ to create soil acidity); plants take up cations: K+, Ca++, and Mg++(when these are removed from the soil, they are replaced with H+).

Soils are limed to reduce the harmful effects of low pH and to add calcium and magnesium to the soil. Lime reduces soil acidity (increases pH) by changing some of the hydrogen ions into water and the rest substances into carbon dioxide (CO2); Ca++ ion from the lime replaces two H+ ions on the cation exchange complex. The carbonate (CO3

-) reacts with water to form bicarbonate (HCO3

-). These react with H+ to form H2O and CO2. The pH increases because the H+ concentration has been reduced (see the formula below).

As it was stated, the soils in Uzbekistan, especially in Khorezm region are very poor in organic substances and humus also (see chapter 7). The biological activity of the soils is not

46.7 %

13.3 %6.7 % 6.7 % 6.7 %

20 %

0

20

40

60

80

100

Soilimprover

biofertilizer land filling recycling fuel no solution

Soil Colloid + CaCO3 Soil Colloid-Ca++ + H2O + CO2 H+

H+

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so good therefore crop yields are low too. There are a lot of fertilizers used in agriculture to improve soil structure. Defecation lime is very helpful in this case. The main crop types grown in Uzbekistan grow up better in pH of 6-7. The pH value is between 3 and 8 in the region. So, waste from sugar industry can be used there. Uzbekistan has different soil types (see chapter 7) and arid climate. Weak structure, high salinity and small content of humus are typical for arid soils. For other types of soils in the region, like: for desert zone – low fertility; for soils of the plain – insignificant content of humus; for desert sandy soils and sands – low amount of humus and for irrigated soils – different amount of humus are characteristically. Khorezm region (where The Khorezm Sugar Company is located) belongs to the first sub zone of the northern climatic zone of Uzbekistan. The soils here are old irrigated, hard and loamy and the quality of the soil is not so good (see chapter 7.4).

As advantages of liming the soils in this region we can count followings:

• Increase quality of root-crops • Productivity of some cereal crops and tomatoes • Improve conditions for vital activity of soil micro organisms, soils nutrient

holding capacity • Normalized physiological and biochemical processes of soil • Supply nutrients to the crop • Decrease acidity and development of disease • Reduce risk of additional acidification • Cheapest one

Disadvantages of the method are:

• Not all soils require liming • After liming the level of the field could reach upper levels than water surface

During working on this project, on my study visit to British Sugar, I had observed how

this method looks like in practice. Defecation lime which they obtain from sugar production is not the same as the one in Khorezm Sugar in content. The defecation lime in Khorezm Sugar company contains little bit more calcium carbonate inside than in LimeX products. This concludes in the low amount of organic matter in the content.

When defecat is spread on the fields, it could another problem also. After spreading the waste, the level of the field raises and could reach upper levels than water level for irrigation there. But, if the liming will be provided one in 5-6 years, this will not reason for any difficulties.

Spreading of the defecat (LimeX) to the fields is shown in the figures 8.3 and 8.4.

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Figure-8.3 a) Loading (a) and spreading (b) of LimeX and the limed field (c) (Pictures taken by Shoira Masharipova)

I think this method is good for implementing in Khorezm Sugar Company. Because there is no need for further treatment, and is the cheapest option. But if Company wants delivery and spreading machines could be bought. The expenses can be returned with the profit in the form of price for defecat.

Defecation lime can de used with the aim to improve soil fertility as well. Soils with the very low humus content (0.4-1%) occupy about 40% of the total

irrigated area and low productivity soils cover 5 million hectares in Uzbekistan. The main causes of fertility degradation were the monoculture of cotton that caused

loss of humus, exhaustion of the soil and reduce in physical and chemical qualities in the soils. After independence in 1991, cotton monoculture has finished and grain production has increased. Cucumber, cabbage, onions, corn, radish, carrot and tomatoes are grown in large quantities also.

Therefore in the situation of Uzbekistan, defecation lime can be used to replace fertilizer needs. As there is a large amount of fertilizer needed (see chapter 7.5) this is a good option to realize.

With using defecation lime as a fertilizer following advantages can be reached:

• Increase

- in the content of organic matter - in the sum of exchange bases - in the degree of saturation by bases - in the productivity of crops

• Improvement - in the capacity of absorption - in the fermentation activity - in the soil structure

• Change in soil acidity • Achievable the biochemical and microbiological processes in the soil • Larger output of carbon dioxide Disadvantages of the method are also the same with first method: • not all soils require large amount of Ca fertilizer • after applying level of the field could reach upper levels than water surface, which

could reason irrigational problems

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When defecation lime is used as fertilizer, it is possible to use it after composting. I think, this method is also another good way of handling the waste and better than just spreading it without any treatment. After composting, it makes the soil more fertile and increases the crop yield. In the other hand, while composting defecat there is large number of nitrogen output, therefore it is not so suitable option from engineering point of view. However, with the right choose of composting method it can be handled.

If wee look for the use of defecat as an additional material in greenhouse soil

mixture, it seems also not a bad option, because after composting process the soil mixture becomes rich fertilizer.

In winter time gardeners grow cucumbers, tomatoes and other plants in greenhouses, also because of arid climate some tropical plants are also grown in greenhouses and hothouses. Thus, there is a need for rich fertile soil mixture for them.

Advantages of this option are: • The product is ready in a short period of time – 2-3 months • Add to soil valuable minerals and organic nitrogen bearing matter • Effective with the cultivation of seedlings in the closed soil.

Disadvantage of the method is: • There is a small quantity of greenhouses in the region

This method also seems good. In winter time, gardeners grow cucumbers, tomatoes

and other plants which do better when the pH value of the soil is about 7. But, this option, I think is not so good for solving the problem of Khorezm Sugar. Because, there is a large amount of waste is placed in the side and it is difficult to use all the waste for only this purpose in a short period of time.

There is another method to process defecation lime by using it as a sorbent to treat

waste water from dairy industry. There are one big scale and two small scale diary productions in the region. Treatment

of waste water from these plants is not in good conditions, therefore has an influence on environment.

Advantages of the method are:

• Energy efficient method • The product has chemical stability to different destructive circumstances • High hydrophobic • Ecologically clean • Safe in use • No impact on health • Inexpensive

But, there are some disadvantages also:

• Is not efficient when used to treat waste water from other industries

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• Very much dependence on the: - Pollution level of beet - Period of ripening of beet - Degree of diffusion of organic matter - Temperature range for thermolysis

This method is very good both from environmental and economical point of view.

