applying learning theories to online instructional design

7/30/2019 Applying Learning Theories to Online Instructional Design

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Applying Learning Theories to OnlineInstructional Design

By Peter J. Patsula, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul. 1999

Introduction

The following tutorial consists of five learning modules. Each module describes alearning theory and how that learning theory can be applied to improving onlineteaching and training materials. Each module features:

1. a description of a well known learning theory;2. a practical example of how the theory and related strategies can be applied to a

particular instructional objective or web-design problem; and

3. a list of related pedagogical and web-design strategies as researched in theliterature.

This tutorial has been designed for MDDE 621 students studying in the Masters of Distance Education program at Athabasca University.

System Requirements

This tutorial is best viewed on a SVGA screen (800 by 600 pixels) using NetscapeCommunicator 4.0, Internet Explorer 4.0, or later versions of these browsers.RealPlayer G2 software and a sound card is also recommended.

Acknowledgement

The following tutorial was inspired by and borrows heavily from Greg Kearsley’s TheTheory Into Practice Database (1994) which is available online athttp://www.gwu.edu/~tip/.

Learning Theory #1:

Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory

A) Description

Although Gagne’s theoretical framework covers many aspects of learning, "the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills" (Kearsley, 1994a). Gagne’s theory is very prescriptive.In its original formulation, special attention was given to military training (Gagne 1962,as cited in Kearsley, 1994a).

In this theory, five major types of learning levels are identified:

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• verbal information• intellectual skills• cognitive strategies• motor skills• attitudes

The importance behind the above system of classification is that each learning levelrequires "different internal and external conditions" (Kearsley 1994a) i.e., each learninglevel requires different types of instruction. Kearsley provides the following example:

for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practicedeveloping new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must beexposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne also contends that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in ahierarchy according to complexity:

• stimulus recognition• response generation• procedure following• use of terminology• discriminations• concept formation• rule application• problem solving

The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructors so that

they can "identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at eachlevel" (Kearsley 1994a). This learning hierarchy also provides a basis for sequencinginstruction. Gagne outlines the following nine instructional events and correspondingcognitive processes (as cited in Kearsley 1994a):

1. gaining attention (reception)2. informing learners of the objective (expectancy)3. stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)4. presenting the stimulus (selective perception)5. providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)6. eliciting performance (responding)

7. providing feedback (reinforcement)8. assessing performance (retrieval)9. enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

B) Practical Application

Gagne’s nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes can serve asthe basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs &

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Wager, 1992, as cited in Kearsley 1994a). In applying these instructional events,Kearsley (1994a) suggests keeping the following principles in mind:

1. Learning hierarchies define a sequence of instruction.2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned.

3. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

EXAMPLE

The following example applies Gagne's nine instructional events:

• Instructional Objective: Recognize an equilateral triangle (example fromKearsley 1994a).

• Methodology:

1. Gain attention - show a variety of computer generated triangles

2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?"3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle5. Guide learning - show example of how to create equilateral6. Elicit performance - ask students to create 5 different examples7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect8. Assess performance - provide scores and remediation9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students

to identify equilateral triangles. C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design

Strategies

1. Provide a variety of learning activities. Instructional designers shouldanticipate and accommodate alternate learning styles by "systematically varyingteaching and assessment methods to reach every student" (Sternberg 1994, ascited in Ross-Gordon 1998, 227). They should also provide alternate offlinematerials and activities, as well as, present "alternate points of view andinterpretations" (Fahy 1999, 237) so that the learner is free to "[criss-cross] theintellectual landscape of the content domain by looking at it from multipleperspectives or through multiple themes" (Jonassen et al., 1997, 122).

2. Use Bloom’s "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for the CognitiveDomain" to increase retention. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectivesfor the Cognitive Domain (1956, as cited in Fahy 1999, 42-43) is similar toGagne’s hierarchy of intellectual skills. Bloom outlines the following cognitiveactivities organized from least to greater complexity:

- knowledge- comprehension

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- application- analysis- synthesis- evaluation (making judgements)

In the following example, Bloom’s taxonomy is used to illustrate differentobjectives related to learning objectives for studying nails (Fahy 1999, 43):

Knowledge – Know enough about nails to be able to explain what theyare and what they are used for. Be able to recognize a nail as a fasteningdevice from a non-fastening devices.

Comprehension – Be able to identify a nail and distinguish it from other fastening devices.

Application – Be able to use a nail to fasten something competently, and

actually do so.

Analysis – Be able to determine what kind of nail and nailing techniquewould be required for most effective use of the device for a specificpurpose.

