Arab and Muslim Americans

Arabs and Muslim Americans have been a prominent feature of many national stories in the United States because of the unfortunate event of 9/11. It is well known that many people in the United States are calling for such things as racial profiling at airports which I believe would result in devastating consequences for our country if allowed.

I have worked with many Arab Americans during the past decade as I work in and around Dearborn, Michigan which is home to highest percentage of Arabs outside of the Middle East and I believe there are quite a bit of misconceptions towards Arab Americans on the part of non-Arab Americans.

I believe it is crucial for the United States to begin working towards better relations with Arab Americans and Middle Eastern Arabs in general because of the new reality we face with regard to globalization and the global economy.

Introduction

The role of culture with regard to influencing behavior and mental processes cannot be underestimated. Take for instance the statistics which show that the IQ scores of poorer White individuals are as much as 20 percentage points lower than “the average score of members in the middle class” (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 137). Thus, it is possible that an individual’s intelligence is directly tied to their socio-cultural experience. In many Islamic cultures, the education of men is often valued higher than that of women, and even in countries such as Indonesia where women have experienced greater levels of freedom: when money is tight families tend to value the education of their son’s over their daughters (Smith-Hefner, 2005, para. 3). Therefore, it is possible that Muslim women may perform lower than men on various educational test scores but this would not be connected to any biological differences between the genders but rather entirely related to cultural influence.

The Role of Culture

Cross-cultural studies on the way people think in recent years have determined two main processes: dialectical thinking and positive logical determinism (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). Dialectical thinking refers to a predisposition toward accepting apparent contradictions and is considered the preferred way of thinking among many Eastern cultures (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). Positive logical determinism involves a foundation in the belief that contradictions are mutually exclusive and is dominate in Western society (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127).

The Islamic religion is well known for its universal laws of abstinence before marriage, no toleration of alcohol, and other such distinctions. Thus, the religion of Islam would influence adherents to a certain level of dialectical thinking: Islamic principles are true, therefore, that which disagrees with Islam is false. However, despite these universal laws that Muslims throughout the world adhere to there are certain culture specific behaviors within this sub-group depending upon location. The well known migration of Muslim families to Western societies such as Great Britain and the United States has played a key role in the differing attitudes Muslims have toward various issues such as gender roles, societal responsibility, and the level of individualism versus collectivism (Read, 2003).

The Role of Culture

The Role of CultureCross-cultural studies on the way people think in recent years have

determined two main processes: dialectical thinking and positive logical determinism (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). Dialectical thinking refers to a predisposition toward accepting apparent contradictions and is considered the preferred way of thinking among many Eastern cultures (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). Positive logical determinism involves a foundation in the belief that contradictions are mutually exclusive and is dominate in Western society (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). The Islamic religion is well known for its universal laws of abstinence before marriage, no toleration of alcohol, and other such distinctions.

Thus, the religion of Islam would influence adherents to a certain level of dialectical thinking: Islamic principles are true, therefore, that which disagrees with Islam is false. However, despite these universal laws that Muslims throughout the world adhere to there are certain culture specific behaviors within this sub-group depending upon location.

The Role of CultureAlthough there are certain core beliefs and principles that Muslims

throughout the world hold to, one of the most striking differences between Muslims of the Western World versus those of the Eastern world is the variance with regard to individualism-collectivism. A strong sense of male dominated leadership is still prevalent within the majority of Muslim families throughout the world but this sense of gender inequality is slowly disappearing among Muslims in the Western world thanks to migration and the global economy (Naber, 1998).

In the article “Family and Gender Among American Muslims: Issues Facing Middle Eastern Immigrants and Their Descendents” published by the journal Gender & Society, author Nadine Naber (1998) discusses Islamic society in Egypt and how the family is considered the very center of society and that children are the main focus of women within the culture (para. 5). The concept of women’s lives being mainly concerned with raising children is largely considered to be an old way of thinking in the United States as well as a way of repressing women’s rights. However, in many Islamic cultures such as Egypt, women do not necessarily think in terms of being repressed because they have to raise children but as a way of life. Naber (1998) writes “males and females occupy distinct roles within a patriarchal system based on age and gender. Women are caretakers, and men are providers”. Therefore, this type of cultural atmosphere influences male and female children toward adopting very stringent beliefs regarding the behaviors of men and women in society.

Islamic Culture American Culture

Compare/Contrast of American Culture and Islamic Culture

PSY 381 Venn Diagram Final Project Part Three

In the Middle East Arab men tend to outperform Arabic women academically (Smith-Hefner, 2005)

American women attend college and have higher graduation rates than American men (NY Times, 2010).