With the help of this method 2 problems of two different branches of industry can be solved. This method is in use in Pakistan also. As there is only one diary factory in Khorezm region, this method itself is not also so advantageous. Only it could be additionally implemented with other types of treatment.

Other method is use of defecation lime as micro filler in cement production. There is

a need for cement products in the region. And they have problems with transportation of other raw materials, because of distance between source and the plant. Also, there a lot of road constructions take place every year and the highways are not in a good condition which could cause a lot of car accidents.

With implementing the method following advantages can be obtained:

• Active additive • Increased strength • High density • Product can be used for road constructions • Is able to tolerate - From +400C to +700C in summer - From 00C to – 600C in winter • Tolerable to high pressure • The roads processed with this product do not need repairing about 15-20

years • Profitable

The disadvantages of the method are:

• More expensive to implement • Risk for corrosion, when used together with reinforcement bars

So, this option is also applicable. Because, when this method is used, the capital used in repairing the highways will be used efficiently. These highways serve for a long time; the number of accidents occurring because of bad quality of highways will be reduced; the final product is cheaper than others of this kind.

I think this is the best option to implement. It costs some amount of money to

implement, and is quite expensive when compared with other types of treatment. However there is a chance to get a benefit for the sugar plant. A lot of road constructions are take place every year in the region. And the use of defecat in cement production encourages saving of new lime resources. When we look for the next method, to use defecat in foam concrete production, it is also suitable method.

66

There is need for concrete production in the region, which is in high levels. Concrete products produced with old technologies are expensive and do not have nigh quality.

There are some advantages from this method:

• Decrease the shrinkage phenomena in the process of hardening; • Organize structure of the cement stone; • Apparent density is significantly lower than in sand and cement; • More crack proof; • Contact zone cement-lime most durable part; • High strength 0.5 m Pa (when only cement is used does not increase 0.3 m Pa); • Final reduce in the cost.

Disadvantages of the method are:

• More expensive to implement • CO2 emissions from production process

This method is similar to the previous one. Because of number of advantages I think this one is also good for Khorezm Sugar to put into operation. I consider it is also profitable despite of investment costs at the beginning. This type of product is very compatible with other kinds.

The last method is to use defecation lime in animal feeding. There are large amount of animal breeding farms in Uzbekistan. And, all of them need

for mineral additives for animals. The minerals used now are much expansive. The advantages from this option are:

• Good calcium source • Cheap option

This method has a number of disadvantages:

• Not safe to put into food chain • Contains harmful substances for living organisms • Extremely depends on clear analyses • Difficult to follow technical requirements

Because, the additive which is going to be used have to have certain characters in it (see chapter 5.7). In this option safety of living organisms should be on the first place. As it goes to the food chain, there is a need to use non harmful mineral additives. And it is difficult to follow technical requirements for additive with defecation lime.

I would not recommend for Khorezm Sugar to use the defecation lime in animal

feeding. Because this method of treatment is extremely depends on clear analyses. Any mistake in the result could have affect on the food chain.

67

In spite of the method which will be implemented, it is essentially that the defecation lime has to be separated from other types of waste which is mixed now.

Considering the number of reasons, such as method chosen should be efficient both

from environmental and economical point of view; should solve the problem in the region; and has to be not dangerous for living organisms. According to discussing of the methods above, I would suggest for the Khorezm Sugar Company the following:

- Despite of the method which will be implemented, it is essential to separate the waste from other types of waste which are mixed now. - To start not to mix defecation lime with other types of waste, which makes further works effortless and cheaper - To provide additional and useful services for customers depending on the chosen method of treatment

As the main fields of application use the defecation lime as:

• Micro filler in cement production • In foam concrete production

As additional and useful methods: - Use defecation lime as fertilizer after composting it with some sludge or other

organic waste for soils with poor quality; - Use the waste for greenhouse soil mixture, where there is needed (as there are

small quantity of greenhouses in the nearby, that could be used as an additional treatment);

- Use it as a sorbent also (because, the waste water from diary industry is left to sewage water without any treatment so far, because other water treatment methods are much more expensive).

- And not to use the defecat as mineral additive in animal feeding, because of harmful substances in it.

68

Recommendations for further studies This Thesis Work makes a broad and as much as possible overview of different treatment methods of defecation lime from sugar industry to be able to suggest a suitable method or methods to Khorezm Sugar Company. Due to difficulties in gathering information, it was not quite achievable to get all necessary information needed. Also the time limitation presented, was shorter to make more clear analyses and very deep study of the methods. With the purpose to make more concrete suggestions, I would recommend to make deeper study of them methods; to make some laboratorial analyses before applying in a large scale; to make exact economical calculations to be able to choose the cheapest method; to study carefully advantages and disadvantages of the methods for applying method or methods in the company. Also, it would be good to study the methods from a Systems Analysis point of view. Because of a lot of difficulties in collecting the information from Khorezm, it is also possible that some aspects are not taken into consideration. So, some deeper studies according to constructional industry branches also could be done.

69

9. Conclusions This Masters Thesis work describes the problem in Khorezm Sugar Company and their need to implement a treatment method for defecation lime from sugar industry. As a good example, among other sugar manufacturers operations in British Sugar Company were studied. In order to suggest a suitable method a lot of revises have been done.

The report is aimed to analyze different methods of handling the defecation lime from sugar industry. And, as a result of analyses suitable methods suggested for the Khorezm Sugar Company in order to minimize environmental impact and to solve current ecological problems in the region.

The main methods of treatment are overviewed and discussed, according to the results of interviews with some sugar manufacturers and information from literature/internet, to reach the goal of the Thesis Work.

Technological operations, carried out on defecat in both British Sugar and Khorezm Sugar Companies are described, general manufacturing process of sugar and soil characteristics of Uzbekistan are overviewed in this Thesis work.

Different treatment methods of defecat are discussed from technical, environmental and economical points of view for applying them in Khorezm Sugar and some solutions are provided. Also recommendations for further studies are pointed.

Considering the number of reasons, such as method chosen should be efficient both from environmental and economical point of view; should solve the problem in the region; and has to be not dangerous for living organisms. According to discussing of the methods above, I would suggest for the Khorezm Sugar Company the following:

- Despite of the method which will be implemented, it is essential to separate the waste from other types of waste which are mixed now. - To start not to mix defecation lime with other types of waste, which makes further works effortless and cheaper - To provide additional and useful services for customers depending on the chosen method of treatment

As the main fields of application use the defecation lime as:

• Micro filler in cement production • In foam concrete production

As additional and useful methods: - Use defecation lime as fertilizer after composting it with some sludge or other

organic waste for soils with poor quality; - Use the waste for greenhouse soil mixture, where there is needed (as there are

small quantity of greenhouses in the nearby, that could be used as an additional treatment);

- Use it as a sorbent also (because, the waste water from diary industry is left to sewage water without any treatment so far, because other water treatment methods are much more expensive).

