ATTRA is the national sustainable agriculture information service operated by the National Centerfor Appropriate Technology through a grant from the Rural Business-Cooperative Service USDepartment of Agriculture These organizations do not recommend or endorse productscompanies or individuals NCAT has offices in Fayetteville Arkansas (PO Box 3657 FayettevilleAR 72702) Butte Montana and Davis California

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF

SUSTAINABLE FARMING

FUNDAMENTALS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Sustainable farming meets environmental economic and social objectives simultaneously Environmentally sound

agriculture is nature-based rather than factory-based Economic sustainability depends on profitable enterprises

sound financial planning proactive marketing and risk management Social sustainability results from making

decisions with the farm familys and the larger communitys quality of life as a value and a goal This publication

discusses the principles of environmental economic and social sustainability and provides practical examples of

how to apply them on the farm

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1Environmental Sustainability 2Economic Sustainability 6Planning and Decision Making 7Applying the Principles 8Composts Manures and Fertilizers 10Weed Management 11Insect Pest Management 12Plant Disease Management 13Examples of Successful Transitions 13Summary 15References 15Resources 16

INTRODUCTION

By Preston SullivanNCAT Agriculture SpecialistMay 2003

Farming sustainably means growing cropsand livestock in ways that meet three objectivessimultaneously

Economic profit

Social benefits to the farm family and the community

Environmental conservation

Sustainable agricul-ture depends on awhole-system ap-proach whose overallgoal is the continuinghealth of the land andpeople Therefore itconcentrates on long-term solutions to prob-lems instead of short-term treatment ofsymptoms

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 2

Sustainable farming is more than a set of ide-alistic principles or a limited set of practicesSustainability can be observed and measuredindicators that a farm or rural community isachieving the three objectives of sustainabilityinclude

ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

The family savings or net worth is con- sistently going upThe family debt is consistently going downThe farm enterprises are consistently profitable from year to yearPurchase of off-farm feed and fertilizer is decreasingReliance on government payments is de- creasing

SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY

The farm supports other businesses and families in the communityDollars circulate within the local economyThe number of rural families is going up or holding steadyYoung people take over their parents farms and continue farmingCollege graduates return to the commu- nity after graduation

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

There is no bare groundClean water flows in the farms ditches and streamsWildlife is abundantFish are prolific in streams that flow through the farmThe farm landscape is diverse in vegeta- tion

These three objectives are managed more asa single unit even though we must discuss themseparately The three objectives overlap con-stantly For example economic decisions affectthe local communitymdashbuying from out of stateinstead of from a local supplier Environmentaldecisions affect the economicmdashallowing soil ero-sion increases the need for irrigation and morefertilizer Each of these objectives is further ex-amined below

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainable agriculture can be viewed as eco-system management of complex interactionsamong soil water plants animals climate andpeople The goal is to integrate all these factorsinto a production system that is appropriate forthe environment the people and the economicconditions where the farm is located

Farms become and stay environmentally sus-tainable by imitating natural systemsmdashcreatinga farm landscape that mimics as closely as pos-sible the complexity of healthy ecosystems Na-ture tends to function in cycles so that wastefrom one process or system becomes input foranother Industrial agriculture in contrast tendsto function in a linear fashion similar to a fac-tory inputs go in one end and products andwaste come out the other The wastes of indus-trial agriculture (non-point-source pollution) in-clude suspended soil nitrates and phosphatesin stream water and nitrates and pesticides inground water It is a premise of sustainable ag-riculture that a farm is a nature-based systemnot a factory

The simpler we try to make agriculture themore vulnerable we become to natural disastersand marketplace changes When we try to pro-duce a single product such as wheat corn orsoybeans we are taking on huge risk If insteadwe diversify crops and integrate plant and ani-mal agriculture overhead will be spread overseveral enterprises reducing risk and increasingprofit Table 1 offers some comparisons betweentwo models of agriculturemdashfarming as an indus-trial factory and farming as a biological system

Comparison of the Industrial andBiological Models of Agriculture

Industrial model Biological model

Energy intensive Information intensive

Linear process Cyclical process

Farm as factory Farm as ecosystem

Enterprise separation Enterprise integration

Single enterprise Many enterprises

Monoculture Diversity of plants and animals

Low-value products Higher-value products

Single-use equipment Multiple-use equipment

Passive marketing Active marketing

TABLE 1

________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PAGE 3APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

Figure 1 Energy Flow Source Sullivan 1999 Illustration by Janet Bachmann

FARM AS ECOSYSTEM

On any farm four major ecosystem processes are at work that if functioning properly will con-serve the soil and water resources and eventually reduce the overall operating costs These naturalprocessesmdashenergy flow water and mineral cycles and ecosystem dynamicsmdashare observable andmanageable

radic Energy flow is the non-cyclical path of solar energy (sunlight) into and through any biologicalsystem (Figure 1) The natural world runs on sunlight Our management decisions affect how muchof it is captured and put to good use on the farm (Savory and Butterfield 1999) Energy flow beginswhen sunlight is converted into plant growth and continues when animals consume plants whenpredator animals consume prey and when microorganisms decompose dead plants and animalsSome energy is lost as heat at every transfer point in the food chain On the farm energy capture isenhanced by maximizingmdashboth in space and in timemdashthe leaf area available for photosynthesis andby efficiently cycling the stored solar energy through the food chain Off-season cover crops peren-nial vegetation and intercropping are among the tools for capturing more solar energy Capturingsunlight and converting it to dollars is the original source of all wealth

radic An effective water cycle is typified byno soil erosion fast water entry into the soil andthe soils capacity to store large amounts ofwater (Figure 2) Streams flow year-round fromthe slow release of water stored in the soil Thewater cycle is improved by managementdecisions that add to or maintain thegroundcover percentage and soil organic matterlevelsmdashthe goal is to get as much water aspossible into the soil during each rainfall Asurface mulch layer speeds water intake whilereducing evaporation and protecting the soilfrom erosion Minimizing or eliminating tillagegrowing high-residue crops and cover crops andadding compost or manure to the soil maintainsgroundcover and builds organic matter

Management of soil organic matter is especiallyimportant in row cropping One recent study(Hudson 1994) showed that raising thepercentage of organic matter from 1 to 2 insandy soil increased the available water contentof that soil by 60 (from 5 of total soil volumeto 8) Such an improvement in a soilswater-holding capacity will have a beneficial ef-fect on crop growth especially during droughtperiods

The results of an effective water cycle are lowsurface runoff low soil surface evaporation lowdrought incidence low flood incidence hightranspiration by plants and high seepage of wa-ter to underground reservoirs (Savory andButterfield 1999)

