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May 2006 Issue 70

Quarterly Magazine of the New Varangian Guard Inc

OICEARANGIAN

Issue 70 Varangian Voice

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Contents Author Page Contents, Cover Description, Varangian Voice Policy 1

• What was worn under the tunic in the 11th Century Steven Lowe 2

• Chests Catalogue - 8th to 13th Century Europe Stephen Francis Wyley 4

• The military equipment of Johannes Tzimiskès in the Cavusin Paintings, Goreme, Dovecote Church: the skaplion-zaba

Dr. Raffaele D’Amato 15

• European Hauberk Construction Craig Sitch 19 New Varangian Guard Contact List 25

Cover Voxtorp Chest (Sweden) from Chests Catalogue - 8th to 13th Century Europe By Stephen Francis Wyley, Page 4. Varangian Voice Policy The Varangian Voice is published quarterly by the New Varangian Guard Inc. It may be distributed to members, as part of their membership fee or by subscription, to other clubs in exchange for their quality publication, and is available to interested persons or organisations by subscription. All rights reserved. No part of the Varangian Voice may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, whether electronic, mechanical or manual, in whole or part without written permission of the Editor. Copyright for all the articles appearing is reassigned to the author of the respective article, with the exception that the Varangian Voice reserves the right to reprint articles as and when the Editor sees fit. It is preferred that submission be received electronically (including pictures), as this saves the Editor a considerable amount of time re-typing or scanning. However, submissions for the publication may-be typewritten or word-processed. Articles should include the full name and address of the author and should be received 4 weeks prior to publication date. The current typeface is Times New Roman 12 pt and using MS Word 2003. However, any Word Processing format can be converted. Contributors should take steps to ensure that electronic articles are virus free. Articles must include references to sources. The views, endorsements and opinions expressed in the Varangian Voice are from the individual authors and are in no way those of the New Varangian Guard Inc. in part or whole. All submissions and correspondence should be directed to:

Jeremy Draper E-mail: [email protected] Editor – Varangian Voice 7A Collins Avenue EDWARDSTOWN SA 5039

From the Editor Welcome back, Yes, I had noticed that despite the magazine being a quarterly publication it has now been over a year since the last publication. In that time I have managed to move to Bendigo & complete a Graduate Diploma of Education, while my wife Amelia took a job in Melbourne. We sold the house in Mildura. The company Amelia moved to went into liquidation. Amelia took a job with City of Greater Dandenong to support me at University. We moved all our possessions to Melbourne. I finished Uni and Amelia decided to go back to Uni. Amelia was accepted to University of South Australia to do a Bachelor of Business (Valuations). We bought a house in Adelaide. I moved back to my old job Mildura. We moved all our stuff to the house in Adelaide while I rented in Mildura. Amelia started University and I work to support Amelia at Uni (fair’s fair!). Amelia gets pregnant. I am now trying to find a job in Adelaide. It’s all fun and games. Anyway…I hope I am back on track again. Sorry for the delay. All the best Jem Jeremy Draper - Editor

Varangian Voice Issue 70

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WHAT WAS WORN UNDER THE TUNIC IN THE 11TH CENTURY?*

By Steven Lowe

There's VERY little reliable information on 11th century hose – and no surviving artefacts. The earliest hose from the Viking region are, as I understand it, 14th century - way later than Viking times. So we have to use a lot of guesswork. Certainly, the Bayeux Tapestry seems to indicate people wearing hose, as do several 11th century Anglo-Saxon illustrations. Or maybe they're really tight trousers. The current belief is that they were hose. But unlike the wonderful pictorial evidence relating to 13th century stuff (especially the Mispronouncy Bible), there is practically nothing showing what 11th century people wore underneath. You just see the hose vanish under the lower hem of the tunic. So - did they wear braes and hose like people did 200 years later? Can we really rely on that? 200 years is a long time. In fact, I am coming to the belief that their hose were much longer - perhaps were even tight

trousers after all. Some of the evidence for this is in the Bayeux Tapestry, some I have got from the Golden Psalter (though we have to be careful with that one too - it's 250 years EARLIER than Hastings) - VERY occasionally, you get to see up people's tunics, and the hose/trousers seem to go all the way up. See the guy from the Bayeux Tapestry in Fig. 2 - smoothing the plank with an axe. He's got his skirt tucked into his belt, and the whole length of his leg is shown - covered with fabric. There are quite a few people who are shown barelegged (you can tell by the fact that you can see their toesies!) and without exception their legs

Fig. 1 - from the Golden Psalter of St Gallen, Frankish c. 800 AD

Fig. 2 – from the Bayeux Tapestry – Anglo-Norman c.