Synthesis – Be able to compare nails to other fastening devices, and tocompare various types of nails and nailing techniques for their specificqualities and characteristics in specific situations.

Evaluation – Be able to assess examples of the use of nails for fastening,

and different nailing techniques, and to pass judgement as to which weremore effective, more artistic, more secure, more skillful, more workmanlike, etc.

Learning Theory #2:

Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

A) Description

Bruner's constructivist theory is based upon the study of cognition. A major theme in thistheory is that "learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or

concepts based upon their current/past knowledge" (Kearsely 1994b). Cognitivestructures are used to provide meaning and organization to experiences and allows theindividual to go beyond the information given.

According to Bruner, the instructor should try and encourage students to constructhypotheses, makes decisions, and discover principles by themselves (Kearsley1994b). The instructor's task is to "translate information to be learned into a format



appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding" and organize it in a spiralmanner "so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned."

Bruner (1966, as cited in Kearsley 1994b) states that a theory of instruction shouldaddress the following aspects:

1. the most effective sequences in which to present material2. the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most

readily grasped by the learner


Bruner’s constructivist theory can be applied to instruction, as Kearsley (1994b)surmises, by applying the following principles:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the

student willing and able to learn (readiness).2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student

(spiral organization).3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps

(going beyond the information given).

EXAMPLE

The following example is taken from Bruner (1973, as cited in Kearsley 1994b):

The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the

child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot belaid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laidout in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is alwaysone extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns,happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to therecognition that a multiple table, so called, is a record sheet of quantities incompleted multiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication andprimes in a construction that can be visualized.

• Instructional Objective: Recognize and define a prime number.• Methodology:

1. Ask the student to get a handful of pennies, beans, or any other countable object.2. Show the students 6 pennies. Show that six pennies can be organized into two

groups of three, three groups of two, or one group of six.3. Ask the student to count out 8 pennies and organize the pennies into as many

EQUAL groups as they can.4. Show answer.



"events ideas, words, concepts and stimuli in general which are not organized insome meaningful way are harder to understand and remember than those whichare embedded in some organizational context" (p. 60). Fahy also advises thatwhen sequencing consider that the first and last displays in any sequences areespecially important. "Introductions and summaries are key learning

opportunities" (p. 61).

• Provide structural cues to avoid information vertigo. Jones and Farquhar (1997, 241) recommend arranging information "in a non-threatening manner through techniques such as chunking, overviews, advance organizers, maps,and a fixed-display format." They also advise that "the consistent placement andstyle of section titles is [an] important cue to the structure of information."

Learning Theory #3:

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

A) Description

Bandura's social learning theory "emphasizes the importance of observing andmodeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others" (Kearsley 1994c).It has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura 1973, ascited in Kearsley 1994c) and psychological disorders. Bandura states:

Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if peoplehad to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling:from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed,

and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action (1977,as cited in Kearsley 1994c).

The processes underlying observational learning are as Kearsley (1994c) explains:

1. attention 2. retention (including cognitive organization and motor rehearsal)3. motor reproduction (including physical capabilities, self-observation of

reproduction, and accuracy of feedback)4. motivation (including external and self reinforcement)5. observer characteristics (such as sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual

set, and past reinforcement).


In applying Bandura’s Social Learning theory, Kearsley (1994c) suggests keeping thefollowing principles in mind:



1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing andrehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly.Coding modeled behavior into words, labels, or images results in better retentionthan simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes

they value.3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar tothe observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

"Strategies consistent with social learning theories include mentoring, apprenticeship,on the job training, and internships" (Ross-Gordon 1998, 217). Each involves learning ina social situation whereby novice learners model more experienced teachers or coworkers. Kearsley (1994c) provides the following example of social learning:

The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations aretelevision commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or

using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such asattention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercialand buy the product being advertised.

EXAMPLE

The following example illustrates how participatory observation can be used to helpstudents learn and apply the Law of Reflection. This example is directed towardsstudents being able to model the cognitive processes of experts (an extension of Bandura's Social Learning theory; see cognitive modeling strategy).

• Instructional Objective: Recognize that the angle of reflection equals the angleof incidence.

• Methodology:

1. Show a 6' x 12' pool table, a cue ball, an object ball, the cue stroke of an expertpool shark, and three possible points of impact (aim). Ask the learner to guesswhat point the expert pool shark is hoping to hit the object ball and sink it after four banks.