In America, 24% of Arab Muslims have a college degree and 25 % of non-Arab Muslims have a college degree (America.gov, 2010).

Islamic Culture American Culture

Compare/Contrast of American Culture and Islamic Culture

PSY 381 Venn Diagram Final Project Part Three

Muslim culture tends to focus on only the Islamic Religion

Belief in higher Power / God

American cultureEmbraces many different types of religions and has many elements of pluralism

Islamic Culture American Culture

Compare/Contrast of American Culture and Islamic Culture

PSY 381 Venn Diagram Final Project Part Three

Muslims familiesTend to live in close-knit neighborhoods nearby their relatives and other fellow Muslims(America.gov, 2008)

Both cultures place a high priority on education for their children

Americans do not place a high priority on living nearby relatives and those they attend religious services with

Islamic Culture American Culture

Compare/Contrast of American Culture and Islamic Culture

PSY 381 Venn Diagram Final Project Part Three

“The Arabic language is the single most unifying force among Arabs” (Schaefer, 2011).

Both cultures tend to envelop one type of language – In America however, Muslims have become more adaptive to being bi-lingual.

Although America is home to people of many different languages, English is the dominant language of the entire company.

Characters:25 year old Arab American Sonia and 30 year old Caucasian

American Seth

Scenario:Sonia is at a local coffee shop reading a book and Seth, a fellow

student from a few years prior recognizes her and comes over to say hello.

Fictional Scenario Between an Arab American Muslim

and a Caucasian American

Seth: “Sonia, remember me, Seth, from Abnormal Psychology three years ago?” Sonia casually looks around the room, and then responds with a touch of hesitancy in her voice, “Hello Seth, it’s been a long time how are you?”

Seth: “I’ve been having a hard time. I graduated a year ago but still haven’t found a job. Fortunately, my parents are supporting and paying for me to go to graduate school in New Jersey later this year”.

Sonia: “Yes, the economy is bad and I haven’t been able to find a job either. I was actually accepted to the same school you’re referring to but my parents won’t let me go”.

Seth: “Won’t let you go? Your 25 years old, what do you mean they won’t let you go?”

Sonia: “Seth, my parents are devout Muslims, there’s a reason I wear this head covering you know.”

Seth: “I realize you’re Muslim, but you dress like every other American girl, and what does that have to do with you moving to New Jersey for school, if I remember correctly your older brother is studying engineering at a school in California?”

Sonia: “Well, my parents let me dress according to American culture, but my older brother doesn’t need a chaperone according to my parents. In our culture, men are often given a lot more leeway with regard to independence from their parents. It’s actually a big deal that I’m in this coffee house by myself talking with you. My father really doesn’t approve of me coming to a public place like this without a girlfriend or one of my brothers”.

Seth: “Really? Man, my seventeen year old sister just tends to do what she wants. She went to a party last Friday night and didn’t get home till nearly three in the morning. I mean, my parents don’t approve, but what can they do about it?”

Sonia: “If I stayed out that late there would be hell to pay. To do such a thing would be considered disrespecting my family because my parents believe that when I am out in public I represent them and all of our relatives as well as our religion”.

Seth: “Wow, that’s different. I barely even know my relatives. The only time we all get together is for a funeral or a wedding”.

Sonia: “All of my relatives that have migrated to America all live in the same city or neighboring city and we get together daily. In fact, my mother and my aunts cook together at least three or four times a week”.

Seth: “So, I’m guessing that if I ask you out on a date for Friday night it would be out of the question.”

Sonia: “Uh, yea, that’s not going to happen anytime soon. That would upset my parents to no end. I do not necessarily agree with them on all of these issues, and I am sure that I’m going to treat my own children differently. But because I want peace between my family and I, I’m going to respect them and their cultural beliefs”

Discussion of Fictional ScenarioUpon migrating to America, many American Muslim women still wear

a traditional head covering but attitudes towards modern dress styles (such as wearing slacks or skirts) has become more lenient and Muslim American women are just as likely to wear popular styles of clothing as non-Muslim American women (Schaefer, 2011).

While Arab American families place just as much emphasis on education as their non-Muslim American counterparts, Arab Americans tend to allow their son’s more latitude in pursuing higher education than their daughters (America.gov, 2008). This does not mean that Arab American women are prohibited from pursuing graduate degrees, but that Muslim men are more likely to be permitted to attend schools farther away from home than Muslim women. The scenario I presented was actually a reinterpretation of my own experience with friends of mine who are Muslim women from Lebanon, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia. Each of my three friends wanted to pursue their graduate degree abroad, but ended up graduating at local universities at the request of their parents.