1080


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are shown in outline only - in other words the "infill colour" is the bare surface of the linen. There are some shown wearing shoes who also have legs only in outline, but I think that's supposed to mean their hose/trousers/whatever are whitish. But the guy in Fig. 2 has yellow "infill" on his legs and is wearing shoes. I take this to mean his legs are covered.

There's also an 11th century scene with David and Goliath, in which the dead Goliath (bottom of the picture) has been stripped of his armour and appears to be have rucked-up hose which have fallen down his leg, and underneath he has very brief shorts, not the knee-length braies common in the 13th century. Whether 11th century hose had feet in them, or just stirrups at the bottom, is another question again. We just don't know. Hell, we don't even know whether they were hose or trousers! But those shorts Goliath is wearing are very tempting . . . *Nothing – it was all in perfect working order!

SL

Fig. 4 - David and Goliath – Anglo-Saxon 11th century from Harl. MS 603, f.73, British Museum

Fig. 3 – from the Bayeux Tapestry – Anglo-Norman c. 1080


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Chests Catalogue - 8th to 13th Century Europe

By Stephen Francis Wyley

Introduction. This document grew out of a paper on “Chests, Caskets and Locks” for the Australian Medieval Conference of 2005. It became clear to me that there was little material on the topic available in an easily accessible form. I have attempted to catalogue the extant chest by date of production, origin, current location and description (material, dimensions, type of construction, type of lock and contents). Where no picture is available I have used one the replica chests I have made based on the information available (in some cases I have not been able to create complete replica because of my lack of skill or knowledge). In the future I hope to add to this article and in time republish it. Also on my list to produce is a catalogue of extant caskets1 and boxes.

Stephen Wyley 15th February 2005

Acknowledgments. Thanks to the following people for providing information: Dr. Peter Beatson, Stuart Laird, Peter Raftos, Ian Rogers, Robert Schuster, Sandy Semple and Andrea Willet. List of items in catalogue.

1. Whithorn Coffin Chests (England). 2. Oseberg Chests (Norway). 3. Mästermyr Chest (Sweden). 4. York Coffin Chests (England). 5. Lejre Coffin Chest (Denmark). 6. Voxtorp Chest (Sweden). 7. Rydaholm Chest (Sweden). 8. Ryssby Chest (Sweden). 9. Gamla Uppsala Chest (Sweden). 10. 12th – 13th century Hutch Chest (England) 11. 13th century long legged hutch chest (France). 12. Hedeby Chest (Denmark).

Note: This is truly just a fraction of the number of extant chests (especially as you move forward in time) out there but this will do for now. Appendix 1. Metal finds associated with chests. Appendix 2. Extant chest drawings.

1 For the purposes of these documents I have used the arbitrary figure of 50 cm to distinguish between caskets and chests. Storage devices below 50cm are caskets or boxes, those above 50cm are chests.


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1. Whithorn Coffin Chests (England)

Date Origin Collection details Description c. 710 – 845 Whithorn

and St Ninian.

Chest / coffin fittings (IN32). 1) 32.101 – 106. 2) 32.201 – 225 3) 32.301 4) 32.401 – 421 5) 32.501 – 513 6) 32.601-2

Six (rectangular prism) chest coffins were excavated from this site, very little wood was found but a bounty of fittings were, including; angle irons, hinges, hasps, locks and keys. The angle irons showed a distinctive style with arms narrowing towards rounded terminals. Two of the chests (4&5) had sliding bolt locks and a key) for one (4) was found in the chest.

Note: Twelve locks (IN33.1-12) or parts of were found in addition to those on the chest coffins. 2. Oseberg Chests (Norway)

Date Origin Collection details Description 800 – 850 c. Oseberg ship

burial, Oseberg, Sem, Vestfold, Norway.

Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo, 149,

Wood: Oak. Dimensions: 108cm (top) 113cm (bottom)* 32cm (base) 29cm (top)*38cm. A trapezoid six plank chest, the ends forming the legs, decorated with iron bands (6 – 6.5cm wide), each with three rows of tinned nails. Long slide bolt lock (one end is hooked and there is a central hook for the middle hasp), closed by three hasps with animal head terminals. The curved lid is carved out internally and is attached to the chest by nine simple clamp hinges. This chest contained tools. Contents: two lamps, a comb and a pair of scissors.


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Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo, 156

Wood: Oak. Dimension: 104cm* 36.5 (base) 28cm (top)* 41cm. Only the bottom, two of the side pieces and the back has been preserved. For all intensive purposes the chest is the same as no. 149. The lid was attached by four hinges. Contents: some hide, cloth, and two combs.



Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo, 178,

Wood: Oak. Dimensions: 62cm (top) 66.5cm (base)* 24cm (base) 21 (top)* 31cm. Trapezoid six plank chest, the ends forming the legs. Simple lock into an elongated hexagonal plate, closed by a looped hasp. The flat lid is attached to the chest by two hook and eye hinges. Contents: wild apples.

Note: There were also fragments of at least three other chests in the find. 3. Mästermyr Chest (Sweden).

Date Origin Collection details Description c. 1000 Mästermyr,

Sproge parish, Gotland, Sweden.

Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, 21592.

Wood: Oak. Dimensions 88cm (top) 92cm (base)* 24cm (top) 25.6 (base)*24.6cm. A trapezoid six planked chest, the ends forming the legs. The lock consisted of a slide bolt (one end is hooked) locked by two hasps. The curved lid is carved out internally and attached to the chest by two hook and eye hinges. The chest contained a range of tools (metal and wood working), rivets, nails, and metal goods (eg. bells, locks, cauldrons).


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4. York Coffin Chests (England).

Date Origin Collection details Description 9th – 10th century

York, pre-Norman cemetery, Burial 76.

M438 Wood: Oak. Length: Unknown. Width: 41 – 46 cm. The lock is a double slide lock with straight ends, used to lock two hasps. One of the hasps is joined to the lid by a hook and eye joint, the other is unknown. Two (possible three) hook and eye hinges closed the lid. The bottom rear edge is strengthened by three corner fittings.

Date Origin Collection details Description 9th – 10th century

York, pre-Norman cemetery, Burial 105.

M1667 Wood: unknown.. Length: Unknown. A single hasp, attached to the lid by a hook and eye join closes the lock. The lock is a sprung sliding bolt, where the key has to pass a ward to lift a tumbler and thus release the hasp. The lid is attached to the chest by two hook and eye hinges. Notes: Bolt M1677d may represent a second lock from this chest. Burial 94 (M1701) has a similar lock to Burial 105.

5. Lejre Coffin Chest (Denmark).

Date Origin Collection details Description 10th Century Lejre, Denmark,

Grave no. 1160. ? Wood: Unknown. Dimensions:

146cm*39cm*31cm. Chest used as a coffin. Rectangular box, no legs. Flat lid attached by four hook and eye hinges. . The lock is a double slide bolt (one end is hooked), locked by two hasps. The other metal remains indicate metal bracing.

Note: Another coffin chest was found at Forlev, Denmark (Brødsted 1936, 191-2, fig. 102).


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6. Voxtorp Chest (Sweden).

Date 1200 c. Origin Voxtorp

church, Småland, Sweden.

Collection details

Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, 4094.

Description Wood: Pine. Length: 146cm. An iron bound and decorated (a hunting scene) six planked rectangular chest, ends forming the legs. The flat lid is attached by four hinges and locked by two small hasps at either end of the chest, plus a large squarish hasp plate that appears to be lockable by a large loop padlock or chain.

7. Rydaholm Chest (Sweden).

Date About 1200 Origin Rydaholm

Church, Småland, Sweden.

Collection details

Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, Sweden.

Description Wood: ? Dimensions: ? Six planked chest with very short legs. Three hinges attach the lid to the chest and two hasps, in line with the outside hinges closed the lid. Extensive iron work supports and figures decorate the exterior of the chest (horses, people, trees ,etc.) Very similar to the Ryssby and Voxtorp chests.


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8. Ryssby Chest (Sweden).

Date 12th century Origin Ryssby Church,

Småland, Sweden.

Collection details

Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, Sweden

Description Wood: ? Dimensions: ? Six planked chest with very short legs. Three hinges attach the lid to the chest and two hasps, in line with the outside hinges closed the lid. Extensive iron work supports and figures decorate the exterior of the chest (horses, people, trees ,etc.) Very similar to the Rydaholm and Voxtorp chests.

9. Gamla Uppsala Chest (Sweden).

Date 12 century Origin Gamla Uppsala,

Sweden

Collection details

Description Wood: ? Length: ?. An iron bound dug out chest, closed by seven hasps. 12 century dug out chest from Gamla Uppsala, Sweden (Picture Source: http://www.greydragon.org/trips/stockholm/index5.html)


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10. 12th – 13th century Hutch Chest (England)

Date 12th – 13th century

Origin England.

Collection details

Victoria and Albert Museum, Museum Number W.30-1926.

Description Wood: Oak. Dimensions: L. 109 cm, W. 48.2 cm, H. 50.6 cm. Hutch chest with medallion chip carving in the middle and leg panels of the front. Cross timbers on end. Turn key lock in small rectangular lock plate. No hasp remains on lid, some damage to lid above lock plate.

11. 13th century long legged hutch chest (France).

Date 13th century Origin ?

Collection details

l'Oeuvre Notre-Dame Museum in Strasbourg, France.

