aqueous systems and solutions. solutions an aqueous solution is water that contains dissolved...

Aqueous Systems and Solutions

Solutions

Solutions• An aqueous solution is water that

contains dissolved substances.

Solvents and Solutes•In a solution, the dissolving medium is the solvent.

•The dissolved particles in a solution are the solute.

Solutions• A solvent dissolves the solute.

• The solute becomes dispersed in the solvent.

• Solvents and solutes may be gases, liquids, or solids.

• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.

• Solute particles can be atoms, ions, or molecules.

• If you filter a solution through filter paper, both the solute and solvent pass through the filter.

Solutions

Substances that dissolve most readily in water include ionic compounds and polar covalent compounds.

• Nonpolar covalent compounds do not dissolve in water. Examples of nonpolar covalent compounds include methane (CH4), and compounds found in oil, grease, and gasoline.

• However, oil and grease will dissolve in gasoline.

What types of substances dissolve most readily in water?

Solutions

The Solution Process• A water molecule is polar, with a partial

negative charge on the oxygen atom and partial positive charges on the hydrogen atoms.

• As individual solute ions break away from the crystal, the negatively and positively charged ions become surrounded by solvent molecules and the ionic crystal dissolves.

Solutions

•The process by which the positive and negative ions of an ionic solid become surrounded by solvent molecules is called solvation.

Solvated ions

Surface of ionic solid

The Solution Process

Solutions

The Solution Process• Polar solvents such as

water dissolve ionic compounds and polar compounds.

• Nonpolar solvents such as gasoline dissolve nonpolar compounds.

• This relationship can be summed up in the expression “like dissolves like.”

•Which of these compounds should not dissolve in water?

A.HCl

B.C4H10

C.KI

D.NH3

Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes electrolyte - a compound that conducts an electric current when it dissolves in water or is melted.

All ionic compounds are electrolytes because they dissociate into ions.

nonelectrolyte - a compound that does not conduct an electric current ever.

nonelectrolytes do not dissociate in water

Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes•Some polar molecular compounds are nonelectrolytes in the pure state but become electrolytes when they dissolve in water. (ex. Ammonia NH3)• For example, ammonia (NH3(g)) is not an

electrolyte in the pure state.

• Yet an aqueous solution of ammonia conducts an electric current because ammonium ions (NH4

+) and hydroxide ions (OH–) form when ammonia dissolves in water.

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes•Not all electrolytes conduct electric current to the same degree.

• In a solution that contains a strong electrolyte, all or nearly all of the solute exists as ions.

• A weak electrolyte conducts an electric current poorly because only a fraction of the solute in the solution exists as ions.

Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes•Your cells use electrolytes, such as sodium and potassium ions, to carry electrical impulses across themselves and to other cells.

• An electrolyte imbalance can occur if you become dehydrated.

• When you exercise, you can lose water and electrolytes from your body through perspiration.

•The water contained in a crystal is called the water of hydration or water of crystallization.

Hydrates

• hydrate – a compound that contains water of hydration

• anhydrous - A substance that does not contain water.

Hydrates

Heating of a sample of blue CuSO45H2O begins.

After a time, much of the blue hydrate has been converted to white anhydrous CuSO4.

CuSO45H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)– heat

+ heat

Each hydrate contains a fixed quantity of water and has a definite composition.

Hydrates

Some Common Hydrates

Formula Chemical name Common name

MgSO47H2O Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate Epsom salt

Ba(OH)28H2O Barium hydroxide octahydrate

CaCl22H2O Calcium chloride dihydrate

CuSO45H2O Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate Blue vitriol

Na2SO410H2O Sodium sulfate decahydrate Glauber’s salt

KAl(SO4)212H2OPotassium aluminum sulfate dodecahydrate

Alum

Na2B4O710H2O Sodium tetraborate decahydrate Borax

FeSO47H2O Iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate Green vitriol

H2SO4H2O Sulfuric acid hydrate (mp 8.6oC)

Hydrates

Efflorescent Hydrates

• If a hydrate has a vapor pressure higher than the pressure of water vapor in the air, the hydrate will lose its water of hydration, or effloresce.

