AQA Triple Biology

September 2011

To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and other organisms are adapted to

maximise effectivenessbull Dissolved substances move by diffusionbull HT 1048729 Substances are sometimes absorbed against a

concentration gradient This requires the use of energy from respiration The process is called active transport It enables cells to absorb ions from very dilute solutions Other substances such as sugar and ions can also pass through cell membranes

The Lungsbull Many organ systems are specialised for exchanging materialsbull In humansbull minus the surface area of the lungs is increased by the alveolibull minus and that of the small intestine by villibull The lungs are in the upper part of the body (thorax) protected by the ribcage

and separated from the lower part of the body (abdomen) by the diaphragmbull The breathing system takes air into and out of the body so that oxygen from the

air can diffuse into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the bloodstream into the air

bull The alveoli provide a very large moist surface richly supplied with blood capillaries so that gases can readily diffuse into and out of the blood

bull The villi provide a large surface area with an extensive network of capillaries to absorb the products of digestion by diffusion and active transport

Inspired Air Expired air

Oxygen About 21 About 164

Carbon Dioxide About 003 About 40

Nitrogen About 780 About 780

Water Vapour Variable (rarely saturated) Saturated

Temperature Variable About body temperature

Dust Particles Variable but usually present Little if any

Composition of inhaled and exhaled air

Examiners comments

Plantsbull In plantsbull ndash carbon dioxide enters leaf cells by diffusionbull ndash most of the water and mineral ions are absorbed by root hair cellsbull The surface area of the roots is increased by root hairs and the

surface area of leaves by the flattened shape and internal air spacesbull Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the atmospherebull Plants lose water vapour from the surface of their leaves This loss

of water vapour is called transpiration Transpiration is more rapid in hot dry and windy conditions Most of the transpiration is through stomata The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells which surround them If plants lose water faster than it is replaced by the roots the stomata can close to prevent wilting

Plant root hair cellsThe root hair cell helps to absorb water and minerals from the soil It does this by increasing the surface area of the root It has a really thin cell wall to help the water to enter

An osmometer measures the uptake of water

through the stem and out of the leaves ndash the

environmental conditions surrounding the leaves

can be changed to investigate the change in

water uptake

Diagram cross section of a leaf

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and other organisms are adapted to

maximise effectivenessbull Dissolved substances move by diffusionbull HT 1048729 Substances are sometimes absorbed against a

concentration gradient This requires the use of energy from respiration The process is called active transport It enables cells to absorb ions from very dilute solutions Other substances such as sugar and ions can also pass through cell membranes

The Lungsbull Many organ systems are specialised for exchanging materialsbull In humansbull minus the surface area of the lungs is increased by the alveolibull minus and that of the small intestine by villibull The lungs are in the upper part of the body (thorax) protected by the ribcage

and separated from the lower part of the body (abdomen) by the diaphragmbull The breathing system takes air into and out of the body so that oxygen from the

air can diffuse into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the bloodstream into the air

bull The alveoli provide a very large moist surface richly supplied with blood capillaries so that gases can readily diffuse into and out of the blood

bull The villi provide a large surface area with an extensive network of capillaries to absorb the products of digestion by diffusion and active transport

Inspired Air Expired air

Oxygen About 21 About 164

Carbon Dioxide About 003 About 40

Nitrogen About 780 About 780

Water Vapour Variable (rarely saturated) Saturated

Temperature Variable About body temperature

Dust Particles Variable but usually present Little if any

Composition of inhaled and exhaled air

Examiners comments

Plantsbull In plantsbull ndash carbon dioxide enters leaf cells by diffusionbull ndash most of the water and mineral ions are absorbed by root hair cellsbull The surface area of the roots is increased by root hairs and the

surface area of leaves by the flattened shape and internal air spacesbull Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the atmospherebull Plants lose water vapour from the surface of their leaves This loss

of water vapour is called transpiration Transpiration is more rapid in hot dry and windy conditions Most of the transpiration is through stomata The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells which surround them If plants lose water faster than it is replaced by the roots the stomata can close to prevent wilting

Plant root hair cellsThe root hair cell helps to absorb water and minerals from the soil It does this by increasing the surface area of the root It has a really thin cell wall to help the water to enter