2. Show answer. 3. Show an irregularly shaped miniature golf putting green, a golf ball, the putting

stroke of a world famous golfer (e.g., Tiger Woods, Gary Player), and threepossible points of impact (aim). Ask the learner to guess what point the expertgolfer is hoping to hit the golf ball to get a hole-in-one.

4. Show answer.5. Show a room consisting of highly polished mirror-like stainless steel walls, a

sniper (James Bond) with a laser sight, a direction of aim, and three possibletargets (Bandura, Carroll, or Vygotsky). Ask the learner to guess who the sniper is aiming at.

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6. Show answer.7. Ask the learner to guess what the pool shark, expert golfer and sniper are

thinking when they stroke the cue, putt the ball, or aim the rifle. Provide severalpossible choices of insights into their cognitive reasoning.

8. Show an incident light ray hitting a mirror at an angle of 45 degrees. Ask the

student to guess what the angle of reflection will be.9. Show answer and state the Law of Reflection: "the angle of incidence equals theangle of reflection."

10.Provide another example of this law (define terms).11.Discuss the similiarities between the reflection of light rays off mirrors and the

reflection or motion of billard balls on billiard tables.12.Provide a few quiz questions.

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-DesignStrategies

1. Teach students how to model cognitive processes as well as behaviorsusing real-world problems. Jonassen (1998) defines two types of modeling:behavioral modeling of the overt performance and cognitive modeling of thecovert cognitive processes. Behavioral modeling "demonstrates how to performthe activities" while cognitive modeling "articulates the reasoning that learnersshould use while engaged in performing the activity" (p. 12). Jonassen reasonsthat "conventional teaching focuses on answers, which are often artificially 'tidy,'lacking the complexity and messiness of the real world" (Fahy 1999, 54, citingJonassen 1998). He suggests using "authentic problems" to make studentlearning experiences "more appealing, engaging, and meaningful."

2. Provide similar examples and comparisons to aid perception and recall."Objects, ideas, or events displayed together in space and time are often storedtogether in memory and grouped together in recall. This is the Law of proximity inperception and contiguity in memory" (Fahy 1999, 60).

3. Use show me buttons. When learners need help, provide them with a "ShowMe" or a "How Do I Do This?" button (Jonassen 1998, 12). Hyperlink to thisbutton a visual or animated example of the desired performance.

4. Use worked examples as a method for modeling problem solving. "Workedexamples include a description of how problems are solved by an experiencedproblem solver. Worked examples enhance the development of problemschemas and the recognition of different types of problems based on them"(Jonassen 1998, 12, citing Sweller & Cooper 1985).

5. Use repetition with variety. Repeating a variety of examples or problems withsolutions is more effective for long-term retention than rote or verbatimreproduction. Paraphrasing, rephrasing, and reworking is more useful than therepetition or regurgitation of information (Fahy 1999, 62).



Learning Theory #4:

Carroll’s Minimalist Theory

A) Description

The Minimalist theory of J.M. Carroll focuses on the instructional design of trainingmaterials for computer users and has been "extensively applied to the design of computer documentation" (e.g., Nowaczyk & James, 1993, van der Meij, & Carroll,1995, as cited in Kearsley 1994d). It is based upon studies of people learning a widerange of computer applications including word processors and databases.

As Kearsley (1994d) explains, this theory suggests that:

1. All learning activities should be meaningful and self-contained.2. Activities should exploit the learner's prior experience and knowledge.3. Learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible.

4. Instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising.5. Training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and use

errors as learning opportunities.6. There should be a close linkage between training and the actual system because

"new users are always learning computer methods in the context of specificpreexisting goals and expectations" (Carroll 1990, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).

The critical idea behind Carroll's Minimalist theory is that course designers must"minimize the extent to which instructional materials obstruct learning and focus thedesign on activities that support learner-directed activity and accomplishment" (Kearsley1994d).


In applying Carroll’s Minimalist theory, Kearsley (1994d) recommends the following:

1. Allow learners to start immediately on meaningful tasks.2. Minimize the amount of reading and other passive forms of training by allowing

users to fill in the gaps themselves3. Include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction4. Make all learning activities self-contained and independent of sequence.

EXAMPLE 1

The following is an example of a guided exploration approach to learning how to use aword processor (Carroll 1990, chapter 5, as cited in Kearsley 1994d).

Applying the principles of Carroll's Minimalist theory, a 94-page training manual isreplaced by 25 cards. Each card is self contained and includes a meaningful task anderror recognition information. The cards do not provide complete step-by-step



specifications but only key ideas or hints about what to do. Kearsley reports that "in anexperiment that compared the use of the cards versus the manual, users learned thetask in about half the time with the cards."