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 4

Figure 2 Water Cycle Source Federal Interagency StreamRestoration Working Group 2001

radic A well-functioning mineral cyclemdashthe movement of nutrients from the soil through the cropsand animals and back to the soilmdashmeans less need for fertilizer and feed from off the farm (Figure 3)In nature minerals needed for plant and animal growth are continuously recycled within the eco-system with very little waste and no need for added fertilizer Ultimately to be sustainable we needto find ways to use the natural mineral cycle to minimize our off-farm purchase of minerals Condi-tions and practices that inhibit the natural mineral cyclemdasherosion nutrient leaching organic matterdepletion selling hay or grain off the farmmdashtend to reduce the farms sustainability Practices thatenhance the mineral cycle include on-farm feeding of livestock careful management of manure andcrop residues use of catch crops to reduce nutrient leaching losses and practices that prevent ero-sion

PAGE 5APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

radic An effective ecosystem dynamic is indicated by a high diversity of plants and animals bothabove and below ground Diversity refers not only to numbers of species but also to genetic diver-sity within species and to a broad age structure in each population Greater diversity produces greaterstability within the system and minimizes pest problems Our choices of practices and tools directlyaffect the level of biodiversity we have on the farm (Table 2)

The first step toward increasing biodiversity on the farm is crop rotation which helps break weedand pest life cycles and provides complementary fertilization among the crops in the planting se-quence Advancing from rotation to strip intercrops brings a higher level of biodiversity and in-creases sunlight capture Strip intercropping of corn and soybeans or cotton and alfalfa are twoexamples Borders windbreaks and special plantings for natural enemies of pests provide habitatfor beneficial organisms further increasing biodiversity and stability The addition of appropriateperennial crops shrubs and trees to the farmscape enhances ecosystem dynamics still further Formore information on practices that increase biodiversity request the ATTRA publications AgroforestryOverview Intercropping Principles and Production Practices and Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Con-trol

These four ecosystem processes (energy flow water cycle mineral cycle and ecosystem dynam-ics) function together as a whole each one complementing the others When we modify any one ofthese we affect the others as well When we build our farm enterprises around these processes weare applying natures principles to sustain the farm for our family and for future generations Whenwe fight natures processes we incur extra costs and create more problems hurting ourselves and theecosystem on which we depend

Figure 3 Mineral Cycle Source Sullivan 1999Illustration by Andrea Fournet

LISTING OF TOOLS BY THEIR EFFECT ON

IncreasedBiodiversity

DecreasedBiodiversity

Intercropping Crop rotation Cover crops Multispecies grazing

TABLE 2

Monocropping Tillage Herbicides Insecticides

PAGE 3APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

Figure 1 Energy Flow Source Sullivan 1999 Illustration by Janet Bachmann

FARM AS ECOSYSTEM

On any farm four major ecosystem processes are at work that if functioning properly will con-serve the soil and water resources and eventually reduce the overall operating costs These naturalprocessesmdashenergy flow water and mineral cycles and ecosystem dynamicsmdashare observable andmanageable

radic Energy flow is the non-cyclical path of solar energy (sunlight) into and through any biologicalsystem (Figure 1) The natural world runs on sunlight Our management decisions affect how muchof it is captured and put to good use on the farm (Savory and Butterfield 1999) Energy flow beginswhen sunlight is converted into plant growth and continues when animals consume plants whenpredator animals consume prey and when microorganisms decompose dead plants and animalsSome energy is lost as heat at every transfer point in the food chain On the farm energy capture isenhanced by maximizingmdashboth in space and in timemdashthe leaf area available for photosynthesis andby efficiently cycling the stored solar energy through the food chain Off-season cover crops peren-nial vegetation and intercropping are among the tools for capturing more solar energy Capturingsunlight and converting it to dollars is the original source of all wealth

radic An effective water cycle is typified byno soil erosion fast water entry into the soil andthe soils capacity to store large amounts ofwater (Figure 2) Streams flow year-round fromthe slow release of water stored in the soil Thewater cycle is improved by managementdecisions that add to or maintain thegroundcover percentage and soil organic matterlevelsmdashthe goal is to get as much water aspossible into the soil during each rainfall Asurface mulch layer speeds water intake whilereducing evaporation and protecting the soilfrom erosion Minimizing or eliminating tillagegrowing high-residue crops and cover crops andadding compost or manure to the soil maintainsgroundcover and builds organic matter

Management of soil organic matter is especiallyimportant in row cropping One recent study(Hudson 1994) showed that raising thepercentage of organic matter from 1 to 2 insandy soil increased the available water contentof that soil by 60 (from 5 of total soil volumeto 8) Such an improvement in a soilswater-holding capacity will have a beneficial ef-fect on crop growth especially during droughtperiods

The results of an effective water cycle are lowsurface runoff low soil surface evaporation lowdrought incidence low flood incidence hightranspiration by plants and high seepage of wa-ter to underground reservoirs (Savory andButterfield 1999)

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 4

Figure 2 Water Cycle Source Federal Interagency StreamRestoration Working Group 2001

radic A well-functioning mineral cyclemdashthe movement of nutrients from the soil through the cropsand animals and back to the soilmdashmeans less need for fertilizer and feed from off the farm (Figure 3)In nature minerals needed for plant and animal growth are continuously recycled within the eco-system with very little waste and no need for added fertilizer Ultimately to be sustainable we needto find ways to use the natural mineral cycle to minimize our off-farm purchase of minerals Condi-tions and practices that inhibit the natural mineral cyclemdasherosion nutrient leaching organic matterdepletion selling hay or grain off the farmmdashtend to reduce the farms sustainability Practices thatenhance the mineral cycle include on-farm feeding of livestock careful management of manure andcrop residues use of catch crops to reduce nutrient leaching losses and practices that prevent ero-sion

PAGE 5APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

radic An effective ecosystem dynamic is indicated by a high diversity of plants and animals bothabove and below ground Diversity refers not only to numbers of species but also to genetic diver-sity within species and to a broad age structure in each population Greater diversity produces greaterstability within the system and minimizes pest problems Our choices of practices and tools directlyaffect the level of biodiversity we have on the farm (Table 2)

The first step toward increasing biodiversity on the farm is crop rotation which helps break weedand pest life cycles and provides complementary fertilization among the crops in the planting se-quence Advancing from rotation to strip intercrops brings a higher level of biodiversity and in-creases sunlight capture Strip intercropping of corn and soybeans or cotton and alfalfa are twoexamples Borders windbreaks and special plantings for natural enemies of pests provide habitatfor beneficial organisms further increasing biodiversity and stability The addition of appropriateperennial crops shrubs and trees to the farmscape enhances ecosystem dynamics still further Formore information on practices that increase biodiversity request the ATTRA publications AgroforestryOverview Intercropping Principles and Production Practices and Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Con-trol

These four ecosystem processes (energy flow water cycle mineral cycle and ecosystem dynam-ics) function together as a whole each one complementing the others When we modify any one ofthese we affect the others as well When we build our farm enterprises around these processes weare applying natures principles to sustain the farm for our family and for future generations Whenwe fight natures processes we incur extra costs and create more problems hurting ourselves and theecosystem on which we depend