Description Wood: ? Dimensions: ? , Long legged rectangular hutch chest with iron bracing apparent on the lid, front and side. Hasp plate and hasp appear to have been removed in the past. (Photo source: http://www.greydragon.org/furniture/oeuvre.html)


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Undated items 12. Hedeby Chest (Denmark). (See appendix 2 for pictures of original pieces)

Date Viking

period Origin The harbour

of Hedeby, Denmark.

Collection details

?

Description Wood: Oak. Dimensions: 52cm*23cm*27cm. Trapezoidal six planked chest with curved lid (which was dug out). The lid was held on by two hinges and locked by two hasps (one smaller than the other). The lock plate is missing but I would suggest from the remains and the hole in the front that the lock consisted of a simple double ended slide bolt. The chest is an unique Viking chest because of the simple line carving on the front, back and ends, as well as the curved bottom of the front and back pieces. Contents: a stone.

Un-dated rectangular prism chest (Sweden).

Date ? Origin ?

Collection details

Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm,

Description Un-dated rectangular prism chest with multiple hinges and iron strapping, from Sweden's Museum of National Antiquities (Historiska Museet). (Photo Source: http://www.greydragon.org/trips/stockholm/index3.html.)


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Bibliography. Andersen, S.W., Lejre – skibssætninger, vikingegrave, Grydehøj ,Aarboger for Norik Oldkyndighod og Historie, 1993. Arwidsson, G. & Berg, G., The Mästermyr Find, A Viking Age Tool Chest from Gotland, Sweden, 1983. Brøgger, A.W., Hj. Falk & Shetelig, (ed.), Osebergfundet I – III, Oslo, 1917-1928. Cockerell, S.C., Old Testament Miniatures, A Medieval Picture Book with 283 Paintings From the Creation to The Story of David, London. Crumlin-Pedersen, O., Viking Age Ships and Ship building in Hedeby and Schleswig, Volume 2: Ships and Boats of the North, Roskilde, 1997. Davidson, H.R., Viking and Scandinavian Mythology, Hong Kong, 1982. Delort, R., Life in the Middle Ages, London, 1973. Dunan, M., ed., Larousse Encyclopedia of Ancient and Medieval History, London, 1967. Hill, P., Whithorn and St. Ninian, The Excavation of a Monastic Town 1984 – 91, Sutton : Stroud, 1997. Ottaway, P., Anglo-Scandinavian Ironwork from York, The Archaeology of York, Volume 17: The Small finds, York Archaeological Trust, 1992. Phillips, D., & Heywood, B., Excavations at York Minster, Volume 1., From Roman fortress to Norman cathedral, Part 2. The Finds, London, 1995. 6.5 Iron-bound coffins and coffin fittings from the pre-Norman cemetery, by B. Kjølbye-Biddle, p. 489 – 521. Raftos, P., Beatson, P., A Veneto-Byzantine Chest? Casket of the Blessed Juliana of Collalto, unpublished. Roesdahl, E. & Wilson, D.M., Eds., From Viking to Crusader, The Scandinavians and Europe 800 – 1200, Sweden, 1992. Wilson, D.M., ed., The Northern World, The History and Heritage of Northern Europe, AD 400 – 1100, London, 1980. Further Reading Arbman, H., Birka I: Die Graber, Stockholm / Uppsala, 1940 – 3. Enberg, G., Buchwald, V.F., Værktøjskisten fra Veksø. I: Nationalmuseet Arbejdsmark:62 –75. Copenhagen, 1995. Geake, H., Use of grave goods in the conversion period, 1988.


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Grainger, G., Henig, M., A bone casket and relief plaque from Mound 3 at Sutton Hoo, Medieval Archaelogy 27 (1983), 136 – 141. Heinsius, E., , Ein Schnappschloss mit Pessfederriegal aus Hathabu, Berichte uber die Ausgrabungen in Haithabu, vi, 38-40, 1973. Petersen, J., Vikinetidens redskaper (Skrifter utgitt av det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi I Olso, 2, Hist.-Folios. Klasse 1951, No. 4), Oslo, 1951. Roesdahl, E., Otte vikingetidensgrave I Sdr. Onsild, Aarboger for nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie 1976, 22 – 51. Appendix 1. Metal finds related to chests. Source Description Ottaway, P., Anglo-Scandinavian Ironwork from York, The Archaeology of York, Volume 17: The Small finds, York Archaeological Trust, 1992.