An osmometer measures the uptake of water

through the stem and out of the leaves ndash the

environmental conditions surrounding the leaves

can be changed to investigate the change in

water uptake

Diagram cross section of a leaf

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

The Lungsbull Many organ systems are specialised for exchanging materialsbull In humansbull minus the surface area of the lungs is increased by the alveolibull minus and that of the small intestine by villibull The lungs are in the upper part of the body (thorax) protected by the ribcage

and separated from the lower part of the body (abdomen) by the diaphragmbull The breathing system takes air into and out of the body so that oxygen from the

air can diffuse into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the bloodstream into the air

bull The alveoli provide a very large moist surface richly supplied with blood capillaries so that gases can readily diffuse into and out of the blood

bull The villi provide a large surface area with an extensive network of capillaries to absorb the products of digestion by diffusion and active transport

Inspired Air Expired air

Oxygen About 21 About 164

Carbon Dioxide About 003 About 40

Nitrogen About 780 About 780

Water Vapour Variable (rarely saturated) Saturated

Temperature Variable About body temperature

Dust Particles Variable but usually present Little if any

Composition of inhaled and exhaled air

Examiners comments

Plantsbull In plantsbull ndash carbon dioxide enters leaf cells by diffusionbull ndash most of the water and mineral ions are absorbed by root hair cellsbull The surface area of the roots is increased by root hairs and the

surface area of leaves by the flattened shape and internal air spacesbull Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the atmospherebull Plants lose water vapour from the surface of their leaves This loss

of water vapour is called transpiration Transpiration is more rapid in hot dry and windy conditions Most of the transpiration is through stomata The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells which surround them If plants lose water faster than it is replaced by the roots the stomata can close to prevent wilting

Plant root hair cellsThe root hair cell helps to absorb water and minerals from the soil It does this by increasing the surface area of the root It has a really thin cell wall to help the water to enter

An osmometer measures the uptake of water

through the stem and out of the leaves ndash the

environmental conditions surrounding the leaves

can be changed to investigate the change in

water uptake

Diagram cross section of a leaf

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

Inspired Air Expired air

Oxygen About 21 About 164

Carbon Dioxide About 003 About 40

Nitrogen About 780 About 780

Water Vapour Variable (rarely saturated) Saturated

Temperature Variable About body temperature

Dust Particles Variable but usually present Little if any

Composition of inhaled and exhaled air

Examiners comments

Plantsbull In plantsbull ndash carbon dioxide enters leaf cells by diffusionbull ndash most of the water and mineral ions are absorbed by root hair cellsbull The surface area of the roots is increased by root hairs and the

surface area of leaves by the flattened shape and internal air spacesbull Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the atmospherebull Plants lose water vapour from the surface of their leaves This loss

of water vapour is called transpiration Transpiration is more rapid in hot dry and windy conditions Most of the transpiration is through stomata The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells which surround them If plants lose water faster than it is replaced by the roots the stomata can close to prevent wilting

Plant root hair cellsThe root hair cell helps to absorb water and minerals from the soil It does this by increasing the surface area of the root It has a really thin cell wall to help the water to enter

An osmometer measures the uptake of water

through the stem and out of the leaves ndash the

environmental conditions surrounding the leaves

can be changed to investigate the change in

water uptake

Diagram cross section of a leaf

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

Examiners comments

Plantsbull In plantsbull ndash carbon dioxide enters leaf cells by diffusionbull ndash most of the water and mineral ions are absorbed by root hair cellsbull The surface area of the roots is increased by root hairs and the

surface area of leaves by the flattened shape and internal air spacesbull Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the atmospherebull Plants lose water vapour from the surface of their leaves This loss

of water vapour is called transpiration Transpiration is more rapid in hot dry and windy conditions Most of the transpiration is through stomata The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells which surround them If plants lose water faster than it is replaced by the roots the stomata can close to prevent wilting

Plant root hair cellsThe root hair cell helps to absorb water and minerals from the soil It does this by increasing the surface area of the root It has a really thin cell wall to help the water to enter