Figure 3 Mineral Cycle Source Sullivan 1999Illustration by Andrea Fournet

LISTING OF TOOLS BY THEIR EFFECT ON

IncreasedBiodiversity

DecreasedBiodiversity

Intercropping Crop rotation Cover crops Multispecies grazing

TABLE 2

Monocropping Tillage Herbicides Insecticides

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 4

Figure 2 Water Cycle Source Federal Interagency StreamRestoration Working Group 2001

radic A well-functioning mineral cyclemdashthe movement of nutrients from the soil through the cropsand animals and back to the soilmdashmeans less need for fertilizer and feed from off the farm (Figure 3)In nature minerals needed for plant and animal growth are continuously recycled within the eco-system with very little waste and no need for added fertilizer Ultimately to be sustainable we needto find ways to use the natural mineral cycle to minimize our off-farm purchase of minerals Condi-tions and practices that inhibit the natural mineral cyclemdasherosion nutrient leaching organic matterdepletion selling hay or grain off the farmmdashtend to reduce the farms sustainability Practices thatenhance the mineral cycle include on-farm feeding of livestock careful management of manure andcrop residues use of catch crops to reduce nutrient leaching losses and practices that prevent ero-sion

PAGE 5APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

radic An effective ecosystem dynamic is indicated by a high diversity of plants and animals bothabove and below ground Diversity refers not only to numbers of species but also to genetic diver-sity within species and to a broad age structure in each population Greater diversity produces greaterstability within the system and minimizes pest problems Our choices of practices and tools directlyaffect the level of biodiversity we have on the farm (Table 2)

The first step toward increasing biodiversity on the farm is crop rotation which helps break weedand pest life cycles and provides complementary fertilization among the crops in the planting se-quence Advancing from rotation to strip intercrops brings a higher level of biodiversity and in-creases sunlight capture Strip intercropping of corn and soybeans or cotton and alfalfa are twoexamples Borders windbreaks and special plantings for natural enemies of pests provide habitatfor beneficial organisms further increasing biodiversity and stability The addition of appropriateperennial crops shrubs and trees to the farmscape enhances ecosystem dynamics still further Formore information on practices that increase biodiversity request the ATTRA publications AgroforestryOverview Intercropping Principles and Production Practices and Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Con-trol

These four ecosystem processes (energy flow water cycle mineral cycle and ecosystem dynam-ics) function together as a whole each one complementing the others When we modify any one ofthese we affect the others as well When we build our farm enterprises around these processes weare applying natures principles to sustain the farm for our family and for future generations Whenwe fight natures processes we incur extra costs and create more problems hurting ourselves and theecosystem on which we depend

Figure 3 Mineral Cycle Source Sullivan 1999Illustration by Andrea Fournet

LISTING OF TOOLS BY THEIR EFFECT ON

IncreasedBiodiversity

DecreasedBiodiversity

Intercropping Crop rotation Cover crops Multispecies grazing

TABLE 2

Monocropping Tillage Herbicides Insecticides

PAGE 5APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

radic An effective ecosystem dynamic is indicated by a high diversity of plants and animals bothabove and below ground Diversity refers not only to numbers of species but also to genetic diver-sity within species and to a broad age structure in each population Greater diversity produces greaterstability within the system and minimizes pest problems Our choices of practices and tools directlyaffect the level of biodiversity we have on the farm (Table 2)

The first step toward increasing biodiversity on the farm is crop rotation which helps break weedand pest life cycles and provides complementary fertilization among the crops in the planting se-quence Advancing from rotation to strip intercrops brings a higher level of biodiversity and in-creases sunlight capture Strip intercropping of corn and soybeans or cotton and alfalfa are twoexamples Borders windbreaks and special plantings for natural enemies of pests provide habitatfor beneficial organisms further increasing biodiversity and stability The addition of appropriateperennial crops shrubs and trees to the farmscape enhances ecosystem dynamics still further Formore information on practices that increase biodiversity request the ATTRA publications AgroforestryOverview Intercropping Principles and Production Practices and Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Con-trol

These four ecosystem processes (energy flow water cycle mineral cycle and ecosystem dynam-ics) function together as a whole each one complementing the others When we modify any one ofthese we affect the others as well When we build our farm enterprises around these processes weare applying natures principles to sustain the farm for our family and for future generations Whenwe fight natures processes we incur extra costs and create more problems hurting ourselves and theecosystem on which we depend

Figure 3 Mineral Cycle Source Sullivan 1999Illustration by Andrea Fournet

LISTING OF TOOLS BY THEIR EFFECT ON

IncreasedBiodiversity

DecreasedBiodiversity

Intercropping Crop rotation Cover crops Multispecies grazing

TABLE 2

Monocropping Tillage Herbicides Insecticides

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 6

A profitable farm has a threadbare look

(Salatin 1998) primarily because money is not

spent on flashy items that dont produce profit

Amish farmer David Kline says one of the secrets

of staying profitable is dont spend money (Myers

1998)

ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

SELECTING PROFITABLE ENTERPRISES TO ENSURE

ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Economic sustainability increasingly de-pends on selecting profitable enterprises soundfinancial planning proactive marketing riskmanagement and good overall managementThe key for row-crop producers may be to ex-plore income opportunities other than tradi-tional commodity crops such as contract grow-ing of seed corn specialty corn food-grade soy-beans or popcorn These specialty crops are notfor everyone only a certain number of acres canbe grown because of limited markets Expand-ing organic markets suggest another possibleniche Alternative crops like safflower sun-flower flax and others may be an option forlengthening a corn and soybean rotation learnmore in the ATTRA publication Alternative Ag-ronomic Crops Other examples of diversifica-tion strategies are available in the ATTRA pub-lications Evaluating a Rural Enterprise and Mov-ing Beyond Conventional Cash Cropping

Author and successful small farmer JoelSalatin (1998) advocates going with several cen-terpiece enterprises to which can be added sev-eral complementary enterprises The comple-mentary enterprises overlap with the center-piece enterprises by sharing some of the sameoverhead requirements thus lowering overallcosts for all the enterprises When we try to pro-duce a single product such as wheat corn orsoybeans our risk is high because all our eggsare in one basket When we integrate plant andanimal agriculture we distribute overhead andrisk among several enterprises

COMPREHENSIVE FINANCIAL PLANNING IS A MUST

The holistic financial planning process usedin Holistic Managementtrade provides a monthlyroadmap to help people navigate through theirfinancial year assured that the profit will bethere at years end The income is planned firstthen a planned profit is allocated as the first ex-pense item The remaining expense money isallocated sequentially where it will do the mostgood This sequential allocation requires thatthe farmer spend no more than necessary to runthe enterprise for a year while preserving theplanned profit This potent financial planningprocess empowers people to make decisions thatare simultaneously good for the environmentthe local community and the bottom line Learnmore by requesting the ATTRA publication en-titled Holistic Management Also evaluate otherfinancial planning tools that allow enterprisebudgeting cost calculations partial budgetinganalysis and moremdashthese should be availablefrom your local Extension agent Business plan-ning software is available from local softwareretail stores