3371, part of a hinge with a bifurcated terminal, similar to a large hinge (M1654) from a charnel pit XK 216, excavations of York Minster. 3386, the eye part of a “hook and eye” hinge, with a narrow neck before the bottom round terminal, and spatula shape end for the ‘eye’ on the other end. 3480, triangular shaped ‘hook and eye’ hinge. 3495, 3496, 3497 and 3498, a variety of hasps to close chests. 3606 and 3607, sliding bolt locks with springs. 3608 , a small lock bolt with attache leaf spring and part of a suspension loop. 3654 – 3661, are a range of keys for locks with sliding bolts and springs.

Appendix 2. Chest plans and drawings. Hedeby Chest


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Mästermyr

SW


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Fig. 1

The military equipment of Johannes Tzimiskès in the Cavusin Paintings, Goreme, Dovecote Church: the

skaplion-zaba

By Dr. Raffaele D’Amato

Following the examination of the military equipment of Johannes Tzimiskès, as he is represented on the famous paintings of Church of the Dovecote, Goreme, in Kappadokia, dated in about 963-969, it is time to deal with the most difficult part of it, the defensive armour. The difficulty arises from the bad state of preservation of the painting, luckily photographed in a excellent way by Mr. Steve Lowe, whom once again I am in debt for the permission to use the photos he took, published on his web-site. At their time, the paintings of Cavusin were very clear and detailed. Built by the local notables to celebrate the victories of the Asian Army of Nikephoros Phokas over the Muslims, and to represent the triumph of the heroes of the Kappadokia, they shown the image of a military procession towards the victorious Emperor. Before the Imperial loge, Johannes Tzimiskès and Melias defiled as in a parade, joined by the 40 Martyrs of Sebaste dressed like East-Roman officers, rising the swords in the honour of the two cavalrymen. The painter was so detailed in the rendering also a true portrait of the future Emperor, then commander in chief of the Army. The face is rather round, ornamented by a slightly underlined light brown beard and fine moustaches ; the cheeks are full and rosy, the brown is wide, the nose short and fine, the eye small and largely open, at the point that even his blue pupil is clearly visible (fig. 1). If we compare it with the description of Leo Diaconus1, we see as the painter had before his eyes the true face of Johannes: “...Concerning his aspect, he was in this way : white face, of healthy complexion ; the hairs were reddish and rare on the brown ; the eyes bold and of blue colour ; the nose minute and well proportioned ; the beard on the upper lip was red and short cut on the sides, on the lower lip was of good proportion...”. The same must have been for his armour. The cavalryman seems be covered, on the head and on the shoulders, by a mail hauberk not completely visible on its lower part because covered by the red mantle. Only the prependulia of a Imperial crown (still visible on the sides of the face) were added in a second time, probably when Tzimiskès was elevated Emperor after the assassination of Nikephoros Phokas (date in which also the written dedication was modified). The hauberk, known

1 Leo Diaconus, Historia, VI, 3 ;


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Fig. 2

in East-Roman sources as skaplion2, was a part of the chain-mail or coat of mail armour usually called lorikion or zaba, a term that in the age of Nikephoros Phokas probably designated all the parts of the armour made with iron rings. At the beginning of 7th century the Emperor Maurice informs us that the Roman armoured cavalryman “...should have hooded coats of mails reaching to their ankles...” i.e. that the Ζαβαι (word used to indicate the ring armour cuirasses or lorikia) were furnished with σκαπλια. The word skaplion was still employed in the 10th century with such a signification in the Leo the Wise Problemata3, and especially was used in the military language of the Akritai, whose wide employment beside the regular Troops found his way exactly at the time of the victorious campaigns of the Macedonian Dynasty4 . That the σκαπλια were separated pieces of the chain-mail is confirmed by the passage in which Maurice advises to deceive the enemies, during the sieges, showing a number of armoured soldiers greater than the available : “...to do this make the men who do not have coat of mail wear the mail hoods (skaplia) of those who do, so that from a distance it will look as though they too are wearing mail...”.5 Examples of separated σκαπλια worn by Roman soldiers still in 11th century are visible

in the Kappadocian paintings6, in illuminated manuscripts7 and in other works of art. A complete Roman chain-mail hauberk has been found in Bulgaria and dated about at the 12th century8. So also Tzimiskès seems wear a separated hauberk together with his main armour, represented by his scale κλιβανιον. Nicolle suggests the idea that this is the only visible part of an entire lorikion worn under the scale armour 9: I was not able in any case to determinate the sure presence of other parts of lorikion except this one on the cap. At less that the small circles at the height of the hand who held the reins of the horse are traces of the coat of mail worn under the klibanion, split at the height of the breast as in the similar figure of the 40 martyrs commander in the same church10. What it is relevant to note is the kind of ring construction represented : the rings are attached directly over a cloth or leather background, exactly as the armour of the warrior represented in the Sakli Kilise, always in Goreme11 (fig. 2). Substantially the armour is formed by metal rings sewn or attached on a coat made of doubled material (skin, leather or felted cloth). The system - as visible in many images of the famous Tapestry in Bayeux12 - provided tangent rings attached by sewing at the cloth of the background, doubled and covered by silk13.

