Archaeology of North America

The Far North

The Far NorthIntroduction At the time of contact arctic peoples were

spread across the north A number of linguistic groups are present They practiced a highly varied hunter-

gather economy in a land of great diversity Sea mammals, fish, caribou, musk ox and other

animals were hunted A variety of vegetal remains were gathered

When maritime hunting began is debated Older sites are submerged and affected by

isostatic rebound

The Far NorthThe Arctic Environment Beringia is open for much of the glaciation Several mountain ranges are found

throughout the north Vast, broken lowlands are often found

between these ranges, esp. in Alaska The interior of Alaska was unglaciated East of the Yukon River was glaciated by the

Laurentide ice sheet East of the Hudson Bay is a rocky glaciated

plateau of the Canadian Shield Greenland is mostly glaciated except the coast

The Far NorthThe Arctic Environment The northern climate is harsh, with cold,

long, dark winters and brief summers Permafrost is close to the surface resulting in

many bogs and swamps In fact winter is better for people than the

summer The boarder between the Arctic and Sub-

Arctic is marked by a transitional tree line Tundra (vegetation is sparse, with mosses, lichens

and the occasional dwarfed tree) Taiga (boreal forest, dense spruce, hemlock and

pine forests that are impenetrable in most places)

Tundra interior

Tundra coast

Taiga forest

The Far NorthThe Arctic Animals Only a few species of terrestrial mammals

live in the arctic Caribou (most common), musk ox, lemmings,

arctic fox, wolves, bears and a variety of birds including waterfowl (ducks, geese, swans and other sea birds)

Sea mammals and fish are hunted along the coasts Char, salmon, whitefish, whales, seals, otters

and walrus

The Far NorthThe Sub Arctic Animals There are more land animals in the sub

arctic Woodland caribou, moose and waterfowl are

the most common to hunt, but beaver and mink were important for their pelts during European contact

Warmer waters attract sea animals as well Shrimps, seawater plankton and other small

marine animals attract the dolphins and whales in the summer

The Far NorthThe Paleo-Arctic Tradition c. 8000-5000 BC Connection between Siberia and NA

D’uktai and Alaskan sites Microblade technology

9000 BC Beringia is broken After 8000 BC a greater diversity of h&g

flourished in Alaska and are referred to as the Paleo-Arctic Tradition

For more than 4000 years these groups were spread over northwestern NA

Unfortunately there are very few sites Most are isolated scatters in the interior A question of submerged sites

The Far NorthThe Paleo-Arctic Tradition c. 8000-5000 BC Lithics of this period are marked by

Microblades, small wedge-shaped cores (the most distinctive artefact), some leaf-shaped bifaces, scrapers and graving tools

These cores show economization Found as early as 8000 BC on the

Alaskan coast, 5000 BC on the Queen Charlottes and continue to 2000 BC

There is great variation in the tool found

The Far NorthThe Paleo-Arctic Tradition c. 8000-5000 BC The site of Anangula on the Aleutian chain

was occupied for a long period of time It is on a bluff Dates range from 6100-5900 BC Tools are made from microblades of various sizes Evidence of elliptically shaped, semi-subterranean

houses (entered from the roof?) Accessible by boat only suggesting reliance of fish

and sea mammals but there is no direct archaeological evidence for this

The Far NorthThe Pacific coast 5000 BC – AD 1000 An increasing emphasis on coastal

adaptation likely began c. 5000 BC By 3000 BC this way of life was common

along the Aleutian chain and Kodiak Island Climate is milder here and sea mammals

abundant Then environment is fairly consistent By 3000 BC three cultural groups occupy

this area Question of when and why the Aleutians

diverge from the Eskimoan stock of the mainland

The Far NorthThe Pacific coast 5000 BC – AD 1000 Kodiak Island

Over 7000 years of occupation Ocean Bay tradition flourished from 5000-

2000 BC on marine mammal hunting They used thrusting spears with large stone blades

likely coated with aconite poison from Monkshood Kachemak Tradition developed c. 1800 BC

and lasted to AD 1000 Hunted sea mammals, salmon and caribou Worked slate into knifes (Ulu) Used bone artefacts (projectile points) From 1-1000 AD the artefacts are more elaborate