Every farm needs a marketing plan of sometype Marketing can take many forms rangingfrom passive marketing in the commodity chainto marketing a retail product directly to consum-ers Which marketing method you choose willhave a profound effect on the price your prod-uct commands Doing some market research isessential in order to understand your marketcompetition and consumer trends and to projectpotential sales volume and prices Specialty anddirect markets such as organic GMO-free andother green markets yield more income but re-quire more marketing by the producer Directmarketing is not for everyone

SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY

Decisions made on the farm have effects inthe local community For example the decisionto expand your operation requires the acquisi-tion of your neighbors farm To have yourneighbors farm you must make the decision thatyour neighbors farm is more important to youthan your neighbor Other examples of socialdecisions include buying supplies locally rather

PAGE 7APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

than ordering from out of state figuring out waysto connect local consumers with your farm tak-ing a consumer-oriented approach to productionand management practices where both thefarmer and consumer win and finding opportu-nities to ensure that neighboring communitiescan learn about sustainable food production

Marketing strategies such as community sup-ported agriculture (CSA) direct marketingthrough farmers markets school tours and in-ternships all have a positive impact on the localcommunity When people have a choice betweensupporting local producers or paying a little lessfor the products of the industrial food systemthey will often choose to support their neighborsFarmers selling locally benefit from differentiat-ing their products and services by qualities otherthan price Fresh produce specialty items andlocally grown and processed foods are competi-tive in the market place especially when con-sumer education and personal contact with thefarmer are part of the marketing plan

Social sustainability also includes the qual-ity of life of those who work and live on the farmincluding good communication trust and mu-tual support Full family participation in farmplanning is an indication that the quality of lifeis high Other indicators include talking openlyand honestly spending time together a feelingof progress toward goals and general happinessQuality of life will be defined somewhat differ-ently by each individual and family based ontheir values and goals More information on en-suring that quality of life is accounted for in farmplanning is available from the ATTRA publica-tion Holistic Management and in books like RutBuster A Visual Goal Setting Book (Burleson andBurleson 1994)

PLANNING AND DECISION MAKING

Managing for three objectives simultaneously(economics society environment) depends onclear goal-setting and effective decision-makingSeveral good tools for decision-making goal-set-ting and whole-farm management are availableto farmers The Kerr Center for Sustainable Ag-riculture for example has developed asustainability checksheet with 72 criteria forquick evaluation of farming systems (Horne andMcDermott No date) ATTRA has produced

sustainability checksheets for beef and dairy en-terprises available by request and on ourwebsite A more comprehensive approach isHolistic Managementtrade mentioned above Re-quest the ATTRA publication entitled HolisticManagement for more information or contact

Allan Savory Center for HolisticManagement1010 Tijeras NWAlbuquerque NM 87102505-842-5252httpwwwholisticmanagementorg

A successful transition to sustainable farm-ing depends on the farmers careful monitoringboth of progress towards the goal and of the over-all health of the system It is useful to assumethat your plan will not work and develop a sys-tem for determining (as soon as possible) if it isntworking For example if the goal includes in-creased biodiversity the farmer needs to knowmdashquickly mdashif the grazing or cropping system be-ing used is actually increasing the number ofplant species per acre Monitoring is particularlyimportant in sustainable agriculture which re-lies on natural systems to replace some of thework done by input products like fertilizer andpesticides

The ability to evaluate and replan is vital tothe farmer who wishes to farm more sustainablyWhen part of the plan is not working as intendedit becomes necessary to replan The concept ofplanning-monitoring-controlling-replanning is akey characteristic of Holistic Management andis referred to as the feedback loop

The transition toward more sustainable farm-ing requires not only planning and decision-making skills but access to appropriate and help-ful information Fortunately increased interestin sustainable agriculture has stimulated greaterinvestment in research and education As a re-sult much more usable information is availabletoday than ever before accessible through vari-ous means one of them being ATTRA In addi-tion to publications and custom reports on pro-duction and marketing ATTRA provides re-source lists covering sustainable agriculture or-ganizations educational programs internshipsand related resources Request an ATTRA Pub-lications List or go to the ATTRA website for on-line access to all our publications

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 8

EFFECT OF EROSION ON ORGANIC MATTER

PHOSPHORUS AND PLANT-AVAILABLE WATER

Source Schertz et al 1984

________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

lbs ac

Slight 3 62 74

Moderate 25 61 62

Severe 19 40 36

Erosion level Organic matter Phosphorus Plant-available water

Table 3

effect of slight moderate and severe erosion onorganic matter soil phosphorus level and plant-available water on a silt loam soil in Indiana

(Schertz et al 1984)When erosion by water and wind occurs at a

rate of 76 tonsacreyear it costs $40acreyearto replace the lost nutrients as fertilizer andaround $17acreyear to pump irrigation waterto replace the water holding capacity of that lostsoil (Troeh et al 1991) Soil and water lost fromUS cropland causes productivity loss of ap-proximately $27 billion each year (Pimentel etal 1995)

AVOID MOLDBOARD PLOWING AT ALL COSTS

Soil is damaged considerably whenever it isturned over The moldboard plow brings sub-soil to the surface and buries the crop residuelayer so deep it is unable to decay properly Vir-tually no soil residue is left on the surface ex-posing the soil to erosion and impairing the wa-ter and mineral cycles Today millions of acresare being farmed without any tillage at all (no-till) or in such a way that adequate groundcoverremains afterwards (ridge till zone till mini-mum till) Production systems that reduce oreliminate tillage in a manner consistent with ef-fective weed control foster the four ecosystemprocesses discussed above Read about an inno-vative no-till system that uses annual cover cropsin the ldquoExamples of Successful Transitionsrdquo sec-tion For more information request the twoATTRA publications Conservation Tillage andPursuing Conservation Tillage for Organic Crop Pro-duction

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES

When beginning the transition the bigquestion is how to apply the principles ofeconomic profitability social enhancementand ecological improvement in the field inthe community and in the financial pro-cess The decisions we make on our farmsand the tools and practices we choose willdetermine the extent to which sustainabilityis realized The ultimate goal is to farm insuch a way that we extract our living as theinterest while preserving the social waterand soil capital We want to ensure that ouractivities do not compromise the landscapeand community resources over the longterm Now lets look at some managementconcepts aimed at fostering the four ecosystemprocesses discussed earlier

STRIVE TO KEEP THE SOIL COVERED THROUGHOUT THE YEAR

Under natural conditions the soil remainscovered with a skin of dead plant material whichmoderates temperature extremes increases wa-ter penetration and storage and enhances soilaeration Most importantly the soil skin main-tains soil structure and prevents erosion by soft-ening the impact of falling raindrops Bareground on the other hand is vulnerable to wa-ter and wind erosion dries out more quickly andloses organic matter rapidly

