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    ARC 110

    History of Architecture I

    Module 3

    Architecture of the Ancient Near East

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    Module Outline

    Lecture 6 Historical Background

    Location and period

    Social characteristics and beliefs

    Architecture of the Civilization

    Sumerian Architecture

    Lecture 7 Assyrian architecture

    Babylonian Architecture

    Persian architecture

    Lecture 8 Architectural Characteristics

    Buildings and other architectural elements

    Building materials, construction and technologies

    Architectural Organizing principles

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    Learning Outcomes

    We should expect to learn the following about

    the civilization Evolution of early human society and

    civilization, including kingship and empires

    Architectural responses to geography and

    the need for religious symbols

    Architecture of Power and Authority Temple and Palace architecture

    Architecture and construction in mud

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    Module 3 Lecture 6

    Architecture of the Ancient Near East

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    Outline of Lecture

    Lecture 6

    Historical Background Location and period

    Social characteristics and beliefs

    Architecture of the Civilization

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Historical Background

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    Historical Background

    Location Located in and around

    the valley of Tigris and

    Euphrates rivers inmodern Iraq

    Area is also known as

    Mesopotamia or landbetween two rivers

    The land had poorly

    defined edges The land stretches from

    Mediterranean to eastern

    borders of present Iran

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    Historical Background

    Location To the south and west, it

    fades into the Arabian desert To the north and west, it fades

    into the plains of Syria

    The Tigris and Euphratesrivers sit in the land asdominant physical feature

    The Rivers wereunpredictable, being subjectto alternating flood anddrought

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    Historical Background

    Period The area witnessed the earliest rise of human civilization

    around 4500 BC

    Transformation from prehistory, to villages and citiesoccurred there

    Civilization there lasted for 5000 years

    Cultural development was not homogenous during theperiod

    Different cultures established city states and empires atdifferent periods

    The cultures include Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian,

    Babylonian, and Persian

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    Historical Background

    Period It has not been possible to trace a neat order ofthe history of the cultures

    An acceptable order is presented Sequence of Civilization

    4500 to 2000 BC Sumerian culture, peaking in3300 BC

    2350 2200 BC Akkadian Period

    2000- 1600 BC Babylonian Culture

    1600 1717 BC Kessites and Hittites 1350 612 BC Assyrian Culture

    612 539 BC Neo Babylonian culture

    539 330 BC Persian culture

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    Historical Background

    Social Characteristics & Beliefs Mesopotamia is the cradle of civilization

    What do we mean by civilization?

    Civilization is usually associated with the culturalpractices of cities and urban living, the presence ofwriting and written law

    In Mesopotamia, earliest cities were establishedand urban culture took hold

    Between 4000 and 3000 BC, large number ofpeople began living in a small area creating firstcities

    Many people began to have jobs that isunrelated to agriculture

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    Historical Background

    Social Characteristics & Beliefs Once established, cities grew and increased power and

    importance

    As cities grew in power and importance, rivalriesdeveloped between them for military and economiccontrol

    The ANE was land without natural defenses Warfare was common throughout its history

    The Tigris and Euphrates also suffered from alternate

    drought and floods Combination of warfare and frequent drought and flood

    made a continuous homogenous civilization impossible

    The result is that several cultures flourished and diedout during the ANE period

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    Historical Background

    Social Characteristics & Beliefs Cities in the ANE initially developed withauthority residing in an assembly of male

    citizens Short term leaders were selected during wars

    When war leaders were retained during peace

    time, kingship evolved It was initially elective and later hereditary

    As some cities became more powerful, theydefeated weaker ones to create empires andkingdoms

    This led to collective rule of city states by asovereign king

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    Historical Background

    Social Characteristics & Beliefs With kingship also came monumental palaces

    as place of residence and administration for

    the king

    Almost all ANE culture worshiped many gods

    and goddesses ANE people did not believe in immortality or

    eternal life

    They believed only gods were immortal

    Rather, they believed in divine rewards for

    moral conduct

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    Historical Background

    Social Characteristics & Beliefs This reflected the agrarian nature of their

    society

    As ANE people came together to live in cities,they needed a means of communication andrecord keeping

