applying micro-economics to the information economy a brief summary of: carl shapiro & hal r....
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Applying micro-economics to the information economy
A brief summary of:
Carl Shapiro & Hal R. Varian: Information Rules. A strategic guide to the network economy, Boston: Harvard Business School, 1999
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Principles of the information economy (1)
→Production of information goods involves high fixed costs (often: sunk costs) and low marginal costs
Remember:
Fixed costs Initial start-up costs that are independent of the quantity produced
Sunk costs Fixed costs that are specific to a certain activity and can only be earned back if the activity succeeds (irreversibility)
Marginal costs Costs of producing one unit extra
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Implications of this principle:
• Information is costly to produce (first copy) but cheap to reproduce (strong economies of scale!)
• Cost-based pricing does not work• In the case of failure (e.g. a CD or film that does not
sell): no recovery of sunk costs• Other than for physical goods: There is hardly any
capacity constraint for copying of information goods • Imperfect markets:
→Either dominant firm model: A cost leader enjoys strong economies of scale coming close to a "natural monopoly" (e.g. Microsoft)→Or: Monopolistic competition with product differentiation: Several firms producing similar products in different varieties (e.g. films, publishing, TV)
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Recommended strategies:
• Price according to consumer value (and try to differentiate prices)
• Sell your product in different versions in order to obtain different prices from consumers with different preferences; use time delays (e.g. first a hardcover, later a paperback).
• 'Limit pricing': sacrifice some profits in order to reduce the chance that other firms are attracted to your market
• 'Play tough': convince potential entrants that you will respond with dramatic price cuts if they enter your market
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Ways of versioning: In general, offer a menu of choices to your customers in order to sell to different market segments at different prices.
Examples for versioning:• Time delay: e.g. normal mail versus 'priority mail'• User interface: convenient 'stripped' version of a program ('no
training required') for inexperienced users versus a more sophisticated version for professional users
• Peak-off pricing: e.g. access only after 5 o'clock p.m.• Speed of operation: e.g. number of copies per minute of a
printer (home use versus professional use)• Features and functions: basic version versus luxury version• Annoyance: e.g. no interruption of films by ads if you pay a
higher fee
Problem: Avoid 'cannibalization' of 'high end' by 'low end' version
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How to solve my dilemma?
→How to maximize my revenues (or how to minimize consumer surplus, and not loose clients)?
Total revenue:
p x q Demand
Price
Pri
ce
Quantity
These clients enjoy a consumer surplus as my
price is too low! I could have earned more on them!
Revenues lost: these clients do not buy as my price is too high!
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The solution: price discrimination!
→I charge different prices to people who have a different willingness to pay (and different preferences for time and comfort), exploiting product differentiation ("versioning")
The example of airplane tickets:• Starting point: business people have lots of money
but little time; for tourists and backpackers it's the opposite
• How to make use of that?
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Price discrimination with airplane tickets
1. Tickets including a Saturday night between arrival and return are cheaper than during-the-week tickets (business people want to return home as soon as possible)
2. A ticket with departure and arrival times fixed is cheaper than a ticket with flexible times (business people pay for flexibility)
3. A ticket booked weeks or months in advance is cheaper than a ticket booked short before travel (tourists can plan their flights long before; business people often can not)
4. Comfort (size of chairs, meals, drinks)
→ All these criteria (indirectly) select passengers according to their "willingness to pay"!
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Good price discrimination (one and the same flight for many different prices) reduces consumer surplus and increases my revenues!
D
Quantity
Tic
ket
pri
ces Ambassadors
Top managers
Middle management
Tourists
Students
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Principles of the information economy (2):
Intellectual property rights are harder to protect
• Costs of reproduction (of perfect copies) are dramatically reduced• Distribution becomes much quicker, easier and cheaper
Solutions:• Give away free samples; perhaps even give away the full text, but do
that in a way that it cannot be (fully) copied or (fully) printed out (e.g. MIT Press)
• Or give access to tables of contents (Elsevier)• Note that easy reproduction and/or distribution is not only a danger,
but also a chance (e.g. libraries, videos etc.)
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Principles of the information economy (3)
Information is an 'Experience Good'
→How do you know whether today's Wall Street Journal is worth its price until you have read it?
Solution: Brand names and reputation
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Principles of the information economy (4)
A wealth of information creates a poverty of attention
Solution:• Selective marketing and advertising for specific
groups• Ideally: One-to-one marketing
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Principles of the information economy (5)
The Internet is a systems-rich and standards-rich environment
Solution:• In competing for standards you need strategic
alliances (e.g. 'Wintel' versus Apple)
• Create multiple sources for your partner's piece of the system but prevent the emergence of a strong rival for your own piece
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Principles of the information economy (6)
Standards create switching costs and lock-ine.g. phonograph recorder (LPs) versus CD player
General problem: • Sunk costs from investment in capital goods and in
education and learning (think of data files and text files written with old soft ware, or: QWERTY).
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Types of lock-in and associated switching costsType of lock-in: Switching costs:
Contractual commitments Compensatory or liquidated damages
Durable purchases Replacement of equipment; tends to decline as the durable ages
Brand-specific training Learning a new system, both direct costs and lost productivity; tends to rise over time
Information and databases
Converting data to new format; tends to rise over time as collection grows
Specialized suppliers Funding of new supplier; may rise over time if capabilities are hard to find/maintain
Search costs Combined buyer and seller search costs; includes learning about quality of alternatives
Loyalty programs Any lost benefits from incumbent supplier, plus possible need to re build cumulative use
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Principles of the information economy (7)
Network externalities can create explosive growth
(e.g. railways, telegraph, telephone, fax, email etc.). A system becomes more valuable as more people use it.
Implication:• Compete for achieving a critical mass! E.g. use extensive
advertising and aggressive penetration pricing (economies of scale!)
• Exploit first mover advantages (brand name, learning-by-doing)• Create expectations (pre-announcement of a new system can
become a self-fulfilling prophecy)
Optimal timing: • Don't move too early (infancy bugs, insufficient allies)• Don't move too late (consumers may already be locked-in by
competing technologies)
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Another way of deterring entry:
• Learning-by-doing: A downward movement of unit costs as output rises, due to increasing experience in handling the production process.
Example: • In the semiconductor industry, unit costs are estimated to fall
by about 28% with each doubling of output.
Implication: • The presence of learning curves may encourage aggressive
pricing policies, especially by firms trying to eliminate other firms that are at an earlier point on their learning curve.
• Scale economies and learning curves may function as barriers to entry for new firms that have higher costs.