Discussion of Fictional Scenario

Another theme that was central to my fictional story is the concept of community and relationships between Muslim relatives. Arab American families generally place a much higher emphasis on the relationships between extended relatives than non-Arab Americans (America.gov, 2008). Arab Americans are more likely to live in close proximity with their relatives than non-Arab Americans (America.gov, 2008).

Finally, a central element in my scenario involved the character Seth asking Sonia a series of questions. Cross-cultural studies have shown that when non-Muslims demonstrate a sincere interest in the Muslim religion, culture, and philosophy, Muslims are more willing to engage in dialogue (Clyne, 2001).

Profile of a “typical” Arab American Muslim In this section I will expand on the character profile of “Sonia”, a 25

year old Arab American Muslim who I introduced in my fictional scenario. The Islamic religion is well known for its universal laws of abstinence

before marriage, no toleration of alcohol, and other such distinctions and therefore it would be highly likely that 25 year old Sonia abstains from premarital sex, alcohol and other behaviors that are frowned upon by Islamic society.

Since she is a Muslim it is also likely that she still lives at home with her family because in general; a strong sense of male dominated leadership is still prevalent in much of the Muslim society and it would be considered unbecoming for a single Muslim woman to live on her own apart from her father (Naber, 1998). Linda Brannon (2007) explains that Muslim countries have “longstanding traditions of unquestioned male authority over the family” (p. 254). However, countries such as Morocco and South Africa have slowly but steadily began to change political policies “giving women more rights in marriage” (Brannon, 2007, p. 254).

Thus, it is possible that since Sonia lives in America her parents are more likely to give her more freedoms as an adult then other, more conservative Muslim societies.

Profile of a “typical” Arab American Muslim

In the article “Family and Gender Among American Muslims: Issues Facing Middle Eastern Immigrants and Their Descendents” published by the journal Gender & Society, author Nadine Naber (1998) discusses Islamic society in Egypt and how the family is considered the very center of society and that children are the main focus of women within the culture (para. 5).

Therefore, it is likely that although Sonia is studying at the University level, she still perceives a future in which she will marry and bear children. While some American women might interpret this cultural distinctive as being oppressive toward women, in many Islamic cultures such as Egypt, women do not necessarily think in terms of being repressed because they have to raise children as a way of life. Naber (1998) writes “males and females occupy distinct roles within a patriarchal system based on age and gender. Women are caretakers, and men are providers”.

Miss Michigan 2010, Arab American Rima Fakih (ArabDetroit.com, 2011).

Arab and Muslim American men and women are more likely to look and act like any other American than to look different (Read, 2003)

Arab American Actor/Model Wes Pollock (Somewhere in Indiana Actors, n.d.).

Profile of a “typical” Arab American Muslim

Professor Fawzia Afzal-Khan (1997), who was raised in a Muslim family in Pakistan, suggests that Americans on average associate the phrase, “Muslim woman” with the terms; “weak, subservient, passive, abused” (para. 8). Although these descriptions might fit many Muslim women throughout the world, American Muslims have allowed their females to break away from many of these negative stereotypes and embody character traits in common with any other non-Muslim female in America (Naber, 1998). In the United States, Islamic views of masculinity and femininity often depend on whether the Muslim family has migrated to the country or are second generation citizens.

Thus, if Sonia’s parents are second generation citizens, it is likely that Sonia herself looks and acts like any other woman in America.Read (2003) suggests that although Islamic women in America are considered to be more traditional and more repressed than non-Islamic female Americans, that among Islamic women born in America “the influence of Muslim affiliation on gender traditionalism disappears” (para. 27). Thus, young girls who are raised by Muslim parents born in the United States are more likely to experience the same type of upbringing as non-Muslim Americans.

Profile of a “typical” Arab American Muslim

Perhaps one of the most common misunderstandings Americans have of Muslims is related to the veil or hijab (modern headscarf), in the article “Clothes, Culture, and Context: female dress in Kuwait” published by the Journal Fashion Theory, author Marjorie Kelly (2010) explains that while Muslim women in Kuwait wear the hijab in public, “At private, same-sex, or family gatherings, women remove their abayas to reveal anything from shorts and jeans to formal gowns” (para. 5). Thus, at home Kuwait women dress often dress just as casually as American women, the main difference being that casual dress (such as jeans or shorts) is considered improper in public. It was scarcely less than a generation ago that the average American man would not even think of attending a ball game without wearing a tie so this author contends that those people overly critical of Islamic dress need to remember our society has only recently relaxed our own view of proper public dress codes.

