architecture expression

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the and technique of designing and , as distinguished from theskills associated with .

The practice of architecture is employed to fulfill both practical and expressiverequirements, and thus it serves both utilitarian and aesthetic ends.

Although these two ends may be distinguished, they cannot be separated, and therelative weight given to each can vary widely.

Because every societywhether highly developed or less so, settled or nomadichas aspatial relationship to the natural world and to other societies, the structures they

produce reveal much about their environment (including climate and weather), ,

ceremonies, and artistic sensibility, as well as many aspects of daily life.

The characteristics that distinguish a work of architecture from other man-madestructures are (1) the suitability of the work to use by in general and the

adaptability of it to particular human activities, (2) the stability and permanence of the

works construction, and (3) the communication of experience and ideas through

its . All these conditions must be met in architecture.

The second is a constant, while the first and third vary in relative importance accordingto the social function of buildings.

If the function is chiefly utilitarian, as in a , communication is of lessimportance.

If the function is chiefly expressive, as in a monumental tomb, utility is a minorconcern.

In some buildings, such as churches and city halls, utility and communication may be ofequal importance.

The present article treats primarily the forms, elements, methods, and theory ofarchitecture.

For the history of architecture in antiquity,see the sections on ancient and Romein ;as well as ;

; ;

; ;and

. For later historical and regional treatments of architecture, see
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; ; ; ;

; ; ; ;

;and . For a discussion of the place of architecture and

architectural theory in the realm of , see . For related forms of artistic expression, see ; ;and . The types of architecture are established not by architects but by society, according to

the needs of its different institutions.

Society sets the goals and assigns to the architect the job of finding the means ofachieving them.

This section of the article is concerned with architectural typology, with the role ofsociety in determining the kinds of architecture, and with planningthe role of the

architect in adapting designs to particular uses and to the general physical needs of

human beings.

Architecture is created only to fulfill the specifications of an individual or group. Economic law prevents architects from emulating their fellow artists in producing

works for which the demand is nonexistent or only potential.

So the types of architecture depend upon social formations and may be classifiedaccording to the role of the patron in the community.

The types that will be discussed heredomestic, religious, governmental, recreational,welfare and educational, and commercial and industrialrepresent the simplest

classification; a scientific typology of architecture would require a more detailed

analysis.

Domestic architecture is produced for the social unit: the individual, family, or clan andtheir dependents, human and animal.

It provides shelter and security for the basic physical functions of life and at times alsofor commercial, industrial, or agricultural activities that involve the family unit rather

than the community.
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The basic requirements of domestic architecture are simple: a place to sleep, preparefood, eat, and perhaps work; a place that has some light and is protected from the

weather.

A single room with sturdy walls and roof, a door, a window, and a hearth are thenecessities; all else is luxury.

In much of the world today, even where institutions have been in a continuous processof change, dwelling types of ancient or prehistoric origin are in use.

In the industrialized , for instance, barns are being built according toa employed in in the 1st millenniumBC.

The forces that produce a dynamic evolution of architectural style in communal buildingare usually inactive in the home and farm.

The life of the average person may be unaltered by the most fundamental changes in hisinstitutions.

He can be successively a slave, the subject of a monarchy, and a voting citizen, withouthaving the means or the desire to change his customs, techniques, or surroundings.

Economic pressure is the major factor that causes the average individual to restrict his

demands to a level far below that which the technology of his time is capable of

maintaining.

Frequently he builds new structures with old techniques because experiment andinnovation are more costly than repetition.

But in wealthy cultures economy permits and customs encourage architecture to provideconveniences such as sanitation, , and heating, as well as separate areas for

distinct functions, and these may come to be regarded as necessities.

The same causes tend to replace the conservatism of the home with the aspirations ofinstitutional architecture and to emphasize the expressive as well as the utilitarian

function.

As wealth and expressive functions increase, a special type of domestic building can bedistinguished that may be called .
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Group architecture may be power architecture as well, particularly when land valuesare too high to permit even the wealthy to build privately, as in the 17th-century

in Paris, where aristocratic mansions were designed uniformly around a

square, or in the 18th-century flats in English towns and spas.Although most domestic architecture of the 20th century employed the style and

techniques of the past, the exceptions are more numerous and more important for the

development of architecture than ever before.