- And not to use the defecat as mineral additive in animal feeding, because of harmful substances in it.

70

References 1. Information is taken from Abdusharib Ruzimov, contact person at the “Javlon”

PC.

2. Information is taken from the contact person at Khorezm Sugar Company.

3. Company Profile of JSC “Khorezm Shakar” http//www.spc.gov.uz/lists/shkr_1.html (September, 2005)

4. “Information” Facts about British Sugar 2003/2004. British Sugar plc, Oundle

Road, Peterborough, PE2 9QU. 5. Information is taken from Richard Cogman, contact person at the LimeX division

of The British Sugar Company.

6. Official website - of British Sugar Company. http://www.britishsugar.co.uk/ (October, 2005)

7. Sugar Knowledge International. http://www.sucrose.com (October, 2005)

8. Sensing and Data logging for Science Education,

http://www.sciencescope.co.uk/photosynthesis.htm (December, 2005)

9. Hellenic Sugar Industry - Greek Sugar, http://www.ebz.gr/sugar_production_en.htm (December, 2005) 10. The Western Sugar Cooperative, http://www.westernsugar.com/ (November, 2005) 11. Energy Manager Training,

http://www.energymanagertraining.com/new_index.php (December, 2005) 12. Perspektivnye texnologii i novye razrabotki. ”Izvesktovanie pochv pod posevami

saxarnoy svekly”. http://www.sibpatent.ru/default.asp?khid=55643&code683331&sort=2 (September, 2005)

13. “Natural Environment”. Department of Primary Industries, Water and

Environment. Article about soil pH and liming. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au (October, 2005)

14. Zemskoye obozrenie. “Ogorodniku. Kislye pochvy – vrag urojaya”. http://www.zeminfo.ru/news/?id=3726 (October, 2005) 15. “Bol`shoy praktikum po fiziologii rasteniy”, 1978 g, B.A.Rubina. 16. “Osnovy zemledeliya”, 1981 g, M.N.Gureneva.

71

17. Perspektivnye texnologii i novye razrabotki. ”Opyt primeneniya dlya

formirovaniya effektivnogo plodorodiya” http://www.sibpatent.ru/default.asp?khid=56649&code683329&sort=2 (September, 2005)

18. “Agrohimiya I sistema udobreniya”. A.Peterburgskiy 1967 god. 19. Mineral`nye udobreniya I zdorov`ye sada. ”Kal`cievye udobreniya, kislotnost`

pochvy i zdorov`e rasteniy”. http://www.ipmce.su/~vk/fert/fert_m7.html (October, 2005)

20. “Pochva dlya teplic” Information is taken from the answers of agronoms and

professors B.Botezatu, A.Kriklivyj and M.Adeskelicey. http://www.nm.md/daily/article/2000/11/17/0603.html (October, 2005) 21. Prospects for processing of defecat, i.e. sugar industry waste, with the purpose of

sorbent production. Materials of the second international conference “Sotrudnichestvo dlya resheniya problemy otxodov”. February 9-10, 2005.

22. Perspektivnye texnologii i novye razrabotki. ”Sposob polucheniya

portlandcementa i smesey na ego osnove”. http://www.sibpatent.ru/default.asp?khid=27004&code=670991&sort=2adfg (November, 2005)

23. “Teoriticheskiye osnovy i opyt ispol`zovaniya karbonatnyx otxodov v

proizvodstve penobetona”. V.V.Belyakov, V.A.Voytovich. http://conf.bstu.ru/conf/docs/0011/0138.doc (November, 2005)

24. ”Spravochnik po kormleniyu selsko-xozyaystvennyx jivotnyx”. 1975 g. 25. “Mel I izvestnyak dlya podkormki sel`sko-xozyaystvennyx jivotnyx i ptits.

Texnicheskiye trebovaniye”. 1983 g.

26. ”Spravochnaya kniga po ximizacii selskogo xozyaystva” 1969 god. 78 str 27. Product literature for LimeX45; LimeX75 published by British Sugar, UK, 2005

year. 28. Official website of British Sugars LimeX division.

www.limex.co.uk (December, 2005)

29. “Soils of Uzbekistan” M.Umarov, 1989.

30. State Committee for Land Resources (SCLR), 2002.

31. “About the land resources of Republic of Uzbekistan” 2001, 2002. SCLRRUz (State Committee for Land resources of the Republic of Uzbekistan), Tashkent.

32. State Committee for Land Resources (SCLR), 2002.

72

33. “Fertilizer use by crop in Uzbekistan”. Food and Agriculture organization of United Nations, Rome 2003.

34. “National action Programme to combat desertification in republic of Uzbekistan”.

Tashkent, 1999 y.

35. “Practical recommendation for agriculture: land, water, and fertilizers” Tashkent 1996.

73

Appendices

Appendix-1. Methods of purification of raw sugar and ways of treatment of defecation lime in some countries, according to my questions (a) and answers (b) I got from interview.

a) The main questions that I have asked:

• What material or which method do you use to remove the non-sugars from juice in purifying process?

• If you use liming and carbonation method, how do you treat the waste (defecat)?

74

b) A

nsw

ers,

I got

from

inte

rvie

w

N

C

ompa

ny o

r per

son

cont

acte

d

W

ay o

f tre

atm

ent

1 En

gine

er, b

usin

essm

an

Paki

stan

N

asee

m A

ziz

sucr

oman

2000

@ya

hoo.

com

In P

akis

tan

the

Def

ecat

ion

Mud

is:

• Sp

read

on

the

field

s. Th

e po

tent

ial i

s to

rec

over

the

Can

e W

ax f

rom

it, s

ome

of th

e fa

ctor

ies

mix

it

with

dis

tille

ry v

inas

se a

nd sp

read

in th

e fie

ld a

nd it

bec

omes

a ri

ch fe

rtiliz

er.

• B

urne

d w

ith o

ther

bio

mas

s fue

ls in

the

Bric

k K

ilns.