    Around 3500, the Sumerians invented a systemof writing based on pictograph

    This was later developed into a simpler writingcalled the cuneiform

    Development of written language enabled them

    to produce historical records

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    Historical Background

    Social Characteristics & Beliefs Written records also led to the development

    of written law as in the code of King

    Hummurabi Cities in ancient Mesopotamia were enclosed

    by wall fortifications

    The fabric of the cities are a blend ofresidential, commercial and industrialbuildings

    Houses were one story high and mostly ofmud brick

    Rooms were arranged around courtyards

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    Historical Background

    Social Characteristics & Beliefs Houses looked inward

    Rooms were narrow with thick walls and flat,

    vault or dome roofs Timber and stone were scarce, clay was

    abundant and mud brick was most common

    building material Buildings were usually raised on platforms to

    protect them from the floods

    Clay was also used for pottery

    Mesopotamians invented astrology, wheeled

    vehicle & made advances in science & math

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    Architecture of the Civilization

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    Architecture of the Civilization

    Sequence of Treatment

    Sumerian Architecture Assyrian Architecture

    Babylonian Architecture

    Persian Architecture

    S i A hi

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Introduction The transition from prehistory

    was made around 4500 BC

    with the rise of the Sumeriancivilization

    Sumerians established an

    irrigation system that made thecapable of food production to

    support urban living

    They were also skilled in metalcraft

    The Sumerians invented the

    cuneiform system of writing

    S i A hit t

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Introduction The Sumerians invented the

    cuneiform system of writing

    The major cities of theSumerian civilization wereKish, Uruk and Ur

    The Sumerian were the firstcivilization to make aconscious attempt ofdesigning public buildings

    Mud was their buildingmaterial

    Mud was formed into brick,sun dried and built into

    massive walls

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Introduction Mud was their main building material

    Mud was formed into brick, sun dried and builtinto massive walls

    Walls were thick to compensate the weakness ofmud

    They were reinforce with buttresses

    Spaces were narrow because of the walling

    material

    S

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Introduction Spaces were narrow because of the walling

    material

    Faade of buildings were whitewashed andpainted to disguise the lack of attraction of the

    material Buttresses and recesses also relieve the

    monotony of the plastered wall surfaces

    Temples was their major building type

    We will examine Sumerian house organization

    and their temple forms

    S i A hit t

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Introduction The clearest example of

    the cities of the ancient

    Near East is found in theSumerian city of Ur

    Cities were enclosed in

    walls with Ziggurattemples and palace ascenters of the city

    Fabric of the city is madeup of residences mixedwith commercial andindustrial buildings

    S i A hit t

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Introduction The houses are densely

    packed with narrow

    streets between them.

    Streets were fronted by

    courtyard houses of one

    story high

    The houses streets were

    usually punctuated by

    narrow openings thatserve as entrance to

    houses

    S i A hit t

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Architectural Monument- Temples

    Temples were the principal architectural

    monuments of Sumerian cities Temples consist of chief and city temples

    We will examine two examples of chieftemples- the white temple at Uruk and the

    Great Ziggurat at Ur

    And we will examine on city temple, the

    Oval temple at Khafaje

    S i A hit t

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    Sumerian Architecture

    White Temple Uruk Uruk was a major Sumerian

    city by 3300 BC

    Uruk is also known as warka

    in arabic

    The name Iraq is derived

    from Uruk

    The city covered an area of 2

    square kilometer

    Had a population of 40,000

    people

    White temple was located at

    Uruk

    S i A hit t

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    Sumerian Architecture

    White Temple Uruk The white temple was built

    around 3000 BC

    The white temple is an

    example of earliest

    development of Sumerian

    temples and Ziggurat

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    White Temple Uruk The temple is place on agreat mound of earth calledZiggurat, rising more than

    12 meters above ground The ziggurat and temple are

    built with mud bricks

    The temple is rectangular inshape

    Temple walls were thick andsupported by buttresses

    In the inner part of thetemple was a longsanctuary, that contains an

    alter and offering table

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    White Temple Uruk Rooms oblong and in

    shape and vaulted

    surrounded the long side ofthe sanctuary

    The temple had imposing

    doorways located at its

    either end

    Worshippers to the temple

    however enter through a

    side room

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    White Temple Uruk Series of staircases and

    stepped levels lead

    worships to the entrance ofthe temple

    The temple was plastered

    white externally, making it

    visible for miles in the

    landscape

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Great Ziggurat Ur Ur was a Sumerian city