This is because the distribution of wealth and power is widespread in parts of the worldwhere architecture is vital and because the modern state has assumed responsibility for

much high-quality housing.

The history of architecture is concerned more with religious buildings than with anyother type, because in most past cultures the universal and exalted appeal of religion

made the or the most expressive, the most permanent, and the most

influential building in any community.

The typology of is complex, because no basic requirements such asthose that characterize domestic architecture are common to all religions and because

the functions of any one religion involve many different kinds of activity, all of which

change with the evolution of cultural patterns.

Temples or churches serve as places of worship and as shelters for the images,

relics, and holy areas of the cult.

In the older religions, the temple was not always designed for communal use. In and it was considered the residence of the deity, and entrance

into the sanctum was prohibited or reserved for priests; in it contained an

accessible cult image, but services were held outside the main facade; and in the

ancient and in the and Aztec architecture of ancient Mexico, where

the temple was erected at the summit of pyramidal mounds, only privileged members of

the community were allowed to approach. Few existing religions are so exclusive.
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Beliefs as dissimilar as Christianity, Buddhism, Judaism, and Islm are based oncommunal participation in rites held inside the temple or church.

The buildings have even evolved into similar plans, because of a common requirementthat the maximum number of worshippers be able to face the focal point of the service(the point is the wall facing the direction of Mecca, the city of

Muammads birth andtherefore the most sacred of all Islmic religious sites).

Consequently, the Muslims were able to adopt the Byzantine church tradition, modern

synagogues are often scarcely distinguishable from churches, and early Protestantism

absorbed Catholic architecture with only minor revision (elimination of subsidiary

chapels and altars, repositories of relics, and some symbolic decoration).

Shelter is not always required for worship. Primitive rites are often practiced outdoors with

some monument as a focus, while the altar of and the (Augustan

)in Rome are evidences of the open-air religious observances of the classical world.

The of early Christian architecture and the were isolated areas for prayer.

The complex programs of later religions made the place of worship the focus for varied

activities demanding architectural solutions; for example, the , , and

chapter houses of Christian architecture, the minarets of the Muslims, and the holy gates of

Buddhism. Most modern sects demand space for adjoining the community

church or temple. Catholicism and the religions of have produced monasteries, convents,and abbeysconnected to places of worshipthat accommodate the organized practice of

religion, adding domestic and often industrial, agricultural, and scholarly functions to the

religious.

Shrines consecrate a for its miraculous character or

for its association with the life of the founder, gods, or saints of a cult. Since the importance of

such structures is usually proportionate to the antiquity of their tradition and associations

with cult origins, they have had little importance in later architectural history. The major
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needs differ according to the nature of the relationship between the governing and the

governed. Where governmental functions are centralized in the hands of a single individual,

they are simple and may be exercised in the rulers residence; where the functions are shared by

many and established as specialized activities, they become complex and demand distinctstructures. There are, however, no basic formal solutions for , since

the practical needs of government may be met in any sheltered area that has convenient space

for deliberation and administration. A distinct type is created rather by expressive functions

arising from the ideology of the different systems of political organization (monarchy,

theocracy, democracy, etc.) and from the traditions of the various offices of government(

, assembly houses, city halls, etc.). Governments that exercise power by force rather than

by consent tend to employ the expressive functions of architecture to emphasize their power;

they tend to produce buildings of a monumentality disproportionate to their service to the

community. Those in which the ruler is given divine attributes bring into

architecture. Democratic governments have the responsibility of expressing in their architecture

the aims of the community itself, a difficult task in the modern world, when the community

may be neither small enough to express itself easily nor homogeneous enough to agree on how to

do so.

The simple democratic processes of the Greek city-states and the medieval free towns produced

governmental architecture on a domestic scale, while the and later monarchiesseldom made important distinctions between the palace and the seat of state functions. The

widespread growth of representative government and the increase in the size and functions of

the state in the 19th century created a great variety of buildings, some for entirely new uses.

Some examples are: first, capitols, courthouses, parliament buildings, printing offices, and

mints and, later, post offices, embassies, archives, secretariats, and even laboratories, when the

work, the increased personnel, and the complexity of mechanical aids demanded specialized

architectural solutions. Bureaucracy, for better or for worse, has made governmental

architecture more important than at any time in history.