• O

r it c

an b

e re

cycl

ed in

to th

e K

iln a

nd re

mov

e th

e C

O2 a

nd re

use

the

lime

into

the

defe

catio

n pr

oces

s. Fo

r us

e as

a f

ertil

izer

the

defe

catio

n lim

e is

com

post

ed. I

n th

e co

mpo

st p

roce

ss th

e ae

robi

c ba

cter

ia a

re

inoc

ulat

ed in

to th

e m

ud a

nd e

ncou

rage

d to

go

thro

ugh

an a

erob

ic b

io p

roce

ss fo

r con

sum

ing

the

nutri

ents

an

d or

gani

c m

atte

r pr

esen

t in

defe

cat.

With

hel

p of

fre

quen

t aer

o til

lerin

g, a

nd in

two

to th

ree

wee

ks th

e bi

o re

actio

n is

com

plet

e fo

r m

ud t

o be

use

d as

bio

fer

tiliz

er.

Som

e fa

ctor

ies

with

atta

ched

Eth

anol

di

still

erie

s ad

d th

e di

still

ery

efflu

ent w

ith th

e m

ud a

nd m

ake

it ev

en ri

cher

in in

-org

anic

nut

rient

s; th

is ty

pe

of b

io f

ertil

izer

is

very

pop

ular

with

the

Far

mer

s as

ess

entia

lly i

t re

turn

s al

l th

e nu

trien

ts a

nd f

ertil

izer

w

hich

was

ext

ract

ed b

y th

e su

gar c

ane

crop

. 2

Cha

rtere

d C

hem

ical

Eng

inee

r U

K, P

eter

boro

ugh

Phil

Thom

pson

ph

il@ya

rwel

l.dem

on.c

o.uk

Agr

icul

tura

l dis

posa

l is

the

norm

for c

alci

um b

ased

juic

e pu

rific

atio

n. T

he p

reci

pita

ted

calc

ium

car

bona

te

is b

enef

icia

l to

soi

l st

ruct

ure

and

pH r

egul

atio

n an

d fr

eque

ntly

im

prov

es c

rop

yiel

d/re

duce

s di

seas

e in

tri

als.

The

othe

r mat

eria

ls in

it a

ct a

s fer

tilis

ers a

nd tr

ace

elem

ents

for f

urth

er a

gric

ultu

ral b

enef

it.

3

Am

eric

an C

ryst

al S

ugar

C

ompa

ny

Joe

Dol

alie

jd

olal

ie@

crys

tals

ugar

.com

They

use

wha

t is

know

n as

a c

lass

ical

car

bona

tion

proc

ess.

The

spe

cific

ven

dor o

f thi

s pr

oces

s is

Put

sch

Inc

of G

erm

any.

The

sys

tem

has

a p

relim

er (R

t of 2

0-30

min

at 5

5-60

C) f

ollo

wed

by

a co

ld li

min

g ta

nk

(som

etim

es n

ot u

sed-

-Rt o

f 7-1

5 m

in a

t 55-

60 C

). T

he n

ext s

tep

is th

e m

ain

limin

g w

hich

has

a re

tent

ion

time

of 2

0 m

in a

t a te

mpe

ratu

re o

f >8

4 C

. Th

at is

fol

low

ed b

y fir

st c

arbo

natio

n w

here

CO

2 is

add

ed to

re

act

with

lim

e th

at h

ad b

een

adde

d to

the

pro

cess

. Th

e m

ud o

r de

feca

t w

aste

is

sepa

rate

d in

gra

vity

cl

arifi

ers

and

sent

to fi

lters

for a

dditi

onal

sep

arat

ion.

The

juic

e go

es o

n to

sec

ond

carb

onat

ion

for r

emov

al

of a

s m

uch

calc

ium

as

poss

ible

(Te

mp

of 9

5C a

nd R

t of

20

min

). T

he j

uice

is

then

filt

ered

, re

sidu

al

calc

ium

rem

oved

by

ion

exch

ange

, and

the

juic

e go

es o

n to

eva

pora

tion

and

crys

talli

zatio

n.

75

The

was

te o

r slu

rry

from

firs

t car

bona

tion

is s

ent t

o fil

ters

for a

dditi

onal

sep

arat

ion

of w

ater

from

the

solid

s. T

he s

olid

s fr

om t

his

proc

ess

cont

ain

65-7

0% s

olid

s. T

hat

was

te m

ater

ial

is s

tock

pile

d on

the

fa

ctor

y gr

ound

s. W

e do

not

add

the

was

te to

soi

l as

they

gen

eral

ly d

o in

Eur

ope

due

to th

e hi

gh a

lkal

inity

of

the

soils

in o

ur g

row

ing

regi

on. A

t thi

s tim

e th

e w

aste

is p

ut in

to p

iles

that

gro

w la

rger

eac

h ye

ar.

We

are

look

ing

for w

ays t

o us

e th

e w

aste

, but

hav

e no

t fou

nd a

ny th

at a

re e

cono

mic

al.

4

Dan

isco

Sug

ar C

ompa

ny

Birg

it La

ndqu

ist

birg

it.la

ndqu

ist@

dani

sco.

com

They

add

CaO

to r

aw ju

ice,

whi

ch p

reci

pita

te w

ith C

O2.

The

CaO

and

the

CO

2 w

e pr

oduc

e by

bur

ning

lim

esto

ne. T

he su

gar f

acto

ry li

me

is a

pro

duct

we

sell

to fa

rmer

s as a

soil

impr

over

.

5 R

oger

s Sug

ar C

ompa

ny

Wes

tern

Can

ada

Dou

g Pe

triw

dp

etriw

@ro

gers

suga

r.ca

The

juic

e pu

rific

atio

n sy

stem

at

our

suga

r fa

ctor

y us

es l

ime

and

carb

on d

ioxi

de g

as c

arbo

natio

n w

ith

filtra

tion

to re

mov

e no

n-su

gars

. It

is b

ased

on

the

sam

e te

chno

logy

and

equ

ipm

ent u

sed

in th

e su

gar p

lant

s in

Den

mar

k.

The

was

te s

ludg

e fr

om f

irst

carb

onat

ion

filte

rs i

s re

-filt

ered

usi

ng v

acuu

m f

iltra

tion

with

hot

wat

er

was

hing

to re

mov

e su

gar f

rom

the

lime

was

te.

The

de-s

wee

tene

d sl

udge

is th

en d

isca

rded

to h

oldi

ng p

onds

on

the

suga

r fa

ctor

y si

te.

Wat

er is

dec

ante

d fr

om th

e po

nd, t

reat

ed a

nd d

isch

arge

d. D

ried

lime

was

te is

st

ored

on

site

.

A s

mal

l qu

antit

y of

drie

d lim

e w

aste

is

used

as

a so

il co

nditi

oner

(m

ostly

in

mus

hroo

m g

row

ing

oper

atio

ns)

but

the

dem

and

for

this

pro

duct

is

very

lim

ited.