EXAMPLE 2

The following example illustrates the redesign of a Web page using Carroll’s Minimalisttheory and other related web design strategies:

• Problem: Below is a screen shot of The WINDeX Search Engine located athttp://windex.daci.net. This site allows software developers to submit sharewareand freeware to be stored in their database. This page however has four seriousdesign flaws: (a) the banners occupy too much valuable space at the top of thescreen; (b) "The Windex Index" image banner runs a lake ripple Java appletwhich is highly distracting; (c) the lake ripple Java applet significantly increasesthe time it takes to download the page; (d) the white text on a blue background is

difficult to read, especially considering that the site uses four colors for text: red,blue, white and black.

• Solution: (a) Carroll advises that learners should be allowed to start right away

on meaningful tasks. Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that in web-design,important information should be kept on the top of the page. Considering thisadvice, to improve this web page, the banners should be designed to occupy lessspace and the user input forms should be moved up higher so users don't haveto scroll as much. (b) (c) (d) Carroll advises that web-design should minimize theextent to which instructional materials obstruct learning. Gillani & Relan (1997)advise that frames should be kept simple and be consistent in design of text,graphics and sound to limit cognitive overload. Similarly, Guay (1995, as cited inFahy 1999) advises that Web pages should reduce clutter and download in 30seconds or less with a 14.4 modem. Considering this advice, to improve thedesign of this web page, the Java applet should be removed as it greatly

increases the time to download the entire page without adding to its usability.Furthermore, the ripple effect distracts from the content of the site and is justplain "annoying." Content that is not essential, such as the "redesign notice"should also be removed or shrunk in size. Furthermore, the range of text colorsshould be reduced and a more suitable background chosen to improvereadability.

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1. Keep important information at the top of the page. When learners come to apage, they immediately scan for interesting and important information. Goodweb-design demands that you give your learners the information they want rightaway and in a hurry. Large graphics at the top of a page may be aestheticallypleasing, but take up too much of the immediate viewable space to beconsidered instructionally useful (Jones and Farquhar 1997).

2. Keep frames simple and be consistent in design of text, graphics andsound to limit cognitive overload. Guay advises that "cognitive bandwidthshould be minimized to ensure users easily and accurately grasp the message"(as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). He also recommends that graphics and other enhancements should "never obscure the central message of the page" (p. 191).Jones and Farquhar (1997) advise that background to a display should notcompete with or obscure the text. Simiarly Gillani & Relan 1997, 236 maintainthat "simplicity and consistency eliminates cognitive overload." Thus, multimediacomponents should be used "to reinforce rather than distract from learning."

3. Keep pages short so learners don’t have to scroll. Research on the Websuggests that "users do not like to scroll" (Nielsen 1996, as cited in Jones &Farquhar 1997, 243). Guay (1995, as cited in Fahy 1999, 191) agrees with thisand advises that "each page should fit on the screen without scrolling." West(1998, as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) similarly advises that "the requirement for theuser to scroll down in Web-based documents should be kept to a minimum, asmany users will not scroll more than 3 times before abandoning a site." West alsoestimates that readers give only between 7 and 15 seconds to assess theprobable usefulness of a site before leaving it. It should be noted that "theproblem with making pages short is that people may choose to print out certainpieces of information, or download the entire contents of a group of pages. This

[problem can be solved] by combining all of the pages into a single documentthat is labeled as such" (Jones and Farquar, 1997, 243). A print button can beprovided so that users can eaisly print longer material for off-screen reading.

4. Keep pages uncluttered by extracting unnecessary elements. Broadbents’theory of single-channel processing states that "humans are capable of processing information through only one channel at a time and that it is notpossible to process two channels simultaneously"(Hsia 1968, as cited in Szabo



1998, 32). If this were to happen, audio and visual stimuli would arrive at thecentral nervous system simultaneously, causing the information to jam, and leadto poorer retention of material (Broadbent 1958, as cited in Szabo 1998, 32).Guay (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 192) recommends that "each page should beuncluttered, readable, and balanced."

5. Pages should download in 30 seconds or less with 14.4 modem. Guayadvises that "physical bandwidth should be minimized to ensure acceptableaccess and response times" (1995 as cited in Fahy 1999, 191). Specialconsideration should be given to logos, banners, .pdf files, audio, and video tomake sure that these files do not slow down the site too much. Guay alsosuggests that tagging graphics (in HTML) with vertical and horizontal size canspeed download. Commercial graphics tools such as Adobe ImageReady 2.0can also reduce graphics size by among other things reducing the color pallet.