An osmometer measures the uptake of water

through the stem and out of the leaves ndash the

environmental conditions surrounding the leaves

can be changed to investigate the change in

water uptake

Diagram cross section of a leaf

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

Plantsbull In plantsbull ndash carbon dioxide enters leaf cells by diffusionbull ndash most of the water and mineral ions are absorbed by root hair cellsbull The surface area of the roots is increased by root hairs and the

surface area of leaves by the flattened shape and internal air spacesbull Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the atmospherebull Plants lose water vapour from the surface of their leaves This loss

of water vapour is called transpiration Transpiration is more rapid in hot dry and windy conditions Most of the transpiration is through stomata The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells which surround them If plants lose water faster than it is replaced by the roots the stomata can close to prevent wilting

Plant root hair cellsThe root hair cell helps to absorb water and minerals from the soil It does this by increasing the surface area of the root It has a really thin cell wall to help the water to enter

An osmometer measures the uptake of water

through the stem and out of the leaves ndash the

environmental conditions surrounding the leaves

can be changed to investigate the change in

water uptake

Diagram cross section of a leaf

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

Plant root hair cellsThe root hair cell helps to absorb water and minerals from the soil It does this by increasing the surface area of the root It has a really thin cell wall to help the water to enter

An osmometer measures the uptake of water

through the stem and out of the leaves ndash the

environmental conditions surrounding the leaves

can be changed to investigate the change in

water uptake

Diagram cross section of a leaf

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

An osmometer measures the uptake of water

through the stem and out of the leaves ndash the

environmental conditions surrounding the leaves

can be changed to investigate the change in

water uptake

Diagram cross section of a leaf

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

Diagram cross section of a leaf

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

Plant ndash underside of leafStoma ndash allows an exchange ofgases in a plant

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

Circulation systembull The heart pumps blood around the body Blood flows from the heart to the organs

through arteries and returns through veins In the organs blood flows through capillaries Substances needed by cells in the body tissues pass out of the blood and substances produced by the cells pass into the blood through the walls of the capillaries

bull There are two separate circulation systems one to the lungs and one to all the other organs of the body

bull Blood plasma transportsbull minus carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungsbull minus soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organsbull minus urea from the liver to the kidneysbull Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs Red blood cells have

no nucleus They are packed with a red pigment called haemoglobin In the lungs haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin In other organs oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin and oxygen

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

Red blood cells function by carrying oxygen to every part of the body and carbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs in the plasma Red blood cells are very well designed to perform this important job First they are packed full of haemoglobin which is an iron-bearing protein that transports oxygen to other cells Interestingly red blood cells have no nuclei a feature which makes even more room for haemoglobin Red blood cells are the only cells in the body that do not have a nucleus

66

1

2

34

5

67

8 9

10

11

Lungs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide

Heart double pumpArteries

Veins

Muscle cells

Produce CO2 from respiration

Get a question rightThrow the dice andMove your counterA red blood cell orPlasmaAs you pass the muscle cell eitherdeliver oxygen orcollect carbon dioxideYou get a point for every one oxygen AND onecarbon dioxide delivered to theright placeCarbon dioxide to the lungs oxygento the cells

Two per teamOne is the red bloodCell one in the plasma

RESPIRATION

bull to interpret data relating to the effects of exercise on the human body

bull The energy that is released during respiration is used to enable muscles to contract

bull During exercise a number of changes take place

bull minus the heart rate increasesbull minus rate and depth of breathing increasesbull minus the arteries supplying the muscles dilate

bull These changes increase the blood flow to the muscles and so increase the supply of sugar and oxygen and increase the rate of removal of carbon dioxide

bull Glycogen stores in the muscle are used during exercise

bull If muscles are subjected to long periods of vigorous activity they become fatigued ie they stop contracting efficiently If insufficient oxygen is reaching the muscles they use anaerobic

bull respiration to obtain energy

Quick Questions on respiration

bull 1 where does it occurbull 2+3 what are the 2 reactantsbull 4+5 what are the 2 productsbull 6 give one example that we have covered that

it is used forbull 7 what is the lsquotestrsquo for Carbon Dioxidebull 8 what is the lsquotestrsquo for oxygen

bull HT 1048729 Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete breakdown of glucose and produces lactic acid As the breakdown of glucose is incomplete much less energy is released than during aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration results in an oxygen debt that has to be repaid in order to oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water

Balance the respiration equation

Answer

Oxygen Debt This term describes how the body pays back its debt incurred above after the exercise is over You will notice that even after you are done racing you will continue to breath hard At this point your body is still trying to repay the oxygen debt that was created when you were working hard Technically it is excessive post-exercise oxygen consumptio