So

il co

nditi

ons

in o

ur a

rea

are

alka

li an

d th

eref

ore

lime

addi

tion

to a

gric

ultu

ral l

and

is n

ot c

omm

on.

Mos

t of t

he li

me

was

te re

mai

ns o

n si

te.

6

Brit

ish

Suga

r, U

K

John

B S

mith

jb

smith

@br

itish

suga

r.co.

uk

They

use

lim

ing

and

carb

onat

ion

for

juic

e pu

rific

atio

n. T

he s

pent

lim

e m

ater

ial

is m

arke

ted

unde

r th

e Li

meX

bra

nd.

7 Zu

cker

fors

chun

g Tu

lln

Aus

tria

Wal

ter H

ein

Ever

y of

the

thre

e A

ustri

an s

ugar

fac

torie

s (H

ohen

au, L

eopo

ldor

f, Tu

lln)

wor

k w

ith li

me-

carb

on d

ioxi

de

juic

e pu

rific

atio

ns s

yste

ms.

At

Hoh

enau

fac

tory

a B

runs

wic

k Sy

stem

is

inst

alle

d, L

eopo

ldsd

orf

fact

ory

wor

ks w

ith a

mod

ified

"N

ovi

Sad"

sys

tem

(w

ith c

lear

jui

ce l

imin

g) a

nd a

t Tu

lln f

acto

ry c

lass

ical

jui

ce

purif

icat

ion

with

pre

lim

ing

runs

sinc

e 2

year

s.

76

wal

ter.h

ein@

zuck

erfo

rsch

ung.

at

All

thre

e fa

ctor

y us

e cl

arifi

er fo

r the

firs

t slu

dge

conc

entra

tion

and

mem

bran

e fil

ter p

ress

(hor

izon

tal t

ype)

fo

r dew

ater

ing

and

desw

eete

ning

.

The

end

pro

duct

is

carb

onat

ion

lime

("C

arbo

kalk

") w

ith a

dry

sub

stan

ce c

onte

nt o

f ap

p. 7

0 %

. Thi

s pr

oduc

t is

used

as

a C

a fe

rtiliz

er. I

t is

free

flo

win

g an

d it

is g

ive

to th

e fa

rmer

s (th

ey h

ave

to p

ay o

nly

trans

port

cost

s).

8

Ban

galo

re, I

ndia

Se

shad

ri N

atha

n tk

sesh

adrin

atha

n@ya

hoo.

co.in

Def

ecat

can

be

used

as

very

goo

d Fe

rtilis

er a

fter

mak

ing

com

post

pro

cess

. Eve

n di

still

ery

was

h ca

n be

sp

raye

d on

this

mud

for 4

5 da

ys w

ith a

ero

tille

ring

and

can

be s

old

as it

is d

one

unde

r Ind

ian

cond

ition

s. Si

mpl

y ke

epin

g it

for

3 m

onth

s in

pla

ntat

ion

plot

s an

d th

en c

an b

e re

used

as

ferti

liser

bef

ore

appl

ied

for

culti

vatio

ns.

Firs

t Mud

is d

umpe

d in

win

drow

s w

ith 1

m h

eigh

t and

5 m

with

for

Dry

ing.

The

n af

ter

seve

ral t

urns

of

6day

s afte

r moi

st%

redu

ced

to 3

0% sp

ent w

ash

was

te w

ater

from

dis

tille

ry is

spra

yed

with

Aer

o til

lers

. It i

s in

ocul

ated

and

furth

er ro

tate

d w

ith a

ero

tille

rs.

Then

it is

kep

t to

dry

agai

n to

40

% m

oist

ure

and

then

spen

t w

ash

is s

pray

ed &

rota

ted

for a

bout

30

days

. Tot

al c

onsu

mpt

ion

com

es a

bout

1 to

nne

of m

ud c

onsu

mes

2.5

to

nnes

of s

pent

was

h in

45

days

ope

ratio

n of

spe

nt w

ash

spra

y an

d ro

tatio

n. A

fter W

indr

ows

are

read

y fo

r ha

rves

t with

40%

moi

stur

e w

ith s

un d

ryin

g. I

t is

dose

d w

ith m

icro

nutri

ents

and

als

o w

ith r

oot e

nhan

cing

nu

trien

t to

issu

e to

sal

es. W

indr

ows

shou

ld n

ot b

e m

ixed

and

sho

uld

be d

ress

ed p

rope

rly. I

mpe

rvio

us la

nd

is v

ery

impo

rtant

100

x 2

00 f

eet s

tand

ard

size

s ar

e us

ed f

or th

is w

indr

ow f

orm

atio

n. 2

/3 Y

ards

are

use

d ac

cord

ing

to d

istil

lery

spe

nt w

ash

also

kno

wn

as li

quid

gol

d Pr

oduc

tion.

Dur

ing

rain

y se

ason

yar

d is

not

op

erat

e ab

le. W

e ha

ve to

sto

re th

e M

ud a

nd th

en it

is to

be

used

. Pro

per

Rai

n ca

tchi

ng p

its a

nd d

rain

age

reus

ing

met

hods

als

o w

ill b

e ad

opte

d. T

his

com

post

enr

iche

s so

il fe

rtilit

y an

d av

oids

che

mic

al k

illin

g of

so

il na

ture

by

avoi

ding

ferti

liser

doz

ing.

9

Bee

t Sug

ar C

oope

rativ

e So

uthe

rn M

inne

sota

St

effe

l, Jo

dy

jody

_ste

ffel

@sm

bsc.

com

They

use

the

cla

ssic

al l

ime

defe

catio

n pr

oces

s, pr

oduc

ing

a co

-pro

duct

cal

led

prec

ipita

ted

calc

ium

ca

rbon

ate

(PC

C).

The

PCC

is u

sed

prim

arily

as a

n ag

ricul

tura

l soi

l am

endm

ent f

or p

H st

abili

zatio

n.