6. Screen excess information. Good design, as Carroll recommends, must reduceexcess information and allow learners to fill in the gaps. In support of this, Dede(1996, 13) maintains that the curriculum is "overcrowded with low-levelinformation" and as a result, "teachers [must] frantically race through requiredmaterial, helping students memorize factual data to be regurgitated onmandated, standardized tests." Dede also advises that "the core skill for today’sworkplace is not foraging for date, but filtering a plethora of incominginformation." He adds that as we increasingly are required to dive into a sea of information we must master the ability to immerse ourselves in data "to harvestpatterns of knowledge just as fish extract oxygen from water via their gills" (p. 6).

7. Structure materials as topical modules. This "simplifies selective reuse of course materials" (Butler 1997, 422).

8. Strive for quality not quantity. Rockley (1997, as cited in Fahy 1999, 196-197)gives the following advice for the planning and management of Web-basedresources:

• Design small. Make what you have effective, then add to it. Don’t attempt to doeverything at once.

• Keep effects simple. Assure effects ADD to the message/content.• Map out the whole site. Both for development and maintenance.• Plan for growth. Anticipate and direct it.• Get feedback from users. And pay attention to it.

• Test any outside links regularly. Don’t’ link to sites which do not appear to bewill maintained or stable.

• Give only one person edit privileges. Only one person should have sitemaintenance responsibilities.

• Don’t post any part of a site while it is still under construction. Everythingon your site should work now. Instead of "under construction, put upannouncements of the expected availability of "coming" or "new" features.

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Learning Theory #5:

Vygotsky’s Theory of Social Cognitive Development

A) Description

Vygotsky's theory of social cognitive development is complementary to Bandura's sociallearning theory. Its major thematic thrust is that "social interaction plays a fundamentalrole in the development of cognition" (Kearsley 1994e). Most of the original work of thistheory was done in the context of language learning in children.

An important concept in Vygotsky's theory is that "the potential for cognitivedevelopment is limited to a certain time span which he calls the 'zone of proximaldevelopment' (Kearsley 1994e). He defines the 'zone of proximal development' ashaving four learning stages. These stages "range between the lower limit of what thestudent knows and the upper limits of what the student has the potential of accomplishing" (Gillani and Relan 1997, 231). The stages can be further broken down

as follows (Tharp & Gallimore 1988, 35):

• Stage 1 - assistance provided by more capable others (coaches, experts,teachers);

• Stage 2 - assistance by self;• Stage 3 - internalization automatization (fossilization); and• Stage 4 - de-automatization: recursiveness through prior stages.

Another notable aspect of Vygotsky's theory is that it claims "that instruction is mostefficient when students engage in activities within a supportive learning environmentand when they receive appropriate guidance that is mediated by tools" (Vygotsky 1978,

as cited in Gillani & Relan 1997, 231). These instructional tools can be defined as"cognitive strategies, a mentor, peers, computers, printed materials, or any instrumentthat organizes and provides information for the learner." Their role is "to organizedynamic support to help [learners] complete a task near the upper end of their zone of proximal development [ZPD] and then to systematically withdraw this support as the[learner] move to higher levels of confidence."


In applying Vygotsky's theory of social cognitive development, Kearsley (1994e)suggests keeping the following principles in mind:

1. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.2. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.

APPLICATION



Gillani and Relan (1997, 232) contend that "the interactive nature of frames ininterdisciplinary instructional design has the potential of implementing cognitive theoriesas its theoretical foundation."

Based on David Ausubel's idea of advance organizers "as a cognitive strategy that links

prior knowledge structure with new information" (1968 as cited in Gillani and Relan1997, 232), as well as, Vygotsky's idea of instructional tools and the four learning stagesas defined by his 'zone of proximal development', Gillani and Relan proposed aninstructional design model having four phases:

• advance organizer phase,• modeling phase,• exploring phase, and• generating phase.

Gillani and Relan argue that it was not until the introduction of frame technology

introduced with Netscape Navigator 2.0 that these four phases could realistically beapplied to instructional design. They say:

Basically, frames enable the Web designer to create multiple, distinct, andindependent viewing areas within the browser’s window . . . each framethen becomes a window that can have its own URL (Uniform ResourceLocator), scrollbar, and links to frames in the same document or other documents. Such internal connections among the frames of a browser enable the designer to create interactive links that can update and controlthe content of other frames (p. 232).