The water molecules in hydrates are held by weak forces, so hydrates often have an appreciable vapor pressure.

Hydrates

Hygroscopic Hydrates

• Hydrates and other compounds that remove moisture from air are hygroscopic.

Hydrated ionic compounds that have low vapor pressure remove water from moist air to form higher hydrates.

Hydrates

Hygroscopic Hydrates

• Calcium chloride is used as a desiccant in the laboratory.

desiccant - a substance used to absorb moisture from the air and create a dry atmosphere.

Calcium chloride monohydrate spontaneously absorbs a second molecule of water when exposed to moist air.

Hydrates

Deliquescent Compounds

• Deliquescent - compound that removes sufficient water from the air to dissolve completely and form solutions.

Some compounds are so hygroscopic that they become wet when exposed to normally moist air.

Pellets of sodium hydroxide are deliquescent.

For this reason, containers of NaOH should always be tightly stoppered.

The solution formed by a deliquescent substance has a lower vapor pressure than that of the water in the air.

Hydrates

•A suspension differs from a solution because the particles of a suspension are much larger and do not stay suspended indefinitely.

Suspensions

• The particles in a typical suspension have an average diameter greater than 1000 nm.

• By contrast, the particle size in a solution is usually about 1 nm.

suspension - mixture from which particles settle out upon standing.

Suspensions

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture.• Suspensions are heterogeneous because at

least two substances can be clearly identified.

Suspensions•The difference between a solution and suspension is easily seen when the type of mixture is filtered.

The small size of the solute particles in a solution allows them to pass through filter paper.

The particles of a suspension can be removed by filtration.

•Explain why a mixture of sand and water can be separated by filtration, but a mixture of salt and water cannot.

A mixture of sand and water is a suspension, and a mixture of salt and water is a solution. The particles in the sand mixture are much larger than the ions in the salt mixture. The sand particles are too large to pass through filter paper; the ions are not.

Colloids

A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture containing particles that range in size from 1 nm to 1000 nm.

• The particles in a colloid are spread, or dispersed, throughout the dispersion medium, which can be a solid, liquid, or gas.

Colloids

The first substances to be identified as colloids were glues.

Some Colloidal Systems

System

Type ExampleDispersed phase

Dispersion medium

Gas Liquid Foam Whipped cream

Gas Solid Foam Marshmallow

Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, mayonnaise

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, aerosol

Solid Gas Smoke Dust in air

Solid Liquid Sols, gelsEgg white, jelly, paint, blood, starch in water, gelatin

Colloids

•Colloids have particles smaller than those in suspensions and larger than those in solutions.

• These intermediate-sized particles cannot be retained by filter paper as are the larger particles of a suspension.

• They do not settle out with time.

Colloids

The Tyndall Effect

•You cannot see a beam of sunlight unless the light passes through particles of water (mist) or dust in the air.• These particles scatter the sunlight.

• Similarly, a beam of light is visible as it passes through a colloid.

Colloids

The Tyndall Effect

•The scattering of visible light by colloidal particles is called the Tyndall effect.

Flashlight

Solution Colloid Suspension

Colloids

• Suspensions also exhibit the Tyndall effect.• The particles in solutions are too small to

scatter light.

Flashlight


CHEMISTRY & YOUCHEMISTRY & YOU

•What would be the ideal conditions to see a red sunset?

A misty or foggy evening would be ideal for seeing a red sunset. There would be a large number of particles to scatter the sunlight.

Colloids

Brownian Motion

•Flashes of light, or scintillations, are seen when colloids are studied under a microscope.• This happens because the particles

reflecting and scattering the light move erratically.

ColloidsBrownian Motion

The chaotic movement of colloidal particles, which was first observed by the Scottish botanist Robert Brown (1773–1858), is called Brownian motion.

Colloids

Brownian motion is caused by collisions of the molecules of the dispersion medium with the small, dispersed colloidal particles.• These collisions help prevent the colloidal

particles from setting.

Brownian Motion

Colloids

Coagulation

A colloidal system can be destroyed or coagulated by the addition of electrolytes.

• The added ions neutralize the charged colloidal particles.