10

Al K

hale

ej S

ugar

Com

pany

D

ubai

, Uni

ted

Ara

b Em

irate

s

Car

bona

tion

is th

e m

ain

purif

icat

ion

proc

ess

in th

e re

finer

y. T

he m

elte

d, s

cree

ned

liquo

r is

trea

ted

with

m

easu

red

quan

tity

of m

ilk-o

f-lim

e, a

nd th

en s

ent t

o th

e ca

rbon

atio

n co

lum

ns, w

here

cle

an c

arbo

n di

oxid

e ga

s is

bub

bled

into

the

limed

liqu

or fo

rmin

g ca

lciu

m c

arbo

nate

whi

ch a

cts

as p

urify

ing

agen

t and

rem

oves

77

Naz

imud

din

nazi

mud

din@

aksu

gar.a

e ap

prec

iabl

e le

vels

of c

olou

r, as

h an

d tu

rbid

ity. T

he p

roce

ss ru

ns u

nder

con

trolle

d pH

and

tem

pera

ture

. Thi

s ca

rbon

ated

liq

uor

requ

ires

filtra

tion

step

to

rem

ove

all

the

susp

ende

d m

ater

ials

. Th

ey a

re f

ollo

win

g ca

rbon

atio

n m

etho

d of

pur

ifica

tion

usin

g ca

lciu

m h

ydro

xide

and

CO

2. T

he d

efec

at is

sent

for l

and-

fillin

g.

11

B

ritis

h Su

gar,

Lim

eX

Ric

hard

Cog

man

rc

ogm

an@

briti

shsu

gar.c

o.uk

“We

prod

uce

a pr

ecip

itate

d ca

lciu

m c

arbo

nate

pro

duct

in

the

prim

ary

juic

e fil

tratio

n ph

ase

of t

he b

eet

suga

r ex

tract

ion

proc

ess.

This

is

ty

pica

lly

8-12

um

in

size

-

very

fin

e,

and

prod

uces

w

eak

aggl

omer

atio

ns/lu

mps

. The

pro

duct

is p

rodu

ced

in th

e ca

rbon

atio

n st

age

of th

e pr

oces

s an

d th

e lim

e flo

ck

is r

emov

ed f

rom

the

suga

r ju

ice

by s

ettle

men

t in

clar

ifica

tion

tank

s, be

fore

rem

oval

to s

tora

ge in

a d

amp

stat

e af

ter s

ugar

was

hing

via

rota

ry v

acuu

m fi

lters

. How

ever

, thi

s onl

y ha

ppen

s at 2

of o

ur 6

suga

r fac

torie

s - t

his

is o

ur L

imeX

45. 5

of t

he 6

fact

orie

s ha

ve p

ress

es to

squ

eeze

was

h su

gar f

rom

the

prec

ipita

te, b

efor

e pr

essi

ng in

to c

ake

c 70

% d

s, ou

r Lim

eX70

pro

duct

. W

e pr

oduc

e c.

80K

t Lim

eX45

and

320

Kt L

imeX

70.

The

maj

ority

is

sold

for

soi

l co

nditi

onin

g an

d pH

man

agem

ent

in g

rass

land

, ara

ble

and

field

veg

etab

le

(bra

ssic

a) ro

tatio

ns.

The

prod

uct i

s sa

fe to

han

dle,

bei

ng lo

w d

ust c

onte

nt (

as it

is m

oist

), an

d is

non

-rea

ctiv

e (it

is C

aCO

3 +

orga

nic

mat

ter

and

silic

ates

) w

ith a

pH

of

c.8.

5 (n

on-c

aust

ic).

Our

sal

es a

re e

x-fa

ctor

y or

del

iver

ed/

deliv

ered

and

app

lied,

and

we

offe

r an

exc

elle

nt p

H te

stin

g an

d m

appi

ng s

ervi

ce to

acc

urat

ely

dete

rmin

e th

e lim

ing

need

of e

ach

field

we

test

” R

icha

rd C

ogm

an.

78

App

endi

x-2.

Han

dlin

g of

def

ecat

ion

lime

in so

me

coun

trie

s of t

he w

orld

N

N

ame

of th

e C

ompa

ny

Way

s of h

andl

ing

defe

catio

n lim

e W

eb p

age

1 N

ew S

outh

Wal

es

Suga

r Mill

ing

Co-

oper

ativ

e Li

mite

d

Dur

ing

the

mill

ing

proc

ess,

dirt

and

othe

r im

purit

ies,

whi

ch f

orm

par

t of

the

cane

sup

ply,

are

sep

arat

ed fr

om th

e su

gar s

tream

as

"filt

er m

ud".

Th

is

mud

is

high

ly s

ough

t af

ter

as i

t co

ntai

ns t

he e

ssen

tial

nutri

ents

nitr

ogen

(N

), ph

osph

orou

s (P

), po

tass

ium

(K

) an

d ca

lciu

m (

Ca)

. It

is m

ixed

with

fly

-ash

from

the

boile

rs, w

hich

als

o co

ntai

ns K

, and

is re

turn

ed to

the

field

s fo

r use

as t

op d

ress

ing.

The

mix

ture

pro

vide

s a ra

tion

of N

, P, C

a an

d K

for

the

next

cro

p.

http

://w

ww

.nsw

suga

r.com

.au

2 Sü

dzuc

ker A

G

Man

nhei

m/O

chse

nfur

t

The

"Car

boka

lk"

[car

bolic

lim

e] th

at is

a b

y-pr

oduc

t of p

roce

ssin

g th

e ju

ice

is a

n ex

celle

nt f

ertil

iser

. Th

e "C

arbo

kalk

" is

pre

ssed

to

prod

uce

a so

lid

mat

ter c

onte

nt o

f abo

ut 7

0 %

. The

mat

eria

l obt

aine

d in

this

way

, whi

ch h

as

the

sam

e m

oist

ure

cont

ent

as s

oil,

can

be s

tore

d at

the

edg

e of

a f

ield

w

ithou

t bei

ng c

over

ed. B

ecau

se o

f its

hig

hly

reac

tive

surf

ace,

"C

arbo

kalk

" is

a v

ery

rapi

dly

actin

g ca

lciu

m f

ertil

iser

and

is

suita

ble

for

all

kind

s of

cr

ops.

http

://w

ww

.sued

zuck

er.d

e/fla

sh/in

dex.

shtm

l

3 D

anis

co S

ugar

C

open

hage

n

The

maj

or

part

of

the

was

te

gene

rate

d by

D

anis

co

is

sent

to

re

cycl

ing/

reco

verin

g. T

he li

me

prod

uced

dur

ing

the

proc

essi

ng o

f bee

t is

a po

pula

r soi

l im

prov

er u

sed

in a

gric

ultu

re. A

lso

the

beet

soil

is u

sed

as a

soil

impr

over

, w

hile

sto

nes

and

sand

tha

t co

me

with

the

bee

t ar

e us

ed i

n co

nstru

ctio

n w

orks

.

http

://w

ww

.dan

isco

.com

4 Su

iker

Uni

e D

inte

loor

d

The

lime

abso

rbs

all u

nwan

ted

subs

tanc

es a

nd th

is p

reci

pita

tes

thro

ugh

the

addi

tion

of C

O2.