The major productivity costs associated withsoil erosion come from the replacement of lostnutrients and reduced water holding ability ac-counting for 50 to 75 of productivity loss(Pimentel et al 1995) Soil removed by erosiontypically contains about three times more nutri-ents than the soil left behind and is 15 to 5 timesricher in organic matter (Pimentel et al 1995)This organic matter loss not only results in re-duced water holding capacity and degraded soilaggregation but also loss of plant nutrientswhich must then be replaced with fertilizers Fivetons of topsoil (the USDA tolerance level forerosion) can easily contain 100 pounds of nitro-gen 60 pounds of phosphate 45 pounds of pot-ash 2 pounds of calcium 10 pounds of magne-sium and 8 pounds of sulfur Table 3 shows the

PAGE 9APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

DIVERSIFY

Enterprise diversification reduces financialrisk by spreading income and costs (eg of pestcontrol and fertilizer) out over several crops orlivestock operations Sustainability is increasedwhen animal wastes become inputs to crop pro-duction on the same farm

ROTATE CROPS

Moving from simple monoculture to a higherlevel of diversity begins with crop rotationswhich break weed and pest life cycles providecomplementary fertilization to crops in sequencewith each othermdashnitrogen-fixing legume cropspreceding grain crops such as cornmdashand preventbuildup of pest insects and weeds In many casesyield increases follow from the rotation effectIncluding forage crops in the rotation will reducesoil erosion and increase soil quality

When planning crop rotations it is importantto consider that cultivated row cropsmdashsuch ascorn and soybeans or vegetablesmdash tend to be soil-degrading Since the soil is open and cultivatedbetween rows microbes break down organicmatter at a more rapid pace Furthermore rowcrops have modest root systems and conse-quently do not contribute enough new organicmatter to replace that lost from the open soil be-tween rows in most cases above-ground cropresidues make only minor contributions to replac-ing lost organic matter

Cereals and other crops (including annualgreen manures) planted with a grain drill orbroadcast-seeded are more closely spaced andhave more extensive root systems than row crops

greatly reducing the amount of soil exposed todegradation In addition they receive little orno cultivation after planting which reduces or-ganic-matter loss even more As a result cerealsand green manures can be considered neutralcrops replacing soil organic matter at roughlythe same rate at which it breaks down Cropsthat make a perennial sod covermdashsuch as grassesclovers and alfalfamdashnot only keep the soil en-tirely covered but also have massive root sys-tems producing far more organic matter than islost Sod crops are the best soil-building cropsmdashthey can heal the damage done to soil by rowcropping

Incorporating sod crops as a fundamentalpart of a crop rotation not only builds soil butsupports weed-control strategies as well Weedcontrol improves because the types of weeds en-couraged by row-cropping systems are usuallynot adapted to growing in a sodhay crop Anideal rotation might include one year of sod cropfor each year of row crop and as many years ofneutral crops as makes sense in the circum-stances

The challenge of incorporating sod crops intoa rotation is to include livestock in the system orto find a market for the hay Sustainable pro-duction is much easier when livestock are presentin the system to recycle wastes and assist in trans-ferring (via manure) nutrients from one part ofthe farm to another Fortunately land capable ofproducing a 100-bushel corn yield will generallybe able to produce 5-ton hay yields With pricesof $60ndash$70 per ton being common for ordinaryhay gross revenues per acre from hay will ex-ceed those from corn so long as corn is under$300 per bushel The net- income picture is evenmore encouraging however because conven-tional production costs for an acre of corn arequite a bit higher than for hay A good crop ofalfalfa fixes at least $50 worth of nitrogen everyyear thus reducing fertilizer costs for the subse-quent corn crop

Besides equipment costs the major drawbackto selling hay is that the nutrients it contains areshipped off the farm Since however somethinglike 75ndash90 of the minerals going into the frontend of cattle come out the back end keepingcattle helps retain nutrients on the farm Cattlecan serve as a very profitable method of addingvalue to the forage crops they consume ATTRAoffers an extensive series of publications on sus-tainable beef production and grass farming

Intercropping is the growing of

two or more crops in proximity

to promote interaction between

them Read the ATTRA publica-

tions Intercropping Principles

and Production Practices and

Companion Planting for more

information

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 10

Compost has a unique advantage in comparisonto unaged manure and other organic soil amend-ments in that it has a (usually) predictable andnearly ideal ratio of carbon to nitrogen (Parnes1990) Compost can be safely applied at rates of10 tons per acre (Parnes 1990) where quantitiesare available Much higher rates are not unusualespecially where soil is being improved ratherthan maintained

Compost has some particular advantages inrow crop production especially when used inconjunction with cover crops and green manuresIn sandy soils composts stable organic matter isespecially effective at absorbing and retainingwater Fresh plant material incorporated as greenmanure on the other hand retains its waxy leafcoating and cannot perform the same functionuntil thoroughly digested by microbes

There are several conventional fertilizers thatshould be avoided in sustainable farming be-cause of their harmful effects on soil organismsand structure These include anhydrous ammo-nia and potassium chloride The use of dolo-mitemdasha liming material having a high magne-sium-to-calcium ratiomdashhas also been generallydiscouraged but most problems result from thefrequent misuse of dolomite for raising pH onsoils already high in magnesium not from anyinnate detrimental qualities It is certainly ap-propriate for use on fields deficient in magne-sium as indicated by a proper soil test

Some of the more environmentally friendlychemical fertilizers such as mono-ammoniumphosphate (12-50-0) commonly called MAP mayalso have a role in the transition away from theharsher chemical fertilizers A very serviceableand affordable 4-16-16 transitional fertilizer withmagnesium sulfur and other minor nutrientscan be prepared from a combination of two-thirds sulfate of potash-magnesia and one-thirdmono-ammonium phosphate When used incombination with composts andor legumeplowdowns (for nitrogen) this 4-16-16 can bebanded at seeding or otherwise applied just likethe regular 5-20-20 but with reduced negativeimpact on soil life

Significant additions of lime rock phosphateand other fertilizers should be guided by soil test-ing to avoid soil imbalances and unnecessary ex-penditure on inputs Cooperative Extension of-fers low-cost soil testing services in many statesAlso refer to ATTRAs Alternative Soil TestingLaboratories publication

USE COVER CROPS AND GREEN MANURES

Perennial and biennial sod crops annualgreen manures and annual cover crops are im-portant for building soil in field-cropping sys-tems Hairy vetch for example not only is a soil-conserving cover crop but is capable of provid-ing all the nitrogen required by subsequent cropslike tomatoes (Abdul-Baki and Teasdale 1994)

The soil-building crops most appropriate fora given farm depend not only on regional fac-tors (harshness of winter etc) but also on thetype of production system involved each farmerwill have to determine which cover crops aremost appropriate to his or her system For moreinformation see the ATTRA publication Overviewof Cover Crops and Green Manures