• The particles can clump together to form heavier aggregates and settle out from the dispersion.

Colloids

Emulsions

•An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of a liquid in a liquid.

• An emulsifying agent is essential for the formation of an emulsion and for maintaining the emulsion’s stability.

Colloids

• Oils and greases are not soluble in water. • However, oils and greases readily form a

colloidal dispersion if soap or detergent is added to the water.

Emulsions

Colloids

• One end of a large soap or detergent molecule is polar and is attracted to water molecules.

• The other end of the soap or detergent molecule is nonpolar and is soluble in oil or grease.

• Soaps and other emulsifying agents allow the formation of colloidal dispersions between liquids that do not ordinarily mix.

Emulsions

Colloids

This table summarizes the properties of solutions, colloids, and suspensions.

Properties of Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions

Property

System


Particle typeIons, atoms, small molecules

Large molecules or particles

Large particles or aggregates

Particle size 0.1–1 nm 1–1000 nm 1000 nm and larger

Effect of light No scattering Exhibits Tyndall effect Exhibits Tyndall effect

Effect of gravity

Stable, does not separate

Stable, does not separate

Unstable, sediment forms

FiltrationParticles not retained on filter

Particles not retained on filter

Particles retained on filter

Uniformity Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

•Calculate the percent by mass of water in washing soda, sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO310H2O).

Hydrates

•Calculate the percent by mass of water in epsom salt, magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO47H2O).

Solution Formation•Granulated sugar dissolves faster than sugar cubes, and both granulated sugar and sugar cubes dissolve faster in hot tea or when you stir the tea.

Solution FormationComposition of solvent and solute determine whether or not a substance will dissolve.

•Factors that affect how fast a substance dissolves include:

• Agitation (stirring or shaking)

• Temperature

• Particle size of the solute

Solution Formation• AgitationIf the contents of the glass are stirred, the crystals dissolve more quickly.• The dissolving process

occurs at the surface of the sugar crystals.

• Stirring speeds up dissolving because fresh solvent is continually brought in contact with the surface of the solute.

Solution Formation• AgitationAgitation (stirring or shaking) affects only the rate at which a solid solute dissolves.• It does not influence the

amount of solute that will dissolve.

• An insoluble substance remains undissolved regardless of how vigorously or for how long the solvent/solute system is agitated.

Solution Formation

•Temperature also influences the rate at which a solute dissolves.

• Sugar dissolves much more rapidly in hot tea than in iced tea.

• Most solids dissolve faster at higher temperatures.

Temperature

Solution FormationTemperature•At higher temperatures, the kinetic energy of water molecules is greater than at lower temperatures, so the •molecules move faster.

• At higher temperatures, solvent molecules move faster, resulting in more frequent collisions between solute and solvent molecules, resulting in faster dissolving.

Solution Formation• Particle Size of the SoluteThe rate at which a solute dissolves also depends upon the size of the solute particles.

• The smaller particles in granulated sugar expose a much greater surface area to the colliding water molecules.

Solution Formation• Particle Size of the SoluteThe dissolving process is a surface phenomenon.• Smaller particles dissolve

faster because more surface area of the solute is exposed, speeding up the rate of dissolving.

•Which of the following will not speed up the rate at which a solid solute dissolves?

A. Increasing the temperature

B. Stirring the mixture

C. Crushing the solute

D. Decreasing the temperature

Solubility•What is happening in this figure?

• Particles move from the solid into the solution.

• Some dissolved particles move from the solution back to the solid.

• When two processes occur at the same rate, no net change occurs in the overall system (equilibrium).

SolubilitySuch a solution is said to be saturated.

• saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute for a given quantity of solvent at a constant temperature and pressure.

Solubility

•In a saturated solution, a state of dynamic equilibrium exists between the solution and any undissolved solute, provided that the temperature remains constant.

Solubilitysolubility of a substance is the amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of a solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution.• Solubility is usually expressed as

• grams of solute per 100 g of solvent • (g solute/100 g H2O).• Sometimes the solubility of a gas is expressed in

grams per liter of solution (g/L).