Roots of Prejudice and Hate Toward Arab and Muslim Americans

In the article “In the article “Understanding and Preventing Hate Crimes” available through the APA Website, Tori DeAngelis (2001) explains that discrimination often occurs when people experience a crisis and then look for a scapegoat to place blame upon (para. 1). In the case of discrimination towards Arab Americans DeAngelis’ (2001) hypothesis fits quite succinctly in light of the events of 9/11. Because all of the 9/11 hijackers were both Arabic and Muslim, the potential for racial profiling and discrimination has been fueled throughout America. Schaefer (2011) writes, “News events have fueled anti-Arab, anti Muslim feeling” (p. 275). Numerous surveys taken in the United States have demonstrated that since 9/11, 1 in 4 people harbor “anti-Muslim stereotypes such as the idea that Islam teaches violence and hatred (Schaefer, 2011, p. 277).

Hollywood has also been a key contributor toward anti-Arab attitudes, Schaefer (2011) explains that television shows and movies rarely portray Arab and Muslim Americans engaging in “normal behavior such a shopping, attending a sporting event, or even just eating without a subtext of terrorism lurking literally in the shadows” (p. 277).

Roots of Prejudice and Hate toward Arab and Muslim Americans

Thus, with both Hollywood and the news media portraying Arab and Muslim Americans in a negative light it comes as no surprise that the general public continues to harbor such ill will towards this cultural group.

Islamic discrimination toward non-Muslims is more predominant in the Middle East where Muslims are the majority and non-Muslims are the minority. For instance, in Saudi Arabia Islam is the official religion of the kingdom and the law mandates that all citizens be Muslim (U.S. Department of State, 2004). Thus, while non-Muslims are permitted visas to enter countries such as Saudi Arabia, legal discrimination exists in the very laws that many of these Middle Eastern countries are founded upon.

One potential area of discrimination by American Muslims toward non-Muslims could be a belief that all non-Muslims harbor hate and resentment toward them. With such a preponderance of examples that show high percentages of Americans having negative attitudes toward Muslims it could be easy for Muslims to stereotype all Americans as harboring hate or discrimination.

Arab American women wearing traditional veil or hijab (modern headscarf) (USA Today, 2003).

Media portrayals of Arab and Muslim Americans are often negative stereotypes such as the one in the image above, images like these foster discrimination and hate toward Arab and Muslim Americans (Examiner.com, 2010).

References

America.gov. (2010). Muslims in america: a statistical portrait. Retrieved from, http://www.america.gov/st/peopleplace-english/2008/December/20081222090246jmnamdeirf0.4547083.html

Afzal-Khan, F. (Spring 1997). Introducing a new course: Muslim women in the twentieth-century literature. NWSA Journal, 9, n1. p.76(13). Retrieved from Academic OneFile via Gale:

ArabDetroit.com. (2011). [Arab American Rima Fakih Wins Miss Michigan USA Image]. Retrieved from, http://www.arabdetroit.com/news.php?id=960

Brannon, L., (2007). Gender: Psychological Perspectives (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Clyne, I. (2001). “Finding common ground: cross-cultural research in the Muslim community”. University of Melbourne. Retrieved from, http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/don01569.htm

Examiner.com. (2010). [Terrorism Image]. Retrieved from, http://www.examiner.com/populist-in-national/where-are-the-non-violent-muslims

Kelly, M. (June 2010). Clothes, culture, and context: female dress in Kuwait. Fashion Theory, 14, 2. p.215(22). Retrieved from Academic OneFile via Gale:

Matsumoto, D. & Juang, L. (2008). Culture & psychology [4th ed.]. Belmont: Wadsworth.

Naber, N C (Feb 1998). Family and Gender Among American Muslims: Issues Facing Middle Eastern Immigrants and Their Descendents. Gender & Society, 12, n1. p.105(3). Retrieved from: Academic OneFile via Gale:

Read, J. G. (Summer 2003). The sources of gender role attitudes among Christian and Muslim Arab-American women. Sociology of Religion, 64, 2. p.207(16). Retrieved from Academic OneFile via Gale:

Schaefer, R. (2011). Racial and ethnic groups (12th ed). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.

Smith-Hefner, N J (Oct 2005). The new Muslim romance: changing patterns of courtship and marriage among educated Japanese Youth. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 36, 3. p.441(19). Retrieved from Academic OneFile via Gale:

Somewhere in Indiana Actors. (n.d.). [Wes Pollock Image]. Retrieved from, http://www.dl-sites.com/sii-actors.htm

USA Today. [Two Arab-American women listen to Democratic presidential candidate Howard Dean image]. Retrieved from, http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-11-20-arab-americans_x.htm

Williams, A. (2010). The new math on campus. Retrieved from, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/07/fashion/07campus.html