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

RESPIRATION

bull to interpret data relating to the effects of exercise on the human body

bull The energy that is released during respiration is used to enable muscles to contract

bull During exercise a number of changes take place

bull minus the heart rate increasesbull minus rate and depth of breathing increasesbull minus the arteries supplying the muscles dilate

bull These changes increase the blood flow to the muscles and so increase the supply of sugar and oxygen and increase the rate of removal of carbon dioxide

bull Glycogen stores in the muscle are used during exercise

bull If muscles are subjected to long periods of vigorous activity they become fatigued ie they stop contracting efficiently If insufficient oxygen is reaching the muscles they use anaerobic

bull respiration to obtain energy

Quick Questions on respiration

bull 1 where does it occurbull 2+3 what are the 2 reactantsbull 4+5 what are the 2 productsbull 6 give one example that we have covered that

it is used forbull 7 what is the lsquotestrsquo for Carbon Dioxidebull 8 what is the lsquotestrsquo for oxygen

bull HT 1048729 Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete breakdown of glucose and produces lactic acid As the breakdown of glucose is incomplete much less energy is released than during aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration results in an oxygen debt that has to be repaid in order to oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water

Balance the respiration equation

Answer

Oxygen Debt This term describes how the body pays back its debt incurred above after the exercise is over You will notice that even after you are done racing you will continue to breath hard At this point your body is still trying to repay the oxygen debt that was created when you were working hard Technically it is excessive post-exercise oxygen consumptio

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

bull to interpret data relating to the effects of exercise on the human body

bull The energy that is released during respiration is used to enable muscles to contract

bull During exercise a number of changes take place

bull minus the heart rate increasesbull minus rate and depth of breathing increasesbull minus the arteries supplying the muscles dilate

bull These changes increase the blood flow to the muscles and so increase the supply of sugar and oxygen and increase the rate of removal of carbon dioxide

bull Glycogen stores in the muscle are used during exercise

bull If muscles are subjected to long periods of vigorous activity they become fatigued ie they stop contracting efficiently If insufficient oxygen is reaching the muscles they use anaerobic

bull respiration to obtain energy

Quick Questions on respiration

bull 1 where does it occurbull 2+3 what are the 2 reactantsbull 4+5 what are the 2 productsbull 6 give one example that we have covered that

it is used forbull 7 what is the lsquotestrsquo for Carbon Dioxidebull 8 what is the lsquotestrsquo for oxygen

bull HT 1048729 Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete breakdown of glucose and produces lactic acid As the breakdown of glucose is incomplete much less energy is released than during aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration results in an oxygen debt that has to be repaid in order to oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water

Balance the respiration equation

Answer

Oxygen Debt This term describes how the body pays back its debt incurred above after the exercise is over You will notice that even after you are done racing you will continue to breath hard At this point your body is still trying to repay the oxygen debt that was created when you were working hard Technically it is excessive post-exercise oxygen consumptio

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

bull These changes increase the blood flow to the muscles and so increase the supply of sugar and oxygen and increase the rate of removal of carbon dioxide

bull Glycogen stores in the muscle are used during exercise

bull If muscles are subjected to long periods of vigorous activity they become fatigued ie they stop contracting efficiently If insufficient oxygen is reaching the muscles they use anaerobic

bull respiration to obtain energy

Quick Questions on respiration

bull 1 where does it occurbull 2+3 what are the 2 reactantsbull 4+5 what are the 2 productsbull 6 give one example that we have covered that

it is used forbull 7 what is the lsquotestrsquo for Carbon Dioxidebull 8 what is the lsquotestrsquo for oxygen

bull HT 1048729 Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete breakdown of glucose and produces lactic acid As the breakdown of glucose is incomplete much less energy is released than during aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration results in an oxygen debt that has to be repaid in order to oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water

Balance the respiration equation

Answer

Oxygen Debt This term describes how the body pays back its debt incurred above after the exercise is over You will notice that even after you are done racing you will continue to breath hard At this point your body is still trying to repay the oxygen debt that was created when you were working hard Technically it is excessive post-exercise oxygen consumptio