Solubility

unsaturated solution contains less solute than a saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure

• If additional solute is added to an unsaturated solution, the solute will dissolve until the solution is saturated.

Solubilitymiscible liquids dissolve in each other in all proportions.

• Ex: water and ethanol

immiscible - Liquids that are insoluble in each other

• Ex: oil and water

Factors Affecting SolubilitySolubility for most solid substances increases as the temperature of the solvent increases.

Interpret GraphsInterpret Graphs

Temperature (°C)

So

lub

ility

(g

/100

g H

2O)• For a few

substances, solubility decreases with temperature.

Solubilities of Substances in Water at Various Temperatures

Solubility (g/100 g H2O)

Substance Formula 0°C 20°C 50°C 100°C

Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 1.67 31.89 — —

Barium sulfate BaSO4 0.00019 0.00025 0.00034 —

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 0.189 0.173 — 0.07

Potassium chlorate KClO3 4.0 7.4 19.3 56.0

Potassium chloride KCl 27.6 34.0 42.6 57.6

Sodium chloride NaCl 35.7 36.0 37.0 39.2

Sodium nitrate NaNO3 74 88.0 114.0 182

Aluminum chloride AlCl3 30.84 31.03 31.60 33.32

Silver nitrate AgNO3 122 222.0 455.0 733

Sucrose (table sugar) C12H22O11 179 230.9 260.4 487

Hydrogen H2 0.00019 0.00016 0.00013 0.0

Oxygen O2 0.0070 0.0043 0.0026 0.0

Carbon dioxide CO2 0.335 0.169 0.076 0.0

Interpret DataInterpret Data

Factors Affecting Solubility

supersaturated solution contains more solute than it can theoretically hold at a given temperature.

• The crystallization of a supersaturated solution can be initiated if a very small crystal, called a seed crystal, of the solute is added.


•The rate at which excess solute deposits upon the surface of a seed crystal can be very rapid.

The solution is clear before a seed crystal is added.

Crystals begin to form immediately after the addition of a seed crystal.

Excess solute crystallizes rapidly.


The effect of temperature on the solubility of gases in liquid solvents is opposite that of solids.

• Solubility for most gases is greater in cold water than in hot.

Temperature


Changes in pressure have little effect on the solubility of solids and liquids, but pressure strongly influences the solubility of gases.

• Gas solubility increases as the partial pressure of the gas above the solution increases.

Pressure

Factors Affecting SolubilityPressure

Carbonated beverages are a good example.

• These drinks contain large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolved in water.

• Dissolved CO2 makes the liquid fizz


Pressure

• The drinks are bottled under a high pressure of CO2 gas, which forces larger amounts of the gas into solution.


Pressure

• When the container is opened, the partial pressure of CO2 above the liquid decreases.

• Immediately, bubbles of CO2 form in the liquid and escape from the open bottle.


•How is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide gas related to the solubility of CO2 in a carbonated beverage?• The relationship is described by Henry’s

law, which states that at a given temperature, the solubility (S) of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure (P) of the gas above the liquid.

Pressure


• As the pressure of the gas above the liquid increases, the solubility of the gas increases.

• As the pressure of the gas decreases, the solubility of the gas decreases.

Pressure

•Explain why an opened container of a carbonated beverage is more likely to go flat sitting on the counter than in the refrigerator.

The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases with decreasing temperature. More carbon dioxide will remain in solution at the colder temperature found in the refrigerator.



•What factors affect the solubility of a substance?

Temperature affects the solubility of solid, liquid, and gaseous solutes in a solvent; both temperature and pressure affect the solubility of gaseous solutes.

Key Concepts

•Factors that determine how fast a substance dissolves are stirring, temperature, and surface area.

In a saturated solution, a state of dynamic equilibrium exists between the solution and any undissolved solute, provided that the temperature remains constant.

Temperature affects the solubility of solid, liquid, and gaseous solutes in a solvent; both temperature and pressure affect the solubility of gaseous solutes.

aqueous systems and solutions. solutions an aqueous solution is water that contains dissolved...

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water dissolve ionic

electric current

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ionic crystal dissolves

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