COMPOSTS MANURES AND

FERTILIZERS

Crop rotations cover-cropping and green-manuring are key strategies for soil buildingwhich is the foundation of sustainable farmingHowever modern production systems placehigh demands on land resources requiring ad-ditional attention to soil fertility managementATTRAs Sustainable Soil Management publicationprovides practical information about alternativesoil management approaches Since some ofthese approaches entail the use of off-farm in-puts two additional ATTRA publications Alter-native Soil Amendments and Sources of Organic Fer-tilizers amp Amendments are also recommended

Manures and composts especially those pro-duced on-farm or available locally at low costare ideal resources for cycling nutrients on-farmFrom the standpoint of overall soil and crophealth composts or aged manures are preferred

Grazing animals and other livestock can be man-aged on croplands to reduce costs increase income andincrease diversity There are ways of incorporating ani-mals into cropping without the farmer getting into animalhusbandry or ownership directly Collaboration withneighbors who own animals will benefit both croppersand livestock owners Grazing or hogging-off of cornresidue is one example where a cost can be turned intoa profit The animals replace the $6 per-acre stalk mow-ing cost and produce income in animal gains

PAGE 11APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

WEED MANAGEMENT

Weed management poses one of the greatestchallenges to the crafting of sustainable produc-tion systems However weed populations tendto decline in severity as soil health builds A ba-sic understanding of weed ecology and the in-fluence of cropping patterns on weed communi-ties will help growers refine their use of culturaland mechanical techniques thereby reducing thetime required for effective weed control

Prevention of weed problems is a fundamen-tal component of man-agement In generalterms weed preventionin crops is based on de-veloping a sound rota-tion thwarting all at-tempts by existingweeds to set seed andminimizing the arrivalof new weed seeds fromoutside the field In agrazing system weedmanagement may be assimple as adding otheranimal species such asgoats or sheep to a cattle herd to convert weedsinto cash

Certain crops can be used to smother weedsShort-duration plantings of buckwheat and sor-ghum-sudangrass for example smother weedsby growing faster and out-competing them Innorthern states oats are commonly planted as anurse crop for alfalfa clover and legume-grassmixturesmdashthe oats simply take the place ofweeds that would otherwise grow between theyoung alfalfa plants

With enough mulch weed numbers can begreatly reduced Nebraska scientists appliedwheat straw in early spring to a field where wheathad been harvested the previous August At thehigher straw rates weed levels were reducedmore than three times over (see Figure 3) Wheatlike rye is also known to possess weed-suppress-ing chemicals in the straw itself This quality isknown as allelopathy

Rye is one of the most useful allelopathiccover crops because it is winter-hardy and canbe grown almost anywhere Rye residue containsgenerous amounts of allelopathic chemicals

When rye is killed in place and left undisturbedon the soil surface these chemicals leach out andprevent germination of small-seeded weedsWeed suppression is effective for about 30ndash60days (Daar 1986) If the rye is tilled into the soilthe effect is lost

Table 4 shows the effects of several cerealcover crops on weed production Note that till-age alone in the absence of any cover crop morethan doubled the number of weeds

While a good weed-prevention program willdecrease weed pressure substantially success-ful crop production still requires a well-con-ceived program for controlling weeds to the pointwhere they have no negative impact on net in-come Weed control programs include a rangeof carefully timed interventions designed to killas many young seedlings as possible ATTRAhas additional information on weed control op-tions for both agronomic and horticultural cropsavailable on request including the publicationPrinciples of Sustainable Weed Management for Crop-lands

Figure 4 Effect of straw mulch on weeds at twolocations in Nebraska Source Crutchfield et al1985

Weed Levels at two Nebraska Locations

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

0 075 15 225 3

Mulch rate - tonsacre

Wee

d n

um

ber

sac

re SidneyNorth Platte

Weed weightTillage Cover crop Weedsfoot2 poundsfoot2

Conventional None 12 022

None None 5 014

None Rye 09 01

None Wheat 03 007

None Barley 08 009

_____________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Tillage and Cover Crop Mulch Effect on

Weed Numbers and Production

Table 4

Source Schertz et al 1984

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 12

Farmscaping refers to practices that

increase diversity on the farm by pro-

viding habitat for beneficial organisms

Borders windbreaks and special

plantings for natural enemies of pests

serve this purpose Request the

ATTRA publication Farmscaping to

Enhance Biological Control for more

information

INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT

Insect pests can have a serious impact onfarm income In ecologically balanced farm pro-duction systems insect pests are always presentbut massive outbreaks resulting in severe eco-nomic damage are minimized This results ingood part from the presence of natural controlagentsmdashespecially predatory and parasitic in-sects mites and spidersmdashthat keep pest popu-lations in check To restore populations ofbeneficials on the farm cease or reduce pesticideuse and other practices that harm them and es-tablish habitats through farmscaping

In diverse farm systems severe pest out-breaks are rare because natural controls exist toautomatically bring populations back into bal-ance There is overwhelming evidence that plantmixtures (intercrops) support lower numbers ofpests than pure stands (Altieri and Liebman1994) There are two schools of thought on whythis occurs One suggests that higher natural-enemy populations persist in diverse mixturesbecause they provide more continuous foodsources (nectar pollen and prey) and habitatThe other thought is that pest insects who feedon only one type of plant have greater opportu-nity to feed move around and breed in pure cropstands because their resources are more concen-trated than they would be in a crop mixture(Altieri and Liebman 1994)

Intercropping also aids pest control effortsby reducing the ability of the pest insects to rec-ognize their host plants For example thrips andwhite flies are attracted to green plants with abrown (soil) background and ignore areas wherevegetative cover is completemdashincluding

mulched soil (Ecological Agriculture Projects Nodate) Some intercrops thus disguise the hostplant from these pests by completely coveringthe soil Other insects recognize their host plantby smell onions planted with carrots mask thesmell of carrots from carrot flies For more infor-mation on companion planting for insect man-agement see the ATTRA publicationsFarmscaping to Enhance Biological Control and Com-panion Planting

Sooner or later nearly every grower con-fronts unacceptable pest pressure making somekind of intervention necessary Integrated pestmanagement (IPM) is the basic framework usedto decide when and how pests are controlledThe primary goal of IPM is to give growers man-agement guidelines in order to make pest con-trol as economically and ecologically sound aspossible

IPM integrates habitat modification and cul-tural physical biological and chemical practicesto minimize crop losses Monitoring recordkeeping and life-cycle information about pestsand their natural enemies are used to determinewhich control measures are needed to keep pestsbelow an economically damaging threshold Formore detailied information on IPM see theATTRA publication Biointensive Integrated PestManagement