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Quick Questions on respiration

bull 1 where does it occurbull 2+3 what are the 2 reactantsbull 4+5 what are the 2 productsbull 6 give one example that we have covered that

it is used forbull 7 what is the lsquotestrsquo for Carbon Dioxidebull 8 what is the lsquotestrsquo for oxygen

bull HT 1048729 Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete breakdown of glucose and produces lactic acid As the breakdown of glucose is incomplete much less energy is released than during aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration results in an oxygen debt that has to be repaid in order to oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water

Balance the respiration equation

Answer

Oxygen Debt This term describes how the body pays back its debt incurred above after the exercise is over You will notice that even after you are done racing you will continue to breath hard At this point your body is still trying to repay the oxygen debt that was created when you were working hard Technically it is excessive post-exercise oxygen consumptio

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

bull HT 1048729 Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete breakdown of glucose and produces lactic acid As the breakdown of glucose is incomplete much less energy is released than during aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration results in an oxygen debt that has to be repaid in order to oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water

Balance the respiration equation

Answer

Oxygen Debt This term describes how the body pays back its debt incurred above after the exercise is over You will notice that even after you are done racing you will continue to breath hard At this point your body is still trying to repay the oxygen debt that was created when you were working hard Technically it is excessive post-exercise oxygen consumptio

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Balance the respiration equation

Answer

Oxygen Debt This term describes how the body pays back its debt incurred above after the exercise is over You will notice that even after you are done racing you will continue to breath hard At this point your body is still trying to repay the oxygen debt that was created when you were working hard Technically it is excessive post-exercise oxygen consumptio

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Answer

Oxygen Debt This term describes how the body pays back its debt incurred above after the exercise is over You will notice that even after you are done racing you will continue to breath hard At this point your body is still trying to repay the oxygen debt that was created when you were working hard Technically it is excessive post-exercise oxygen consumptio

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Oxygen Debt This term describes how the body pays back its debt incurred above after the exercise is over You will notice that even after you are done racing you will continue to breath hard At this point your body is still trying to repay the oxygen debt that was created when you were working hard Technically it is excessive post-exercise oxygen consumptio

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Question

bull The table shows the units of lactic acid produced in the leg muscles of an athlete

bull Time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 bull LA units 0 1 7 12 9 6 3 1 1bull Draw a line graph of the databull When did the lactic acid reach a maximumbull When would this be in a racebull What happened to the Lactic acid after thisbull Why

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

The Kidney

bull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating kidney failure by dialysis or kidney transplant

bull A healthy kidney produces urine bybull minus first filtering the bloodbull minus reabsorbing all the sugarbull minus reabsorbing the dissolved ions needed by the bodybull minus reabsorbing as much water as the body needsbull minus releasing urea excess ions and water as urine

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

bull HT 1048729 Sugar and dissolved ions may be actively absorbed against a concentration gradient

bull People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted

bull In a dialysis machine a personrsquos blood flows between partially permeable membranes The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost Urea passes out from the blood into dialysis fluid Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to be carried out at regular intervals A kidney transplant enables a diseased kidney to be replaced with a healthy one from a donor However the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken

bull To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidneybull minus a donor kidney with a lsquotissue-typersquo similar to that of the recipient is usedbull minus the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Step 1 Blood flows into the glomerulus from the renal artery

Step 2 High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water glucose urea and salts through the capillary wall and into the tubule Protein molecules and blood cells are too big so they remain in the blood

Step 3 Blood leaves the glomerulus and flows to the capillaries that surround the renal tubule

Step 4 The fluid called the glomerular filtrate passes along the tubule

Step 5 All of the glucose and most of the water and salts are absorbed back into the blood in the nearby capillaries ndash to ensure therersquos the right concentration in the blood

Step 6 Urea and other unwanted substances stay dissolved in the glomerular filtrate They pass down the tubule and eventually reach the bladder