2 Du Cange, glossarium, col. 1382 ; Maurice, Strategikon, I, 2, 10ss. 3 Kolias, p. 43 note 52 ; 4 Alexiu, Akritika, 16 ; 5 Maurice, Strategikon, X, 1 ; the same in Leo, Problemata, X, 2, see Kolias p. 43 n. 55. 6 Yenipinar, p. 87 ; 7 Cod. Athos Esphigmenou 14, fol. 136v ; v. Treasures II 333. 8 Bulletin de l’Institut archéologique de Sophia, XVIII, 1952, p. 388 fig. 394. 9 Nicolle, Arms and Armour, p. 28 ; 10 Idem fig. 8c ; 11 Again I have to thanks Mr. Steve Lowe for the photo.


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Fig. 3 Fig. 4

This system corresponds also to the Eastern Jazeran armour, in the type known as bezainted (i.e. studs on the leather) or in the type composed by ring mail on quilt (fig. 3-4). It is worthy to note as the jazerant or kazaghand - an arabic word for this type of oriental mail used in the Islamic World - consisted of a mail shirt, cloth lined and covered with good-quality fabric, especially silk, sometimes coloured and patterned. Substantially, a kind of armour expensive, but comfortable to wear and luxurious in appearance14. The first types of such armours should have let the rings exposed and not covered : so may be we are in front of a type which evolved in a always more fine protection. The interchange of equipment among Muslims and Christians on the Taurus Frontier has been already widely underlined by Nicolle15. This kind of construction could be designated however as “zaba” in the Greek Medieval sources. Taxiarchis Kolias shows in his book16 as the evolution of the word “zaba” in tenth century arrives to indicate not only the complete armours made of rings, but also pieces, plates, rows or interlaces of iron rings used for the supplementary protection of the different parts of the body, fixed to their cloth or doubled material background, with the function of supplementary reinforcement, exactly as in Goreme paintings. A second possible interpretation of the cap cover could be the idea of a brocade silk covered coif, as those used by contemporaries Banu Habib17 (who converted to Christianity in 963 AD passing on the Roman sides) and seen in contemporary works, like the cap of the Aght’mar warrior18. The drawing of the Thierry19 (done in a period when the fresco was better preserved) seems point to the idea to represent a mail hood. In the next contribution I will deal with the scale armour of the Emperor, from the same painting.

12 Viollet le Duc, p. 207 and 261. 13 Viollet Le Duc, p. 261, and s. fig. 3. 14 Tarassuk-Blair, p. 294. 15 Nicolle, Warriors and Weapons, III pp. 226 ff. 16 Kolias, cit. p. 66 17 Nicolle, The Armies of Islam , p. 16 18 Idem, p. 20. 19 Thierry, N., p. 175 ;


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Bibliography: • Alexiu, St., Ακριτικα, Τα προβληµα τηs εγκυροτηταs

του κειµενου Ε. Χρονολογηση−αποκατασταση χωριων−ερµηνευτικα, Herakleion 1979, • Du Cange-Du Fresne, Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae graecitatis, duos in tomos

digestum, Lugdunum (Lyon),1688. • Leo Diaconus, Leonis Diaconis Caloensis Historiae libri decem, ed. C.B. Hase-Weber, Bonn,

1828; • Dennis G.T. - Gamillscheg E., Das Strategikon des Maurikios, CFHB 17, Wien 1981; • ΠΕΡΙ ΠΑΡΑ∆ΡΟΜΗΣ ΤΟΥ ΚΥΡΙΟΥ ΝΙΚΗΦΟΡΟΥ ΤΟΥ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΟΣ, Le traité sur la

Guérilla (De velitatione) de l’Empereur Nicéphore Phokas (963-969), Paris 1986; • Balent, M., The Compendium of Weapons, Armour & Castles, Detroit, 1989; • Kolias G. Taxiarchis, Byzantinische Waffen, Wien 1988; • Nicolle, D., Arms & Armour of the Crusading era 1050-1350, II, 1999; • Nicolle, D., Warriors and their Weapons around the Time of the Crusades, 2002; • Pelekanidis S.M. - Christou P.C. - Muropoulou Ch. - Tsioumis S. - Kadas N., The Treasures of

Mount Athos. Illuminated Manuscripts II. The Monasteries of Iveron, St. Panteleimon, Esphigmenou and Chilandari, Athens 1974;