Biological controlmdashthe use of living organ-isms to control crop pestsmdash is one of the pillarsof IPM Biocontrol agents may be predatoryparasitic or pathogenic they may also be eithernatural (from naturally occurring organismssuch as wild beneficial insects) or applied(meaning the organisms are introduced)Biocontrol agents include insects mites bacte-ria fungi viruses and nematodes Certain ben-eficial nematodes (Steinernema species for ex-ample) transmit pathogens to their prey andcould be seen as a form of indirectly appliedbiocontrol

A working knowledge of the life cycles of

pests and their natural enemies enables the

grower to identify and exploit the weak link in a

pests life cycle Several good books and publi-

cations on insect identification are available

through Cooperative Extension more can be

found in libraries and bookstores

PAGE 13APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

When all other IPM tactics are unable tomaintain insect pest populations below economicthresholds insecticide application to control thepests and prevent economic loss is clearly justi-fied In such cases farmers concerned withsustainability will usually attempt to obtain sat-isfactory control using one of the biorationalpesticides which are fairly pest-specific and usu-ally non-persistent causing a minimal amountof harm to beneficial organisms Biorational pes-ticides include some conventional synthetic pestcontrol materials but more typically are micro-bial insecticides like Bacillus thuringiensis orBeauveria bassiana insecticidal soaps pheromones(for trapping or mating disruption) and insectgrowth regulators Botanical plant extracts likeneem and ryania are also known as least-toxicnarrow-spectrum controls combining minimalnegative impact on beneficial species with veryrapid decomposition in the environment

Farms exploring IPM concepts for the firsttime may limit their involvement to monitoringlevels of one or two pests on a secondary cropapplying their usual insecticide if the thresholdof economic injury is approached Others mayshift from a broad-spectrum insecticide to a morebeneficial-friendly material As operator com-fort with IPM increases it is common to applybasic concepts to the primary crop and expandIPM management on the secondary cropmdashper-haps through the introduction of beneficial para-sites or predators of the target pest insect

As they move towards greater sustainabilityIPM programs tend to go through three phaseswith each stage using and building on previousknowledge and techniques (Ferro 1993)

a)The pesticide management phase char-acterized by establishing economicthresholds sampling and spraying asneeded

b)The cultural management phase basedon a thorough understanding of the pestsbiology and its relationship to the crop-ping system Tactics employed to con-trol pests include delayed planting datescrop rotation altered harvest dates etc

c)The biological control phase or bio-in-tensive IPM requires thorough under-standing of the biology of natural en-emies (in addition to that of the pest) andan ability to measure how effective theseagents are in controlling pests Whennatural agents do not meet expectedgoals the IPM practitioner uses soft pes-ticides (relatively non-toxic to nontargetorganisms) and times applications forminimal impact on beneficials

PLANT DISEASE MANAGEMENT

The first step toward preventing serious dis-ease problems in any cropping system is the pro-duction of healthy plants nurtured by amicrobially active soil Healthy soil suppressesroot diseases naturally the primary means tocreate disease-suppressive soil is to add biologi-cally active compost at appropriate rates to a soilwith balanced mineral levels Supplementalstrategies include crop rotation resistant culti-vars good soil drainage adequate air movementand planting clean seed

Biorational fungicides include compost teas(which add beneficial fungi capable of prevent-ing colonization of the crop by pathogens) bak-ing soda and plant extracts As with insect pestcontrol integrated management principlesshould be applied including monitoring of en-vironmental conditions to determine whetherpreventive fungicidal sprays are required Formore information on how healthy soil fosters adrastic reduction in root diseases request theATTRA publication Sustainable Management ofSoil-borne Plant Diseases

EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL

TRANSITIONS

STEVE GROFF OF PENNSYLVANIA

Steve Groff and his family produce veg-etables alfalfa and grain crops profitably on 175

Farmers need to consider carefully how to

manage the shift to fewer pesticides during

the first few years before beneficial insect

populations have rebuilt to levels where they

can exert significant control of the major

pests Farmers should plan to work closely

with local expertsmdashespecially farmers with

transition experiencemdashto ensure as smooth

a shift as possible

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 14

acres in Lancaster County PennsylvaniaWhen Steve took over operation of the familyfarm 15 years ago his number-one concern waseliminating soil erosion (improving the watercycle) Consequently he began using cover cropsextensively (improving the water and mineralcycle and increasing community dynamics)

Steve uses a 10-foot Buffalo rolling stalkchopper to transform a green cover crop into ano-till mulch Under the hitch-mounted framethe stalk chopper has two sets of rollers runningin tandem These rollers can be adjusted for lightor aggressive action and set for continuous cov-erage Steve says the machine can be run up to 8miles an hour and does a good job of killing thecover crop and pushing it right down on the soilIt can also be used to flatten down other cropresidues after harvest Groff improved his chop-per by adding independent linkages and springsto each roller This modification makes each unitmore flexible to allow continuous use over un-even terrain Following his chopper Groff trans-plants vegetable seedlings or plants no-till sweetcorn and snap beans into the killed mulch Un-der the cover-crop mulch system his soils areprotected from erosion and have become muchmellower (as a result of the improved watercycle) For more information order Steves videolisted in the Resources section below or visit hisWeb page lt httpwwwcedarmeadowfarmcomabouthtmlgt where you can see photos ofthe cover-crop roller and no-till transplanter inaction as well as test-plot results comparing flailmowing rolling and herbicide killing of covercrops

DICK AND SHARON THOMPSON OF IOWA

Dick and Sharon are well known in the sus-tainable agriculture community for an integratedfamily farm system that has broad implicationsfor the larger agricultural community Their sys-tem is based not on expansion but on mainte-nance of local community values Excerpts froma Wallace Institute report describe the socialsustainability of their farming operation In DickThompsons own words

ldquoThe size of a farm will be restricted whenthe major part of weed control depends on therotary hoe and the cultivator Two cultivationsof the 150 acres of row crops with a four-rowcultivator are enough along with hay makingand caring for the livestock An eight-row culti-

vator will handle 300 to 400 acres very easy butnot thousands of acreshellip Harvesting ear cornputs another restraint on farm size Picking 100acres in the ear is enough Mowing and baling40 acres of hay three or four times during thesummer is enough Looking after 75 beef cowsduring calving is enough There is no desire tohave 150 cows Including the cow in the farmoperation keeps the farm and communities inbalance When the cow leaves the farm the oatsand hay crops leave also The remainder is rowcrop corn and soybeans without manure for fer-tility which calls for purchased fertilizer and her-bicides to control the weeds As a result farmscan get larger and the rural communities declineCleaning pens every two weeks for a 75-sow far-row to finish hog operation is enough This 300-acre farm with livestock is enough and there isno desire to farm the neighbors land The higherlabor charges stay in the farmers pocket makingsmaller farms profitable and therefore results inmore farm families More farm families meanexpansion of schools churches services andcommunities ldquo (Thompson 1997)