The Far NorthThe Pacific coast 5000 BC – AD 1000

From 1-1000 AD the artefacts are more elaborate (fishing net weights, stone lamps with human and animals figurines cared in them)

Large middens suggest a population increase Practiced mortuary rituals (buried the dead intact or

took parts for trophies) After AD 1000 the Kachemak evolved into the

historical Eskimo-speaking Koniag culture, which is heavily influenced by surrounding cultures

Ulu dating to the Norton Stage 500 BC (10 cm)

Left: Ocean Bay tradition projectile point

Right: Kachemak tradition slate projectile point

Oval stone lamp with a human figure inside, Kachamak Tradition

The Far NorthThe Aleutian Tradition c. 2500 BC–AD 1800 This tradition is widespread on the Aleutian

Islands The earliest site on the islands is Anangula

dating to 6000 BC but… Does this site represent ancestral Aleutian

occupation on the islands? Or Is there a mixing of the local groups with Eskimoid

influences to create a more recent Aleut culture? Or

Did the Anangula people die out to be replace by a second occupation c. 2500 BC?

The last theory is called the Dual Tradition Model

The Far NorthThe Aleutian Tradition c. 2500 BC–AD 1800 At present there is no evidence for a

cultural continuum on the islands After 2500 BC the Aleutian Tradition is

seen which differs from the early Paleo-Arctic sites – Dual Model is suggested Aleutian sites have no microblade cores or

gravers They do have knapped lithic artefacts, rather

than slate ones, bifacially trimmed projectile points and knives, elaborate bone tools

Tools are very variable between sites

Bone artefacts from the Aleutian tradition

The Far NorthThe Aleutian Tradition c. 2500 BC–AD 1800 They hunted sea mammals and fish (cod

and halibut) The houses were elliptical to rectangular

and dug about 0.5 m into the ground They are roofed with driftwood and sod and

likely entered through the roof The Chaluka site was occupied on and off

for thousands of years (2000 BC-AD 1000) Semi-subterranean dwellings lined with stone

slabs, whale bones and fire pits Aleutian tradition lasted into historic times

The Far NorthArctic Small Tool Tradition c. 2750-800 BC In the Paleo-Arctic times small groups

settled along the Alaskan Peninsula and to the south and east

By 2500 BC a new, highly distinctive tool tradition appears here called the Arctic Small Tool Tradition Small blades and bladelets pointed at both

ends, used as end or side barbs in antler or bone projectile points

Scrapers, gravers, burins, and adzed blades with polished working edges

Few organic artefacts have been found

Arctic Small Tool tradition artefacts

Top: Microblade and burin

Bottom: Projectile point and side blade

The Far NorthArctic Small Tool Tradition c. 2750-800 BC The origins of this tradition are unclear

Some suggest that they come form a reindeer and fishing culture across the straight as they have the same tools

This implies that they arrived in boats during the summer months

Also suggested that they introduced the bow and arrow, as this weapon is effective in hunting large terrestrial animals, but how far this technology spread is unclear

Only by AD 700 was it well established

The Far NorthArctic Small Tool Tradition c. 2750-800 BC Sites are found from the Brooks Range to the

Alaskan Peninsula and Kachemak Bay On the peninsula sites are along salmon streams On the coast they may have hunted sea mammals In Kachemak Bay some permanent, square (4 m),

semi- subterranean with a sloped entrance, a central hearth and sod-roofed structures were excavated

Most sites however are only small isolated lithic scatters (connected to hunting camps)

The Far NorthThe Eastern Arctic c. 2000 – 500 BC The first settlements of the eastern arctic

date to c. 2000 BC This is about the same time as the

appearance of the Small Tool Tradition of the west

Sites are found along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, among the Canadian Archipelago islands and into western Greenland

Why the movement into this region is a mystery

The Far NorthThe Eastern Arctic c. 2000 BC Once the sites appear in the region two

variants in tool forms from the ASTT appear The Independence in the High Arctic The Pre-Dorset in the Low Arctic

This difference may be the result of 2 early migrations The first to the north (Independence) The second, a different group that went further south

(Pre-Dorset) Or there may have been only one migration of

the Independence and out of this group the Pre-Dorset emerge

Or it is an environmental adaptation?