In the first rapid expansion from about 1780 to 1840, Neoclassical architects found impressive

solutions to the new problems, but afterward governmental architecture lapsed into a century

of conservatism, following at a safe distance behind private building. After ,

governmental architecture showed new vitality. Outstanding are Le Corbusiers work at
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in the 19th century, when the size of library collections and the number of visitors inspired

some of the finest architecture of the modern period (Michael Gottlieb Bindesblls

Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen; Sir Robert Smirkes in London; Henri

Labroustes Bibliothque Sainte-Genevive in Paris; Alvar Aaltos library in Viipuri, Finland;Frank Lloyd Wrights Solomon R. in ).

ARCHITECTURE OF WELFARE AND EDUCATION

The principal institutions of public welfare are those that provide facilities for education,

health, public security, and utilities. Some of these functions are performed by the church and

the state, but, since their character is not essentially religious or political, they may require

independent architectural solutions, particularly in urban environments. A consistent typology

of this architecture, however, cannot be established throughout history, because the acceptance

of responsibility for the welfare of the community differs in degree in every social system.

Buildings for the specific purposes of public welfare were seldom considered necessary in

antiquity, in most of Eastern architecture, or in the early Middle Ages. But in ancient Greece

health facilities were included in precincts of Asclepius, the god of healing, and in the East

within Buddhist precincts. The Romans produced a highly developed system of

and sewerage, of which their monumental aqueducts are an impressive survival.

In the later Middle Ages consistent forms began to emerge. With the separation of the

university from a purely religious context, a concept of planning developed (particularly atOxford, Cambridge, and Paris) that still influences educational architecture. designed

as large halls were established as adjuncts to churches, convents, and monasteries (Htel-Dieu,

Beaune, France) and gained architectural independence in the Renaissance (Ospedale degli

Innocenti, Florence). Ancient and medieval and guardhouses were occasionally isolated

from (e.g., Tower of London; Bargello in Florence), but the prison did not

become an important architectural type until the late 18th and 19th centuries (e.g., George

Dances Newgate Prison, London; Henry Hobson Richardsons Allegheny County Jail,

Pittsburgh).

The expansion of education and health facilities beginning in the 19th century created a

widespread and consistently growing need for specialized architectural solutions. Schools, from

the nursery to the university, now demand not only particular solutions at all levels but

structures for a variety of purposes within each level; advanced education demands buildings
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The choice of materials is conditioned by their own ability to withstand the environment as

well as by properties that make them useful to human beings. One of the architects jobs is to

find a successful solution to both conditions; to balance the physical and economic advantages

of wood against the possibility of fire, termites, and mold, the weather resistance of glassand against their high , and many similar conflicts. The more

violent natural manifestations, such as heavy snow loads, earthquakes, high winds, and

tornadoes, are controlled by special technical devices in regions where they are prevalent.

Any number of these controls may be out of reach of the planner for various reasons. The urban

environment, for example, restricts freedom of and design of architectural forms and

creates new control problems of its own: smoke, dirt, noise, and odours.

The control of the environment through the design of the plan and the outer shell of a buildingcannot be complete, since extremes of heat and cold, light, and sounds penetrate into the

interior, where they can be further modified by the planning of spaces and by special

conditioning devices.

Temperature, light and sound are all subject to control by the size and shape of interior spaces,

the way in which the spaces are connected, and the materials employed for floors, walls,

ceilings, and furnishings. Hot air may be retained or released by the adjustment of ceiling

heights and sources of ventilation. Light reflects in relation to the colour and texture of

surfaces and may be reduced by dark, rough walls and increased by light, smooth ones. Sounds

are transmitted by some materials and absorbed by others and may be controlled by the form of

interiors and by the use of structural or applied materials that by their density, thickness, and

texture amplify or restrict sound waves.

Conditioning devices played only a small part in architecture before the introduction of

mechanical and in the 19th century. The fireplace was almost the only

method of (though the ancient Romans anticipated the modern water

system for ); fuel lamps and candles had to be movable and were rather in thesphere of furnishings than of architecture; the same is true of the tapestries and hangings used

for acoustical purposes and to block drafts.

Today, heating, insulation, air conditioning, lighting, and acoustical methods have become

basic parts of the architectural program. These defenses and comforts of industrialization
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control the environment so efficiently that the contemporary architect is free to use or to

discard many of the traditional approaches to site and interior planning.