Gilanni and Relan proposed the following model made up of four distinct frames, withthe Instructional Model Frame having four distinct phases:

VibrantFrame

Instructional Model Frame[Advance Organizer] [Model] [Explore] [Generate]

NavigationFrame[button][button][button][button]

PresentationFrame

• Vibrant Frame – The small top left area frame above the navigation framedetermines the underlying theme for content. Each time the user clicks on it, anew theme will appear which changes the thematic nature of instruction. For example, this frame could be used to provide multiple versions of content (e.g.,frames, no frames, modules, no modules). This frame could also be used toshow QuickTime movies. It should be noted that proper use of this frame adds aconsiderable investment in instructional design.



• Instructional Model Frame - The top right frame, includes four buttonsrepresenting the four stages of learning as proposed by Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development: Advance Organizer, Modeling, Exploring, and Generating.Each button in this frame updates and controls the content of the navigationframe.

• Navigation Frame – The left frame just below the Vibrant Frame is theNavigation Frame. Depending upon which button is clicked in the NavigationFrame, determines the content of the Presentation Frame.

• The Presentation Frame – The main central frame displays dynamicinstructional content as selected from the navigation frame.

Two examples which illustrate design features of Gillani and Relan's instructional modelare shown in the following links to screen shots, one of Sookmyung Women's UniversityContinuing Cyber Education Program, and the other of the home page of this tutorial:


1. Simplify navigation. Szabo (1998) defines navigation as "the process of acquiring information from a rich multimedia data base that has no obviousorganizational pattern" (p. 6). Guay (as cited in Fahy 1999, 191-192) advises thatnavigation should be intuitive, clear, flowing. "Poorly thought out hypertext is anavigational nightmare of tangled mazes, infinite loops, cul-de-sacs, and deadlinks. So don’t start linking without thinking." Similarly Dede (1996, 13) arguesthat "without skilled facilitation, many learners who access current knowledge

webs will flounder in a morass of unstructured data."

2. Create effective menus. Well-designed menus help learners develop anaccurate mental model of the structure being searched. To design more effectivemenus, Szabo (1996, 55) advises: (a) avoid using conflicting or confusingorienting devices, as disorientation interferes with the learning task; (b) developorganizational systems that are highly visual, interactive, and intuitive; (c) useembedded menus as a search aid, but make sure these menus actually meetlearning needs and do not create disorientation; and (d) keep menus shallow butmeaningful; use icons supplemented by text.

3. Include indexes, table of contents, and search capabilities. Fahy (1999, 188)

advises that navigation, for instructional purposes, can be aided substantially if the following functions and capabilities are designed into WebPages:

index - of contents of the site;glossary - of terms, vocabulary, etc., with pronunciation;related links page - to enable further study, but to avoid unnecessary browsing;searching - using an efficient engine;online help - to ensure no user is left without assistance;

http://www.patsula.com/usefo/webbasedlearning/tutorial1/images/p_smu.gif

http://www.patsula.com/usefo/webbasedlearning/tutorial1/images/p_m621.gif

http://www.patsula.com/usefo/webbasedlearning/tutorial1/images/p_smu.gif

http://www.patsula.com/usefo/webbasedlearning/tutorial1/images/p_m621.gif



bookmarking - to simplify return to specific parts of the site; andnotebook - to allow recording of notes, including cut-and-paste from on-linematerials.

4. Clearly identify content with appropriate headings and titles. The title of the

site should reflect its purpose and audience.

5. Place most important information on the top-left. Important informationshould go to the top-left. The lower-left is the least noticed area of thepage/screen (Rockley 1997 as cited in Fahy 1999, 145).

Conclusion

To make online teaching and training materials more effective, an agency should firstestablish suitable learning goals and objectives. Since the priority of instruction is to"benefit" or "instruct" the learner, instructional designers should then strive to facilitate

the learning process i.e., make learning easier. This can be accomplished by applyingproven learning theories and pedagogical practices, as well as, practical web-designstrategies and guidelines, to their instructional design:

However, "program planners need to exercise caution in assuming that adultdevelopment theories apply [equally] to females, racial, ethnic minority adults,individuals with disabilities, or others" (Ross-Gordon 1998, 225). They must also bear inmind that the limitations of the Web as a teaching and training vehicle and that it canpotentially be a major cause of wasted time. To its disadvantage, the Web is (Fahy1999, 181-182):

• Easy to get lost in (users can get confused bouncing around from one link tothe next)

• Unstructured• Non-interactive (although this is changing)• Complex (the amount of information on the Web is mind-boggling)• Time-consuming (because it is non-linear and invites exploration. NOTE:

Research by Thaler [1997, as cited in Fahy 1999, 181] shows that "employees ina 1997 survey reported spending an average of 90 minutes per day visiting sitesunrelated to their jobs").