The Far NorthThe Independence I Stage 2500-500 BC Tools are similar to the ASTT but are slightly

larger Bone needles, projectile points, harpoon heads with

drilled holes for the line and burins were common Sites on the NE coast of Greenland are marked

with stone circles As many as 20 at one site but most are single Tents were likely made out of musk ox hides There are storage places made out of flagstones A central hearth is common

Likely a highly mobile group relying on the musk ox that needed to be well prepared for winter

The Far NorthThe Pre-Dorset 2500-500 BC These sites are located in the southern part of

the Eastern Arctic and are linked with the ASTT Early sites are located near Baffin Island and

northern Labrador This area has a diverse animal population

Caribou, musk ox, polar bear and other small animals were hunted with spears and bows

5 types of seals were hunted using breathing holes and on the ice, along with walrus

Char was fished using weirs, traps and barbed spears

The Far NorthThe Pre-Dorset 2500-500 BC After 1300 BC the population increased

west of the Hudson Bay Were highly migratory focusing on caribou

East of this area sea mammals were the important resource

The Saqqaq Complex (2500-300 BC) In Disko Bay on the western coast of Greenland

a wealth of material has been found Wooden artefacts, hafted shafts, ivory and

bone artefacts and human remains Slate microblades, heavy bifaces and

endscrapers The tools were crafted for particular functions

Pre-Dorset and Dorset Harpoon heads from 1700 BC to AD 1000

The Far NorthThe Eastern Arctic c. 2000 – 500 BC At many of these sites the true complexity

of the Arctic Small Tool Tradition is not revealed

Questions remain as to the relationships between the groups in the west and the east, but they all share common characteristics

Sites disappear throughout the east around 500 BC when climate decreases after the Altithermal

The Far NorthThe Sub-Arctic c. 5000 – Present As the ice retreated beginning around

15000 BP areas were open in the Sub Arctic Vegetation began to move in followed by the

animals and then people Two groups of people move into this

region in the Early and Mid Holocene The first from west of the Hudson Bay The second around the Great Lakes and spread

along the St Lawrence Valley and northward

The Far NorthThe Northern Archaic + 4000 – Present The Northern Archaic tradition appears

when the taiga belt begins to widen forcing the Paleo-Indian people living there to respond

Sites are found from Alaska to the southwest part of the NWT

They are distinguished from the Paleo-Arctic groups by their side-notched points, unifacial knives and endscrapers

These groups may be associated with the Athabaskans

The Far NorthThe Shield Archaic c. 5000 – Present These groups live in the forested region of

the sub arctic Sites on the shore of Great Slave lake date

to 5000 BC Caribou hunting was their primary activity

in the northern fringes In the south and west, deer, elk, moose

were the staple prey Both regions also fished and collected

shellfish where possible

The Far NorthThe Shield Archaic c. 5000 – Present In the central Keewatin region groups

camped along the rivers and lakes following the caribou

The tool is marked with lanceolate projectile points, discoidal biface knives and various scrapers

The Keewatin lanceolate point eventually developed into various stemmed forms as the projectile becomes smaller

The Far NorthThe Maritime Archaic ? 7000 – Present These sites are found along the Atlantic

coast from Maine to Labrador They likely subsided on coastal recourses

on a seasonal basis but relied on elk, moose, caribou and others in the winter

Some sites have longhouses They were engaged in long distance trade Port aux Choix, Newfoundland was a sea

mammal community from 2000-1000 BC Had more than 100 ocher adorned graves The deceased were dressed in hides with great

bead work, and had ivory and bone daggers

The Far NorthWhen the Europeans Arrive Groups living in the Maritime region and

other areas of the sub artic slowly evolved into the Native American groups living in the region when the Europeans arrived Beothucks of Newfoundland Innu of Quebec and Labrador Cree and Ojibwa of the Hudson Bay Lowlands Chipewyan west of the Hudson Bay Other Athabaskan speaking peoples of the

northwest