PLANNING FOR USE

While environmental planning produces comfort for the senses (sight, feeling, hearing) andreflexes (respiration), planning for use or function is concerned with convenience of movement

and rest. All activities that demand architectural attention require unique planning solutions

to facilitate them. These solutions are found by differentiating spaces for distinct functions, by

providing circulation among these spaces, and by designing them to facilitate the actions of

the .

The number of functions requiring distinct kinds of space within a building depends not only

upon the type of building but also upon the requirements of the culture and the habits and

activities of the individual patrons. A primitive has a single room with a hearth area, and

a modern one has separate areas for cooking, eating, sleeping, washing, storage, and recreation.

A with a single hall is sufficient for Quaker religious services, while a Roman

Catholic may require a , aisles, , , chapels, , ,

and .

The planning of differentiated spaces involves as a guide to their design (placement, size, shape,

environmental conditions, sequence, etc.) the analysis of use (number of uses and character,duration, time of day, frequency, variability, etc., of each), users (number, behaviour, age, sex,

physical condition, etc.), and furniture or equipment required.

Communication among differentiated spaces and between the exterior and the interior may be

achieved by openings alone in the simplest plans, but most buildings require distinct spaces

allotted to horizontal and vertical circulation (corridors, lobbies, stairs, ramps, elevators, etc.).

These are designed by the procedure of analysis employed for differentiating uses. Since their

function is usually limited to simplifying the movement of persons and things toward a

particular goal, their efficiency depends on making the goal evident and the movement direct

and easy to execute.
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The importance of interior features and finishes to the character of the building should not beoverlooked. In relatively simple rooms, the primary visual aspects may be in features such as

fireplace mantels, lighting fixtures or wooden floors. In some rooms, the absolute plainness isthe character-defining aspect of the interior. So-called secondary spaces also may be importantin their own way, from the standpoint of history or because of the family activities thatoccurred in those rooms. Such secondary spaces, while perhaps historically significant, are notusually perceived as important to the visual character of the building. Thus we do not takethem into account in the visual understanding of the building.

The of a building can be an important aspect ofits overall visual character. The building illustratedhere, for example, has a distinctive horizontal boxlikeshape with the middle portion of the box projecting upan extra story.This building has other visual aspects that help defineits overall character, including the pattern of verticalbands of windows, the decorative horizontal bandswhich separate the base of the building from the upper

floors, the dark brown color of the brick, the largearched entranceway, and the castle-like tower behind the building.

The illustrated here dominates the visualcharacter of this building because of its size, shape,location, materials, and craftsmanship. Because of itsrelation to the generous staircase, this opening places astrong emphasis on the principal entry to the building.Enclosing this arcade-like entry with glass, for example,would materially and visually change the character of the

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This building has a number of character-defining aspects whichinclude the windows and the decorative stonework, but certainlythe roof and its related features are visually important to itsoverall visual character. The is not only highly visible, it haselaborate stone dormers, and it also has decorative metalwork andslatework. The red and black slates of differing sizes and shapesare laid in patterns that extend around the roof of this large and

freestanding building. Any changes to this patterned slatework,or to the other roofing details would damage the visual characterof the building.

On this building, the most important visual aspectsof its character are the

, such as the dormers and chimneys. Theroof is important to the visual character because itssteepness makes it highly visible, and its

prominence is reinforced by the patterned tinwork,the six dormers and the two chimneys. Changes to

the roof or its features, such as removal oralterations to the dormers, for example, wouldcertainly change the character of this building. This

does not discount the importance of its other aspects, such as the porch, the windows, thebrickwork, or its setting; but the roof is clearly crucial to understanding the overall visualcharacter of this building as seen from a distance.


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Even architecturally modest buildings frequently willhave a that contributes to their overallcharacter. In this very urban district, setbacks are theexception, so that the small front yard is something ofa luxury, and it is important to the overall characterbecause of its design and materials, which include theiron fence along the sidewalk, the curved walkleading to the porch, and the various plantings. In adistrict where parking spaces are in great demand,such front yards are sometimes converted to off-street

parking, but in this instance, that would essentiallydestroy its setting and would drastically change the visual character of this historic property.