Step 7 Blood flows out of the kidney to the renal vein

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Microbes

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

bull to explain how scientists such as Spallanzani Schwann and Pasteur were involved in the development of the theory of biogenesis

bull Microorganisms are used to make food and drinkbull minus bacteria are used in yoghurt and cheese manufacturebull minus yeast is used in making bread and alcoholic drinksbull Yeast is a single-celled organism The cells have a nucleus cytoplasm and a membrane

surrounded by a cell wallbull Yeast can respire without oxygen (anaerobic respiration) producing carbon dioxide and

ethanol (alcohol) This is called fermentation In the presence of oxygen yeast carries out aerobic respiration and produces carbon dioxide and water Aerobic respiration provides more energy and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce

bull In brewing beer and wine-making carbohydrates are used as an energy source for yeast to respire For making beer

bull minus the starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes in the germinating grains in a process called malting

bull minus the sugary solution is extracted then fermentedbull minus hops are then added to give the beer flavourbull In wine-making the yeast uses the natural sugars in the grapes as its energy sourcebull In the production of yoghurtbull minus a starter of bacteria is added to warm milk

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Lazzaro Spallanzanibull After the discovery of microbes by Leeuwenhoeck Needham

proposed that the primitive unicellular organism could have arisen from non-living matter He boiled mutton gravy filled it in corked vial and showed the appearance of minute living organisms in the gravy after a few days

bull In the 18th century Lazzaro Spallanzani contradicted Needamrsquos observation by conducting following experiments He poured hay infusion In 8 bottles and boiled all of them 4 of them were corked and other 4 were made aright After a few days he found there was thick growth of microorganism in all the corked bottles but not in the airtight bottles He argued that air contained micro organisms and was the source of contamination

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Schwann

bull Discovered that animals were made of cells - Yeast were single celled animals

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Pasteurrsquos famous experiment

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

microorganisms

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Yoghurt

bull The fermentation of milk is started by the addition of several strain of bacteria When cultured at the right temperature that milk will become yoghurt The two classic starter bacteria in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus Almost every yogurt will contain these two although remember if the yogurt has been heat treated after manufacturer they will have been killed

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Cheese and microorganismsbull Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer)

evening milk or both Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which dont pasteurize this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid one of the agents that triggers curdling The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese theyre making Depending on the type of cheese being produced the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk This process differs slightly at large cheese factories which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Breadbull Breadbull A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mixed with sugar

flour and warm water to make bread The yeast uses the sugar and the sugars present in the flour as its food It breaks them down to provide the yeast with energy for growth The yeast grows by budding As it does this bubbles of the gas carbon dioxide are produced in the dough

bull The bubbles make the dough expand and rise This is because the dough is extremely sticky and it traps the bubbles preventing them from escaping When the dough is baked the heat kills the yeast and the dough stops expanding

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Part of the process which microbes use to produce ENERGY when oxygen is unavailable (anaerobic) lactic acid or alcohol is a byproduct

milk products lactose rarr lactic acid

sugary solutions glucose rarr CO2 + EtOH

Fermentation

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

1) Barley germinated in water produces a sweet syrup termed lsquomaltingrsquo The barley malting process lasts for forty-eight hours

2) The sprouted barley grain (lsquomaltrsquo) is then roasted A longer higher roast produces a darker more flavorful barley hence a darker more flavorful beer Conversely a lower shorter roast produces a less flavorful beer

3) The roasted barley kernels are ground and mixed with water to form a lsquomashrsquo Enzymes in the grain convert the starches of the mashed grains into sugar The sweet liquid is called a wort

4) Wort is boiled and Hops are added to create a lsquohopped wortrsquo

5) The liquid is cooled to the right temp amp yeast are added

Beer Production 101

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

bull to interpret economic and environmental data relating to production of fuels by fermentation and their usebull to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of given designs of biogas generatorbull Microorganisms can be grown in large vessels called fermenters to produce useful products such as antibiotics Industrial fermenters

usually havebull minus an air supply ndash to provide oxygen for respiration of the microorganismsbull minus a stirrer to keep the microorganisms in suspension and maintain an even temperaturebull minus a water-cooled jacket to remove heat produced by the respiring microorganismsbull minus instruments to monitor factors such as pH and temperaturebull The antibiotic penicillin is made by growing the moul Penicillium in a fermenter The medium contains sugar and other nutrients eg a

source of nitrogen The Penicillium only starts to make penicillin after using up most of the nutrients for growthbull The fungus Fusarium is used to make mycoprotein a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians The fungus is grown on starch in aerobic

conditions and the biomass is harvested and purifiedbull Fuels can be made from natural products by fermentation Biogas mainly methane can be produced by anaerobic fermentation of a wide