• Tarassuk-Blair, Arms & Weapons, Idea Books, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore,Verona, 1979-1986; • Thierry, La Cappadoce de l’Antiquité au Moyen Age, 2002; • Viollet Le Duc, Encyclopédie Médiévale, Tours, 1999; • Yenipinar H. - Seracettin S., Paintings of the Dark Church, Istanbul 1998; Figures: 1) Photo of Iohannes Tzimiskès in the Cavusin Church; 2) Roman warrior at the Crucifixion, Saçli Kilise, Goreme, 1070 AD; 3) Example of bezainted armour, redrawn from Balent; 4) Example of studs on leather armour, redrawn from Balent;

RD


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European Hauberk Construction

By Craig Sitch This article details the pattern I have been using for the manufacture of 12th and 13th Century European Hauberks. It can be one of the more complex patterns to follow but the results are certainly worth the effort. The aim of this pattern was to produce a hauberk with the characteristics so often shown in medieval art: whether that be illumination, stone carving or tomb effigies. The basic principle is that the hauberk begins with a circular yoke over the shoulders rather than the more commonly used 'T' Shirt style. For a very clear representation of this see Fig 1.

Apart from purely aesthetic reasons, this was done so that the long sleeves, often with attached mufflers (or hand protection), could be joined on with the mail running in the same direction as it does on the body. When this is done the mail fits more snugly over the arms and allows for greater freedom of movement. Those who are familiar with long sleeved hauberks of ‘T’ shirt construction where the mail on the sleeve is running the wrong way will doubtless be familiar with the way they can gape or hinder movement. Another great advantage to having the mail hang in the same direction on the arms as on the body is that it makes blades less likely to catch in the rings from downward cuts, because the rings are presented in a vertical rather then horizontal fashion. This kind of European hauberk is most often shown with an integral coif constructed in one of two different styles, or variations thereof. Firstly and most commonly is that consisting of an open circle around the face See Fig 1. and another closed or filled circle at the back of the head. This circle around the face can be tightened or loosened via a cord. See Fig 2. This cord runs through the rings


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around the face and exits at the corners above the eyes. This enables the coif to be worn quite low covering the chin only or as far up as right under the eyes. When fully loosened the coif can then be removed very much like a hood and hung round over your back. See fig 3. This is a very comfortable and practical arrangement giving full freedom of movement for the head and neck. It also allows one to cool down somewhat when not engaged in combat without removing the hauberk altogether.

A variation on this first style of coif is the wearing of an additional dome-like coif over the attached coif. figs 4 a-c. This is most likely done with a simple close fitting dome helmet in between the two layers of mail. This is shown very clearly in fig 4. c The integral coif with the circle around the face is clearly visible underneath a separate coif that is running in a horizontal pattern and just covers the area where the dome helmet is. Figs 4. a & b show the bottom edge of this dome helmet below the second coif.


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The second style of coif is one that more closely resembles the standard horizontal pattern of coif. This joins in to the hauberk quite nicely as all the mail is running in the same direction. To facilitate removal of the coif there was often a loose hanging panel or flap that could be laced up to the brow level via a cord. See fig 5.

However as stated before this style is less commonly depicted in 12th & 13th C art than the one first mentioned and also most representations of it do not show any kind of flap or cord fastening. See fig 6. An attached coif that one cannot get out of would be most tiresome. So it is my opinion that in cases such as these the artist has either neglected to shown such details or simply been unaware of their necessity. An attached coif that one cannot get out of would be most tiresome. When working with mail I work in rows and columns of rings connected to each other by links that I call connectors. See Fig 7. All of the rings face one way and are parallel to each other while all of the connectors are angled the other way to the rings. The piece of mail shown in fig 7. is a 3 by 10 piece, having 3 rows of rings and 10 columns. They are all naturally joined to each other by connectors.


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To make the yoke style hauberk, start with a hollow circle of mail like the bottom edge of a coif that is 3 by 70 rings, seven pieces of what is shown in Fig 7 joined together and both ends connected to complete the circle. Expand this outwards at a rate of 7 rings per row. Evenly distribute the expansions around the rows to avoid a series of radial lines that will occur if all expansions are in the same positions. Fig 8.b shows how to divide the circular yoke section of the hauberk up into 7 segments and then distribute the expansions evenly. The diagram only shows the first 10 rows of the yoke. Continue adding 7 expansions per row until the very corner of the shoulders is reached. At this point you can simply add rows without the expansions as the mail is now hanging vertically and the circle does not need to increase in diameter. If there is too much mail in the yoke this can lead to bunching in the armpits and severe restriction of movement. Continue adding rows without expansions to the bottom of the yoke until, when worn over the gambeson, the mail hangs down to the point where it is level with the inside of the armpit. See Fig 8.a for a diagram of the basic components.