At arm's length, the visual character is most oftendetermined by the surface qualities of the andcraftsmanship; and while these aspects are ofteninextricably related, the original choice of materials often

plays the dominant role in establishing the close rangecharacter because of the color, texture, or shape of thematerials.

In this instance, the variety and arrangement of the materials is important in defining thevisual character, starting with the large pieces of broken stone which form the projecting basefor the building walls, then changing to a wall of roughly rectangular stones which vary insize, color, and texture, all with accentuated, projecting beads of mortar, then there is a rather

precise and narrow band of cut and dressed stones with minimal mortar joints, and finally, themain building walls are composed of bricks, rather uniform in color, with fairly generousmortar joints. It is the juxtaposition and variety of these materials (and of course, thecraftsmanship) that is very important to the visual character. Changing the raised mortar

joints, for example, would drastically alter the character at arm's length.


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different colors. While such decorative materials and finishes may be important in defining theinterior visual character of this particular building, it should be remembered that in much moremodest buildings, the plainness of may be an essential aspect oftheir historic character.

If features of the are exposed,such as loadbearing brick walls, cast iron columns,roof trusses, posts and beams, vigas, or stone

foundation walls, they may be important in

defining the building's interior visual character.

Some aspects of a building's visual character are

This is true of brickwork, for example, which can be irreversiblydamaged with inappropriate cleaning techniques or by insensitiverepointing practices. At least two factors are important contributors to thevisual character of brickwork, namely the brick itself and thecraftsmanship. Between these, there are many more aspects worth noting,such as color range of bricks, size and shape variations, texture, bonding

patterns, together with the many variable qualities of the mortar joints,such as color, width of joint and tooling.

These qualities could be easily damaged by painting the brick, by raking outthe joint with power tools, or repointing with a joint that is too wide. As seen here during the

process of repointing, the visual character of this front wall is being dramatically changed froma wall where the bricks predominate, to a wall that is visually dominated by the mortar joints.


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Using this three-step approach, it is possible to conduct a walk through and identify all thoseelements and features that help define the visual character of the building. In most cases, thereare a number of aspects about the exterior and interior that are important to the character ofan historic building. The visual emphasis of this brief will make it possible to ascertain thosethings that should be preserved because their loss or alteration would diminish or destroyaspects of the historic character whether on the outside, or on the inside of the building.

This checklist can be taken to the building and used to identify those aspects that give thebuilding and setting its essential visual qualities and character. This checklist consists of aseries of questions that are designed to help in identifying those things that contribute to abuilding's character. The use of this checklist involves the threestep process of looking for: 1)

the overall visual aspects, 2) the visual character at close range, and 3) the visual character ofinterior spaces, features and finishes.

Because this is a process to identify architectural character, it does not address those intangiblequalities that give a property or building or its contents its historic significance, instead thischecklist is organized on the assumption that historic significance is embodied in those tangibleaspects that include the building's setting, its form and fabric.

What is there about the form or shape of the building that gives the building its identity? Isthe shape distinctive in relation to the neighboring buildings? Is it simply a low, squat box, oris it a tall, narrow building with a corner tower? Is the shape highly consistent with itsneighbors? Is the shape so complicated because of wings, or ells, or differences in height, thatits complexity is important to its character? Conversely, is the shape so simple or plain thatadding a feature like a porch would change that character? Does the shape convey its historic

function as in smoke stacks or silos?

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Does the roof shape or its steep (or shallow) slope contribute to the building's character? Doesthe fact that the roof is highly visible (or not visible at all) contribute to the architecturalidentity of the building? Are certain roof features important to the profile of the building

against the sky or its background, such as cupolas, multiple chimneys, dormers, cresting, orweather vanes? Are the roofing materials or their colors or their patterns (such as patternedslates) more noticeable than the shape or slope of the roof?

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Is there a rhythm or pattern to the arrangement of windows or other openings in the walls; likethe rhythm of windows in a factory building, or a threepart window in the front bay of ahouse; or is there a noticeable relationship between the width of the window openings and thewall space between the window openings? Are there distinctive openings, like a large archedentranceway, or decorative window lintels that accentuate the importance the windowopenings, or unusually shaped windows, or patterned window sash, like small panes of glass in

the windows or doors, that are important to the character? Is the plainness of the windowopenings such that adding shutters or gingerbread trim would radically change its character? Isthere a hierarchy of facades that make the front windows more important than the sidewindows? What about those walls where the absence of windows establishes its owncharacter?