This

sol

id m

atte

r is

filt

ered

off

. It i

s a

pow

erfu

l, na

tura

l lim

e fe

rtilis

er th

at im

prov

es th

e st

ruct

ure

of th

e so

il an

d it

is s

old

unde

r the

na

me

Bet

acal

SU

.

http

://w

ww

.suik

erun

ie.c

om/n

l/

79

5 Sh

akar

ganj

Mill

s Lt

d, P

akis

tan

Def

ecat

ion

lime

is c

omm

only

kno

wn

as f

ilter

cak

e an

d is

use

d as

man

ure

by t

he f

arm

ers.

It is

com

bust

ible

and

als

o us

ed i

n br

ick

kiln

s fo

r br

ick

mak

ing.

W

hen

mix

ed w

ith th

e sp

ent w

ash

gene

rate

d by

the

dist

iller

ies,

the

resu

ltant

pr

oduc

t is

enr

iche

d or

gani

c m

anur

e, w

hich

has

the

cap

abili

ty t

o im

prov

e yi

elds

in

farm

s. It

also

miti

gate

s th

e ne

ed t

o tre

at t

he d

istil

lery

eff

luen

t, w

hich

is v

ery

toxi

c an

d is

hig

h on

BO

D a

nd C

OD

con

tent

.

http

://w

ww

.shak

arga

nj.c

om.p

k

6 M

ichi

gan

Suga

r C

ompa

nies

Impu

ritie

s in

the

raw

suga

r jui

ce a

re re

mov

ed b

y m

ixin

g th

e ju

ice

with

milk

of

lim

e tre

ated

with

car

bon

diox

ide

gas.

From

this

car

bona

tion

proc

ess,

the

prod

uct n

ext g

oes

to th

e O

liver

s, w

here

the

lime

cake

"m

ud"

is s

epar

ated

fr

om th

e ju

ice.

Thi

s m

ud is

then

pum

ped

to th

e fa

ctor

y’s

lime

pond

, whe

re

it w

ill s

it un

til r

eady

to

be s

prea

d on

far

mla

nd.

Mic

higa

n Su

gar’

s C

aro

plan

t sen

ds a

n av

erag

e of

60,

000

tons

of

lime

to s

ugar

-bee

t far

mer

s ea

ch

year

.

http

://w

ww

.geo

.msu

.edu

/geo

333/

beet

ind

ustry

.htm

l

7 G

OR

OD

EYA

SU

GA

R

REF

INER

Y

Join

t-Sto

ck

Com

pany

2

Zavo

dska

ya S

t.,

Gor

odey

a, B

elar

us

Def

ecat

ion

lime

is a

by-

prod

uct o

f the

pro

duct

ion

of su

gar o

f bee

t, w

hich

is

used

as

lime

ferti

lizer

. The

dry

def

ecat

con

tain

s 60

-75%

of

CaC

O3,

10-

15%

of

orga

nic

subs

tanc

es,

0.2-

0.7%

N,

0.2-

0.9%

P2O

5, 0

.3-1

% K

2O,

mic

roel

emen

ts. I

ntro

duct

ion

of d

efec

at a

s a

chem

ical

am

elio

rant

incr

ease

s no

t on

ly t

he c

rop

capa

city

of

the

field

s (f

or s

ugar

bee

t -

by 2

0-40

ce

ntne

r/ha,

for w

inte

r whe

at -

by 5

-6 c

entn

ers/

ha, p

eren

nial

gra

sses

- by

up

to 1

0 ce

ntne

rs/h

a), b

ut a

lso

the

suga

r con

tent

in su

gar b

eet b

y 0.

2-0.

4%.

http

://w

ww

.gsr

.by/

inde

x.ph

p?op

tion=

com

_con

tent

&ta

sk=v

iew

&id

=56&

Item

id=8

9

80

App

endi

x-3.

The

Sug

ar m

anuf

actu

ring

pro

cess

in B

ritis

h Su

gar

fact

orie

s {4}

81

App

endi

x-4.

Pro

cess

ing

of su

gar

beet

{10}

82

Appendix-5. Advantages of calcium and magnesium to soil structure {19}

N Name of the element Advantages 1 Calcium • facilitates the transport of carbohydrates in the plants;

• improves the solubility of many compounds in the soil; • facilitates absorption of the important elements of

nourishment by the plants; • increases the stability of plants to some illnesses; • encourages the activity of the nodule bacteria, that fix

nitrogen from air; • stimulates the activity of the useful micro organisms

which mineralize nitrogen in the compost heaps; • decreases the acidity of soil; • accelerates the processes of ammonification and of

oxidizing sulphur; • facilitates the formation of humus; • accelerates the decomposition of organic substances in

the soil; • decreases the toxicity of iron, manganese and aluminium

by neutralizing their excess quantities; • improves the mechanical composition of soil and, thus it

improves air and water permeability;

2 Calcium and Magnesium

• strengthen the walls of cells and their fastening with each other;

• facilitate the development of root system; • are the necessary nourishing elements; • Facilitate the formation of the structure of soil,

converting it to the more desirable structured state.

83

Appendix-6. pH map example – 1 {5}

84

Appendix-7. pH map example – 2 {5}

85

Appendix-8. Types and subtypes of soil in Uzbekistan {29}

Soil

103 ha

(%) of area

Light-brown, meadow desert, high mountain 54 1.2 Brown and dark brown, mountain-wood, middle mountain 166 3.7 Dark sierozem 105 2.4 Typical sierozem 305 6.8 Light sierozem 259 5.8 Meadow-sierozem and sierozem-meadow 780 1.8 Meadow of sierozem belt 67 1.5 Marshy-meadow sierozem 7 0.2 Sub-total 1 041 23.4 Grey - brown 1 103 24.8 Desert sandy 137 3.1 Dry lands 178 4.0 Meadow and dry-meadow 46 1.0 Desert zone meadow 179 4.1 Desert zone marshy meadow 5 0.1 Saline, alkali soils 127 2.9 Sand 1210 27.2 Others land (rocks, wetland etc.) 416 9.4 Sub-total 3 402 76.6 All land 4 442 100

86

Appendix-9. Distribution of irrigated arable land in Uzbekistan (103 ha) {31} Zone Average