To sum up the future of the Web as an educational tool, McDonald (1996 as cited in

Fahy 1999, 182) provides us with the following insights. He claims that the Web will onlybecome a useful educational tool when it exhibits the following characteristics:

• Ease of use: the Internet must become as easy to use as a telephone• Accessibility: learners and teachers must have access to the Internet as

convenient as the telephone

And solves the following three problems:



• Lack of speed• Absence of security• A relatively small number of users

Summary of Five Learning Theories

1. Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory is based on a hierarchy of intellectualskills organized according to complexity that can be used to identify prerequisitesnecessary to facilitate learning at each level. Instruction can be made moreefficient by following a sequence of nine instructional events defined by theintellectual skills that the learner is required to learn for the specific task at hand.

2. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory asserts that learning is an active process inwhich learners construct new ideas based upon their current knowledge.Instruction can be made more efficient by providing a careful sequencing of materials to allow learners to build upon what they already know and go beyond

the information they have been given to discover the key principles bythemselves.

3. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observingand modeling the behaviors and attitudes of others. Instruction can be mademore efficient by modeling desired behaviors of functional value to learners andby providing situations which allow learners to use or practice that behavior toimprove retention.

4. Carroll’s Minimalist Theory advises that course designers must minimizeinstructional materials that obstruct learning and focus the design on activities

that support learner-directed activity. Instruction can be made more efficientwhen the amount of reading is minimized and learners are allowed to fill in thegaps themselves.

5. Vygostky’s Theory of Social Cognitive Development reasons that socialinteraction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Instructioncan be made more efficient when learners engage in activities within a supportiveenvironment and receive guidance mediated by appropriate tools.

Quiz/Review

A: MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which theorist does the following statement apply to: "nine instructional eventscan serve as the basis for designing instruction"?

a) Bandurab) Bruner



c) Carrolld) Gagnee) Vygotsky

2. Which theory uses the concept of spiral organization?

a) Conditions of Learning Theoryb) Constructivist Theoryc) Minimalist Theoryd) Social Learning Theorye) Theory of Social Cognitive Development

3. Which theorists originated the Minimalist theory and the Social Learning theory?

a) Bandura and Bruner b) Bruner and Gagnec) Carroll and Bandurad) Gagne and Carrolle) Vygotsky and Caroll

4. Which theory is most applicable to computers and online instruction?

a) Conditions of Learning Theoryb) Constructivist Theoryc) Minimalist Theory

d) Social Learning Theorye) Theory of Social Cognitive Development

5. Which theory advocates mentoring, apprenticeship, on the job training, andinternships?

a) Conditions of Learning Theoryb) Constructivist Theoryc) Minimalist Theoryd) Social Learning Theory

e) Theory of Social Cognitive Development

6. Which theorist offers advice similar to infomercial motivational speaker AnthonyRobbins?

a) Bandurab) Bruner



c) Carrolld) Gagnee) Vygotsky

7. Which theorist is closely connected to the ideas of Bandura?

a) Broadbentb) Gillani and Relanc) Jonassend) Bloome) Dede

8. Which theorist advises allowing learners to fill in the gaps themselves?

a) Bandurab) Bruner c) Carrolld) Gagnee) Vygotsky

9. What is the most important principle of the Theory of Social CognitiveDevelopment?

a) Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results inoutcomes they value.

b) Activities should exploit the learner's prior experience and knowledge.c) Advance organizers help link prior knowledge.d) Full cognitive development requires social interaction.e) Instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes can serve as thebasis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media.

10. Allowing students to discover principles by themselves is most important towhich theorist?

a) Bandura

b) Bruner c) Carrolld) Gagnee) Vygotsky

APPLICATION QUIZ



The following is a screen shot of Sandy's Business Assistance and Training home pagelocated at http://www.abat.ca. Sandy is an MDDE 621 student and requested feedbackon her site. Her site has been designed reasonably well but can be improved. Howwould you improve the design of this site?

Answer: By applying the principles of Vygotsky's mediated tools, Gillani and Relan's(1997) Interactive Web-based Instructional Model , Carroll's Minimalist theory, and other related web design strategies emphasizing the importance of ease of navigation andsimplicity of design, the following suggestions can be made:

• Clearly identify content with appropriate headings and titles. In following thisguideline, the "Welcome" title has been replaced by a more appropriate headingbringing attention and focus to the site. The menu title "Who are we" has beenreplaced with "Who we are" so the syntax of the menu structure is consistent.