THE MOORE FAMILY OF TEXAS

For several generations the Moore familyraised corn milo and cotton (Leake 2001) Hav-ing had enough of rising production costs per-sistent drought and low commodity prices theydecided to break the family tradition and switchfrom row crops to cattle After receiving train-ing in Holistic Managementtrade Robert Moore andhis son Taylor designed a system that gives themless personal stress and lower overhead costsFor years they battled Johnson grass bermudagrass and crab grass in their cotton fields Nowthese grasses and others such as Dallis grass andbluestem are their allies Moore says they areworking with nature by letting the plants thatwant to be there return Their cattle love thegrasses and the wide variety allows them to grazefrom mid-February to mid-November After giv-ing up cropping they increased their cow herdfrom 200 animals to 600 Their 2000 acres aredivided into 50-acre paddocks with about 200head in each paddock at various times Withtheir cropping enterprise they had 20 employeesworking full time now the father and son worktogether with one full-time employee Beforecattle they worried about crop success and pricesand were often relieved just to break even Now

PAGE 15APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMING

they can live off what they make Taylor saysWere definitely happier now and have lessstress ATTRA has more than a dozen farmer-ready publications that provide details aboutgrass farming enterprises and alternative mar-keting of animal products

SUMMARY

Sustainable farming meets economic envi-ronmental and social objectives simultaneouslybecause these three objectives always overlapthey are managed together Economicsustainability requires selecting profitable enter-prises and doing comprehensive financial plan-ning Social sustainability involves keepingmoney circulating in the local economy andmaintaining or enhancing the quality of life ofthe farm family Environmental sustainabilityinvolves keeping the four ecosystem processes(effective energy flow water and mineral cyclesand viable ecosystem dynamics) in good condi-tion Managing economics society and environ-ment simultaneously depends on clear goal-set-ting effective decision making and monitoringto stay on track toward the goal Wise decisionsallow us to extract our living from the land asthe interest while preserving the social waterand soil capital As a result the capability of thelandscape and community resources will not becompromised over time by our activities

Some specific land-use strategies to achievesustainability include keeping the soil coveredthroughout the year avoiding moldboard plow-ing increasing biodiversity wherever possiblethrough crop rotation intercropping use of sodor cover crops farmscaping and integrated pestmanagement applying animal manures or com-post diversifying enterprises and planning forprofit integrating crop and animal enterprisesminimizing tillage commercial fertilizer andpesticides buying supplies locally employinglocal people and including quality of life in yourgoals

REFERENCES

Abdul-Baki Aref A and John R Teasdale1994 Hairy vetch cover crop provides allthe N required by tomato crop (abstract)American Society of Horticultural Science

Annual Meeting Oregon State UniversityCorvallis

Altieri MA and M Liebman 1994 Insectweed and plant disease management inmultiple cropping systems In CAFrancis (ed) Multiple Cropping SystemsMacmillan Company New York 383 p

Anon 1990 Strip intercropping offers low-input way to boost yields SensibleAgriculture May p 7-8

Burleson Wayne and Connie Burleson 1994Rut Buster A Visual Goal Setting BookSloping Acre Publishing CompanyAbsarokee Montana 45 p

Crutchfield Donald A Gail A Wicks andOrvin C Burnside 1986 Effect of winterwheat (Triticum aestivum) straw mulchlevel on weed control Weed ScienceVol 34 No 1 p 110-114

Daar Sheila 1986 Update Suppressingweeds with allelopathic mulches TheIPM Practitioner April p 1-4

Ecological Agriculture Projects No dateMixing Crop Species McGill UniversityMacdonald Campus lthttpwwweapmcgillcaCSI_2htmgt

Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Work-ing Group 2001 (rev) Stream CorridorRestoration Principles Processes andPractices Chapter 2 Stream CorridorProcesses and Characteristics p 2-3lthttpwwwusdagovstream_restorationnewtofchtmgt

Ferro DN 1993 Integrated pest managementin vegetables in Massachusetts p 95-105In Anne R Leslie and Gerrit W Cuperus(eds) Successful Implementation ofIntegrated Pest Management for Agricul-tural Crops Lewis Publishers BocaRaton Florida

Horne JE and Maura McDermott No date72 Ways to Make Agriculture SustainableKerr Center Fact Sheet 2 p

Hudson Berman 1994 Soil organic matter andavailable water capacity Journal of Soiland Water Conservation Vol 49 No 2 p189-194

APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE FARMINGPAGE 16

The electronic version of Applying thePrinciples of Sustainable Farming islocated atHTMLhttpwwwattrancatorgattra-pubtranshtmlPDFhttpwwwattrancatorgattra-pubPDFTransitionpdf

By Preston SullivanNCAT Agriculture Specialist

Edited by Richard EarlesFormatted by Ashley Hill

March 2003

Amish farms to thrive in todays economy TheStockman Grass Farmer June p 1-4

Parnes Robert 1990 Fertile Soil agAccessDavis California p 51-58

Pimentel D C Harvey P Resosudarmo et al1995 Environmental and economic costsof soil erosion and conservation benefitsScience Vol 267 No 5201 p 1117-1123

Putnam Alan R Joseph DeFrank and Jane PBarnes 1983 Exploitation of allelopathyfor weed control in annual and perennialcropping systems Journal of ChemicalEcology Vol 9 No 8 p 1001-1010

Salatin Joel 1998 You Can Farm PolyfaceInc Swoope Virginia 480 p

Savory Allan with Jody Butterfield 1999Holistic Management Island PressWashington DC 616 p

Schertz DL WC Moldenhaver DPFranzmeier et al 1984 Field evaluationof the effect of soil erosion on crop pro-ductivity p 9-17 In Erosion and SoilProductivity Proceedings of the NationalSymposium on Erosion and Soil Produc-tivity American Society of AgriculturalEngineers December 10-11 1984 NewOrleans Louisiana ASAE Publication 8-85

Sullivan PG 1999 Early Warning Monitoringfor Croplands Savory Center for HolisticManagement 22 p

Thompson Dick 1997 Alternatives in Agricul-ture 1996 Report Thompson On-FarmResearch and the Wallace Institute p 3-4

Troeh FR JA Hobbs RL Donahue et al1991 Soil and Water ConservationPrentice- Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ

RESOURCES

No-till Vegetables by Steve Groff 1997

This video leads you through selection of theproper cover-crop mix to plant crops into and showsyou how to take out the cover crops with little or noherbicide You will see Groffs mechanical cover-crop-kill method which creates ideal no-till mulch without

herbicides Vegetables are planted right into thismulch using a no-till transplanter The Groffs growhigh-quality tomatoes pumpkins broccoli snap beansand sweet corn After several years of no-till produc-tion their soils are very mellow and easy to plant intoThe video also includes comments from leading re-searchers working with no-till vegetables

Order for $2195 + $300 shipping from

Cedar Meadow Farm679 Hilldale RoadHoltwood PA 17532717-284-5152

Rutbuster A Visual Goal Setting BookWayne and Connie BurlsonRR 1 Box 2780Absarokee MT 59001406-328-6808

IP 107