1996 to 1998Average 2000 to 2002

Difference

Karakalpakstan Republic 427 419 -8 Oblasts Andijian 203 198 -5 Bukhara 201 200 -1 Djizak 253 258 5 Kashkadarya 418 417 -1 Navoiy 92 92 0 Namangan 199 198 -1 Samarkand 263 262 -1 Surkhandarya 250 244 -6 Sirdarya 260 256 -4 Tashkent 297 299 2 Fergana 257 256 -1 Khorezm 218 212 -6 Tashkent city 0 0,5 0,5 Total 3 338 3 311 -27

87

App

endi

x-10

. Fac

tors

whi

ch n

egat

ivel

y af

fect

pro

duct

ivity

of t

he la

nd {3

2}

Pr

oble

ms

R

easo

ns

C

onse

quen

ces

Low

fer

tility

, rai

sed

cons

umpt

ion

of

irrig

ated

wat

er a

nd la

bour

Impe

rfec

tive

stru

ctur

e of

ara

ble

area

s A

bsen

ce o

f sc

ient

ific

– gr

ound

ed a

gric

ultu

ral

zoni

ng

Raw

dire

ctne

ss t

o th

e pr

oduc

tion

of r

aw-

cotto

n

Exte

nsiv

e de

velo

pmen

t of a

gric

ultu

re

irrat

iona

l usi

ng o

f lan

ds

Saltn

ess

D

estru

ctio

n an

d un

satis

fact

ory

utili

zatio

n of

dr

aina

ge n

etw

ork

Wor

sene

ss o

f fe

rtilit

y, i

ncre

asin

g of

co

nsum

ptio

n of

irr

igat

ed

wat

er,

mea

ns, f

ertil

izer

s and

labo

ur

Ston

ines

s

Cul

tivat

ion

of st

onin

g la

nds

Gyp

seou

snes

s

Cul

tivat

ion

of g

ypse

ous l

ands

Swam

ping

, lo

w

ferti

lity

of

land

s, sa

linity

Mon

ocul

ture

Abs

ence

of

crop

rot

atio

n, i

ncre

ased

co

nsum

ptio

n of

agr

iche

mic

als

Irrig

atio

nal e

rosi

on o

f soi

ls

Im

perf

ectiv

e te

chni

ques

of

irr

igat

ion

and

culti

vatio

n D

igre

ssio

n,

was

hing

-out

an

d ca

rryi

ng-o

ut o

f fer

tile

laye

r of s

oil

Win

d er

oion

Abs

ence

of

ef

fect

ive

syst

em

of

field

-pr

otec

tive

fore

st st

ripes

W

ind

eros

ion

of fe

rtile

laye

r of s

oil

Cul

tivat

ion

of

low

-pro

duct

ive,

ha

rd-s

alty

la

nds,

Wat

er e

rosi

on

Dev

elop

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88

Appendix-11. Areas of land of different qualities by region (103 ha) {33}

Zone V IV III II I Total Karakalpakstan Republic 2 267 119 31 0 419 Oblasts Andijan * 36 76 109 9 230 Bukhara * 49 69 92 1 211 Djizak * 44 192 38 3 277 Navoiy 2 25 36 33 2 98 Namangan * 59 84 66 19 228 Samarkand * 31 160 97 18 306 Sirdarya * 70 125 34 0 229 Surkhandarya 2 54 110 86 18 270 Tashkent 0 39 153 120 16 328 Fergana 1 67 115 101 6 290 Khorezm 2 42 78 79 5 206 Kashkadarya 0 75 285 74 9 443 Total 9 858 1

602 960 106 3 535

* Below 500 ha.

89

Appendix-12. Average grades of land by region {33}

Zone Average gradeKarakalpakstan Republic 41 % Oblasts Andijan 60 % Bukhara 53 % Djizak 50 % Navoiy 52 % Namangan 59 % Samarkand 57 % Sirdarya 49 % Surkhandarya 60 % Tashkent 59 % Fergana 56 % Khorezm 54 % Kashkadarya 51 % Total 55 %

90

Appendix-13. Delivery of mineral fertilizers to agriculture (103 tonnes) {33}

Zones Nutrient Average 1996/98 1999 2000 Total 70.5 61.0 54.0 N 56.0 49.0 47.8 P2O5 10.1 10.8 5.5

Karakalpakstan Republic

K2O 4.5 1.2 0.7 Oblasts

Total 67.3 64.8 59.5 N 49.1 47.3 47.0 P2O5 12.6 14.2 11.4

Andijan

K2O 5.7 3.3 1.1 Total 67.4 61.1 56.6 N 51.5 46.7 45.3 P2O5 9.5 11.5 10.2

Bukhara

K2O 6.4 2.9 1.1 Total 48.5 50.9 45.4 N 36.9 38.8 38.3 P2O5 7.8 9.9 6.4

Djizak

K2O 3.6 2.2 0.7 Total 85.5 75.1 67.1 N 64.3 56.6 54.0 P2O5 14.5 15.9 10.9

Kashkadarya

K2O 6.8 2.6 2.2 Total 24.6 26.4 20.3 N 18.6 20.6 15.4 P2O5 3.6 4.5 4.0

Navoiy

K2O 2.4 1.3 0.9 Total 64.6 57.1 52.1 N 48.1 41.8 40.8 P2O5 10.6 12.0 10.3

Namangan

K2O 5.8 3.3 1.0 Total 65.1 ? ? N 48.7 43.6 41.5 P2O5 12.1 12.0 9.3

Samarkand

K2O 4.4 2.8 1.8 Surkhandarya Total 65.2 62.8 54.2

91

N 50.8 47.5 46.5 P2O5 9.2 12.6 7.1 K2O 5.3 2.7 0.6 Total 54.0 51.7 47.1 N 39.1 39.6 39.0 P2O5 10.3 10.9 7.1

Sirdarya

K2O 4.6 1.2 1.0 Total 64.5 60.2 54.2 N 47.8 45.4 44.0 P2O5 12.0 12.5 9.2

Tashkent

K2O 3.9 2.3 1.0 Total 78.7 64.7 62.0 N 60.0 47.2 48.3 P2O5 13.7 14.0 12.6

Fergana

K2O 5.0 3.5 1.1 Total 80.6 60.9 50.6 N 63.0 47.8 43.0 P2O5 13.5 11.3 6.6

Khorezm

K2O 4.1 1.8 1.0 Total 840.0 755.4 677.0 N 637.3 571.9 551.0 P2O5 140.2 152.4 110.6

Uzbekistan

K2O 62.5 31.1 15.4

TRITA-KET-IM 2006:3 ISSN 1402-7615 Industrial Ecology, Royal Institute of Technology www.ima.kth.se

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