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Are there parts of the building that are characterdefining because they project from the walls ofthe building like porches, cornices, bay windows, or balconies? Are there turrets, or widelyoverhanging eaves, projecting pediments or chimneys?

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Does the trim around the windows or doors contribute to the character of the building? Is there

other trim on the walls or around the projections that, because of its decoration or color orpatterning contributes to the character of the building? Are there secondary features such asshutters, decorative gables, railings, or exterior wall panels?

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Do the materials or combination of materials contribute to the overall character of the buildingas seen from a distance because of their color or patterning, such as broken faced stone,scalloped wall shingling, rounded rock foundation walls, boards and battens, or texturedstucco?

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What are the aspects of the setting that are important to the visual character? For example, isthe alignment of buildings along a city street and their relationship to the sidewalk theessential aspect of its setting? Or, conversely, is the essential character dependent upon the tree

plantings and out buildings which surround the farmhouse? Is the front yard important to thesetting of the modest house? Is the specific site important to the setting such as being on ahilltop, along a river, or, is the building placed on the site in such a way to enhance its setting?Is there a special relationship to the adjoining streets and other buildings? Is there a view? Isthere fencing, planting, terracing, walkways or any other landscape aspects that contribute tothe setting?

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Are there one or more materials that have an inherent texture that contributes to the close

range character, such as stucco, exposed aggregate concrete, or brick textured with verticalgrooves? Or materials with inherent colors such as smooth orange colored brick with dark spotsof iron pyrites, or prominently veined stone, or green serpentine stone? Are there combinationsof materials, used in juxtaposition, such as several different kinds of stone, combinations ofstone and brick, dressed stones for window lintels used in conjunction with rough stones forthe wall? Has the choice of materials or the combinations of materials contributed to thecharacter?

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Is there high quality brickwork with narrow mortar joints? Is there hand tooled or patternedstonework? Do the walls exhibit carefully struck vertical mortar joints and recessed horizontal

joints? Is the wall shinglework laid up in patterns or does it retain evidence of the circular sawmarks or can the grain of the wood be seen through the semitransparent stain? Are there handsplit or handdressed clapboards, or machine smooth beveled siding, or wood rusticated to looklike stone, or Art Deco zigzag designs executed in stucco?

Almost any evidence of craft details, whether handmade or machinemade, will contribute to thecharacter of a building because it is a manifestation of the materials, of the times in which thework was done, and of the tools and processes that were used. It further reflects the effects oftime, of maintenance (and/or neglect) that the building has received over the years. All of theseaspects are a part of the surface qualities that are seen only at close range.

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Are there individual rooms or spaces that are important to this building because of their size,height, proportion, configuration, or function, like the center hallway in a house, or the banklobby, or the school auditorium, or the ballroom in a hotel, or a courtroom in a countycourthouse?

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Are there adjoining rooms that are visually and physically related with large doorways or openarchways so that they are perceived as related rooms as opposed to separate rooms? Is there an


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important sequence of spaces that are related to each other, such as the sequence from the entryway to the lobby to the stairway and to the upper balcony as in a theatre; or the sequence in aresidence from the entry vestibule to the hallway to the front parlor, and on through the slidingdoors to the back parlor; or the sequence in an office building from the entry vestibule to thelobby to the bank of elevators?

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Are there interior features that help define the character of the building, such as fireplacemantels, stairways and balustrades, arched openings, interior shutters, inglenooks, cornices,ceiling medallions, light fixtures, balconies, doors, windows, hardware, wainscoting, panelling,trim, church pews, courtroom bars, teller cages, waiting room benches?

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Are there surface finishes and materials that can affect the design, the color or the texture ofthe interior? Are there materials and finishes or craft practices that contribute to the interiorcharacter, such as wooden parquet floors, checkerboard marble floors, pressed metal ceilings,

fine hardwoods, grained doors or marbleized surfaces, or polychrome painted surfaces, or

stenciling, or wallpaper that is important to the historic character? Are there surface finishesand materials that, because of their plainness, are imparting the essential character of theinterior such as hard or bright, shiny wall surfaces of plaster or glass or metal?


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architecture expression

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