Fig 8. a Fig 8. b Next a basic tube for the body is attached to the yoke piece. Both at the centre of the chest and centre of the back. Each of these joins only needs to be about 20 rings across at the moment. For the sleeves, two matching tubes can be constructed. They should not extend past the inside of the elbow at this stage. These tubes are attached to the yoke at the outer most part of the arm for about 10 rings. The inner side of the sleeve is attached to the body tube of the hauberk for about 5 rings. To ensure maximum freedom of movement and minimise bunching under the arms the armpit of the hauberk should fit very snugly to the body. This stage of assembly is one of the most critical of the entire hauberks construction. Regularly try on the hauberk checking for freedom of movement and any possible tight patches or snags. Adjust as necessary while trying to keep the sleeves as snug as possible to the body. To correct any problems at this stage several things might be required. The body or arm tubes may need to be enlarged or even reduced, likewise the yoke. During these fitting trials make sure that the body tube is fairly long about waist level, also the arm tubes extending to about the inside of the elbows.


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Once a good fit has been achieved the ‘seam’ line between the yoke and body tubes can gradually be closed towards the arm pits. Like wise the ‘seam’ between the sleeve and the yoke can also be closed towards the arm pits. Make sure to try on the hauberk regularly during this process. Continue until only four small triangles are left. Front and back of each armpit. If these triangles become too small the hauberk will tighten up at the arm pit and restrict movement severely. These remaining triangles should be filled as best as possible. Triangular patterns in mail where all three sides of the triangle are running in different directions are always somewhat 'messy.' See Fig 9. for a Hauberk that still has the armpit triangles unfilled. It has also been photographed to make the join between the yoke, body tube and arm tubes easier to see with only every second connector in place.

To permit free movement of the arms the elbow will need to be tailored. This can be achieved by adding an extra diamond shaped panel on the outside of the arm. This is exactly the same principle used to construct the knee of a good pair of chause and is performed in the same way. The sleeve should be made to fit the arm in a half bent position. This way when it is straightened some of the bunching will occur at the back of the elbow and when bent completely some at the inside. This provides much greater freedom of movement than having all of the bunching occur inside the elbow as will happen with a straight sleeve. To construct this elbow section. Make a gently tapered tube that fits the forearm and extends to the wrist. Attach it at the inside of the elbow by 5 rings. Bend the arm to a half bent position and work out how many rings are required to be inserted at the back of the elbow. Add a strip 4 rings wide and then fill in the resulting triangles contracting towards the inside of the sleeve. While the body of the hauberk can taper in towards the waist it should then start to expand at the hips and gently flair out as the skirt continues down. This will make the front and back splits sit much squarer. And allow greater freedom of movement for the legs.


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Patterns for construction of both styles of coif mentioned above and chause will be forthcoming. Photographic Bibliography

Barber, Richard. (1980) The Reign of Chivalry, Reed. Bouchen, Francois. 20,000 years of fashion. Harry Abrams NY. Bull, Stephen. (1991) An Historical Guide to Arms and Armour, Studio Editions London. Cockerell, Sydney (Introduction and Legends). Old testament miniatures, George Braziller Evans, Joan. (1966 & 1985) The Flowering of the Middle ages, Thames and Hudson. Hofstatter, Hans H. (1968) Art of the Late Middle ages, Harry N. abrams. Humble, Richard. (1989) Warfare in the Middle ages, Mallard Press. Huyghe, Rene. (1963) Larousse encyclopaedia of Byzantine and Medieval art, Paul Hamlyn. Kendall, Alan. (1986) The Documentary History Series, Medieval Pilgrims, Wayland Publishers

London. Koch, H.W. (1978) Medieval Warfare, Book Club associates London. Mitchell, Sabrina. (1964) Medieval Manuscript Painting, Weidenfeld and Nicholson. Norman, Vessy. (1971) The Medieval Soldier, Arthur Barker. Savage, Anne. (1982-3) The Anglo Saxon Chronicles, Book Club Associates. Shouchal, Francois. (1968) Art of the Early Middle ages, Harry Abrams. Ward, J.O. the Middle ages, Rinewart and Winston. Williams, Jay. (1962) Knights of the Crusades, Cassell London. Wise, Terence. (1978) Armies of the Crusades, Osprey. (Pictorial only) Editors of the Horizon Magazine. (1964) The Vikings, Cassel London.

Related notes I have some thoughts on why. the rounded face of the D being on the inside of the shirt would actually decrease the amount of wear and there fore damage to undergarments. Also the punching process to turn the original forge welded rings into the D section would strengthen and make them more uniform. This is attested by the fact that some were slightly over sized or composed of too much material and there was a small excess or flash pushed outside the shape of the D section stamp

CS

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