range of plant products or waste materialbull containing carbohydratesbull On a large scale waste from for example sugar factories or sewage works can be used On a small scale biogas generators can be used to

supply the energy needs of individual families or farms Many different microorganisms are involved in the breakdown of materials in biogas production

bull Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose derived from maize starch by the action of carbohydrase The ethanol is

bull distilled from the products of the fermentation and can be used in motor vehicle fuelsbull Microorganisms can be grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates as an energy source mineral ions and in some cases

supplementary protein and vitamins These nutrients are often contained in an agar medium which can be poured into a Petri dishbull In order to prepare useful products uncontaminated cultures of microorganism are required For thisbull minus Petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use to kill unwanted microorganismsbull minus inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flamebull minus the lid of the Petri dish should be taped down to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culturebull In school and college laboratories cultures should be incubated at a maximum temperature of 25 degC which greatly reduces the likelihood

of pathogens growing that might be harmful tobull humans In industrial conditions higher temperatures can produce

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

bull Fusarium Venenatumbull Fusarium venenatum the principal ingredient

of Mycoprotien is an ascomycota one of the largest groups within the fungi family which also includes truffles and morels It is one of a genus of filamentous fungi meaning it is comprised of a web of finely spun strands (hyphae)

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Biogas generatorIt works by capturing the methane gas that gets released when waste breaks down Usually sewage treatment plants just vent that gas into the air but if methane gas gets captured it can be used for things like cooking and generating electricity

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Microorganism fermenterThe vessel itself is made from stainless steel which does not corrode or affect the microbes and fermentation products It can also be easily cleaned Microbes and nutrients are put into the fermenter and air is bubbled through so that the microbes can respire aerobically As carbon dioxide builds up the gas outlet releases it to avoid build up of pressure A water jacket surrounding the fermenter maintains an optimum temperature so the proteins do not become denatured Temperature pH and oxygen probes are linked to a computer which monitors the conditions inside the vessel Paddle stirrers ensure that the microbes nutrients and oxygen are well mixed and distributes the heat evenly The product is run off from the bottom It is separated from the microbes and purified so that it can be sold or distributed

Microbes can be used by industry to mass produce certain important chemicals Some of these like insulin are used in medicine to treat patients Microbes are very efficient and produce less waste than chemical means Often a product cannot be made any other way

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

How biofuels are made

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72

Aseptic technique achieves two things first it protects you from your cultures second it protects your cultures from you and other sources of contamination in the environment Inoculate a small area of the plate with a smear of the bacterial suspension using a circular motion - you should brush the surface gently with the loop taking care that it does not dig into the nutrient agar

Next sterilise the loop by carefully heating it to red heat By sterilising the loop you ensure that you dont carry over too many organisms from the original inoculum

• AQA Triple Biology
• To explain how gas and solute exchange surfaces in humans and o
• Slide 3
• Slide 4
• The Lungs
• Slide 6
• Slide 7
• Slide 8
• Slide 9
• Slide 10
• Slide 11
• Slide 12
• Slide 13
• Examiners comments
• Slide 15
• Slide 16
• Plants
• Plant root hair cells
• Slide 19
• Slide 20
• An osmometer measures the uptake of water through the stem and
• Diagram cross section of a leaf
• Slide 23
• Diagram of a stoma ndash underside of a leaf
• Slide 25
• Slide 26
• Slide 27
• Circulation system
• Slide 29
• Slide 30
• Slide 31
• Slide 32
• Slide 33
• Slide 34
• Slide 35
• Slide 36
• Respiration
• Slide 38
• Slide 39
• Quick Questions on respiration
• Slide 41
• Balance the respiration equation
• Answer
• Slide 44
• Slide 45
• Slide 46
• Question
• The Kidney
• Slide 49
• Slide 50
• Slide 51
• Slide 52
• Slide 53
• Slide 54
• Microbes
• Slide 56
• Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Schwann
• Pasteurrsquos famous experiment
• microorganisms
• Yoghurt
• Cheese and microorganisms
• Bread
• Slide 64
• Slide 65
• Slide 66
• Slide 67
• Slide 68
• Biogas generator
• Microorganism fermenter
• How biofuels are made
• Slide 72