• Each page should be uncluttered, readable and balanced. The banner located in the "Vibrant Frame" area is unclear. The graphics in the "PresentationFrame" area could also be sharpened and made more vivid. Fuzzy photos areharder to process and lead to unnecessary cognitive activity.

• Simplify navigation. The links located in the "Instructional Model Frame" areaare somewhat confusing. Carroll's Minimalist theory of minimalism suggests thatthe "home" page link is unnecessary and should be removed. This link can moreeffectively be moved to the logo, along with the tag "Home Page." Since the mostimportant information should go on the top left, the menu item "services" hasbeen moved closer. The menu items have also been rearranged to moreaccurately reflect the structure and importance of each menu item in the site, togive the viewer a more accurate representation of the contents.

Links

Here are some helpful sites that offer information on learning theories, instructionaldesign, and organizations offering web-based online courses.

• The Theory Into Practice (TIP) DatabaseThe TIP project involves the development of a hypertext database for theories of learning and instruction. The database contains descriptions of 50 theories,which are linked to 18 major concepts and 19 task/content domains. Each theory

description includes the following sections. Overview, scope, application,example, principles and references.

• The Learning Theory FunhouseDedicated to keeping viewers informed about learning and technology.

• Ed P540 course at Indiana UniversityDatabase of learning theories and theorists and other resources.

http://www.abat.ca/

http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/index.html

http://www.funderstanding.com/

http://education.indiana.edu/~p540/webcourse/web.html

http://www.abat.ca/

http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/index.html

http://www.funderstanding.com/

http://education.indiana.edu/~p540/webcourse/web.html



• Theoretical SourcesFrom the University of Colorado Instructional Technology Program. Featurestheoretical sources and explanations of Instructional Design Models.

• How People Learn (teaching resources)Honolulu C.C. Faculty Guidebook. Provides 100s of teaching tips from learning

theories to creating the "right" classroom environment.• Learning with Technology

Dr. David Jonassen identifies several attributes of meaningful and engaginglearning environments that technology can assist in creating.

• Don Clark's Systems Approach to TrainingOffers among other things and ISD training manual (based on ADDIE).

• World Lecture Hall Contains links to pages created by faculty worldwide who are using the Web todeliver university-level academic courses in any language. The World LectureHall does not administer any of the courses it links to. Some are distance-learning courses delivered entirely over the Internet. Others are designed for

students in residence.• The Physics Classroom (A High School Physics Tutorial)

Created by students of Glenbrook South High School. Includes quizzes. • Tips for Writers and Designers

List of handy tips for making your HTML pages look great.• A Practical Guide to HTML Publishing and Resources

Offers handy resources and guides for web site designers. • The Castle Project Toolkit

Make an online quiz! Tallies results.• HTMLResources foOff Instructional Technology Research Online (InTRO)

How to Print this DocumentTo PRINT this document, click on this frame, select the "File" command in your browser (e.g., Netscape Communicator or IE). Select "Print Frame" in Netscape. Use "PrintPreview" if necessary. Select "Print" in IE.

References

Butler, B.S. (1997). Web-based instruction (WBI): Using the world wide web tosupport classroom-based education: Conclusions from a multiple-case study. In

B. H. Khan (Ed.), Web-based instruction, (pp. 417-423). New Jersey: EducationalTechnology Publications.

Dede, C. (1996). The evolution of distance education: Emerging technologiesand distributed learning. The American Journal of Distance Education, 10(2), 4-36.

http://www.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/theory.html

http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/teachtip.htm

http://l2l.ed.psu.edu/Learning

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd.html

http://www.utexas.edu/world/lecture/


http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/BBoard.html

http://www.dsiegel.com/tips/index.html

http://members.aol.com/Rick1515/index.htm

http://www.le.ac.uk/cc/ltg/castle/tools/


http://intro.base.org/

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Jonassen, D. H, Dyer, D., Peters, K., Robinson, T., Harvey, D. King, M., &Loughner, P. (1997). Cognitive flexibility hypertexts on the Web: Engaginglearners in meaning making. In B. H. Khan (Ed.), Web-based instruction, (pp.119-133). New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.

Jones, M.G., & Farquhar, J. D. (1997). User interface design for web-basedinstruction. In B. H. Khan (Ed.), Web-based instruction, (pp. 239-244). NewJersey: Educational Technology Publications.

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applying learning theories to online instructional design

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