    located near the mouth of

    the Euphrates river The city was a thriving

    place by 2600 BC

    It was considered sacred toNnanna, the moon god

    The white temple was builtaround 2113 to 2048 BC by

    the ruler Urnammu

    It was built on the ruins ofprevious temples and

    incorporated their remains

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Great Ziggurat Ur It was constructed of mud

    bricks reinforced with thin

    layers of matting and cablesof twisted reeds

    The Great Ziggurat waslocated as part of a temple

    complex The complex comprised ofthe ziggurat and its courtand a secondary court

    attached to it called thecourt of Nannar

    The king was the chiefpriest of the temple and

    lived close to it

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Great Ziggurat Ur The temple sits on a three

    multi-tiered Ziggurat

    mountain

    Access to the temple is

    through triple stairways that

    converge at the summit ofthe first platform

    From this stage, one

    passed through a portal

    with dome roof to fourth

    staircase

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Great Ziggurat Ur The fourth staircase gave

    access to the second and

    third stages of the zigguratand to the temple

    The temple is usually

    access only by the priest,where gods are believed to

    come down and give

    instructions

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Great Ziggurat Ur The ziggurat is believed by

    the Sumerians to unit the

    heavens and the earth The people believed that

    climbing the staircase of theziggurat gives a holyexperience

    The chief temple was alsoused as a last line of

    defense during times of war Most of what is known

    about what exist on top of

    the ziggurat is projection

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Oval Temple- Khafaje Oval temple is an example

    of second type of Sumerian

    temples

    It was constructed around

    2600 BC

    The temple is named ovalbecause of its massive oval

    walls surrounding the temple

    Located in the city,emphasis in its organization

    is on enclosing space within

    courtyards

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Oval Temple Khafaje Space is enclosed to create

    island of peace from a busy

    city

    The temple is raised on a

    simple platform enclosed

    within the oval walls

    It had subsidiary chambers

    at the ground level

    The outer wall was extended

    to protect a priestly

    residence with its own chapel

    Sumerian Architecture

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    Sumerian Architecture

    Oval Temple Khafaje The inner court had an

    offering table and showed

    evidence of animal sacrifices

    The inner court also had

    basins for ablution as well as

    workshops and storagerooms

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    End of Module 3 Lecture 6

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    Module 3 Lecture 6Architecture of the Ancient Near East

    O f

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    Outline of Lecture 7

    Assyrian architecture Introduction

    City of Khorsabad

    Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad

    Babylonian Architecture Introduction

    City of Babylon

    Architecture in the city of Babylon

    Persian architecture Introduction

    Palace at Parsepolis

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    Assyrian Architecture

    Assyrian Architecture

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    Assyrian Architecture

    Introduction Assyria is the name for a part

    of ancient Mesopotamia

    located on the upper Tigris The principal cities of Assyria

    were Nineveh, Dun,Khorsabad, Nimrud and Assur

    The Assyrians were greatwarriors and hunters, and thiswas reflected in their art

    They produced violentsculptures and relief carving instone that was used to

    ornament their houses

    Assyrian Architecture

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    y

    Introduction During the Assyrian periods,temples lost their importance topalaces

    Assyrian kings built walled cities,in which palaces took precedentover religious buildings

    Palaces were raised on brickplatforms, and their principalentrance ways were flanked byguardian figures of humanheaded bulls or lions of stone

    Their halls and corridors werelined with pictures andinscriptions carved in relief on

    stone slabs up to 9 feet high

    Assyrian Architecture

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    y

    Introduction The interiors were richlydecorated and luxurious.

    The walls of cities wereusually strengthened bymany towers serving asdefensive positions

    The city of Khorsabaddemonstrate the might andauthority of the Assyrian

    kings It is also at this place that the

    remains of Assyrianarchitecture can be found

    Assyrian Architecture

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    y

    City of Khorsabad Khorsabad was designed as

    the royal capital of Assyria

    The city was built on a flat landwith an area of about a squaremile and was enclosed by adouble wall with seven citygates

    Only a part of the city includingpalaces, temples and

    administrative headquarterswas built

    The palace was located on the

    north west side of the city

    Assyrian Architecture

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    y

    Palace of Sargon The palace is approached at

    ground level through a

    walled citadel Within the citadel is found

    the main palace, two minor

    palaces and a templededicated to Nabu

    The main palace was set ona platform located on thenorthern side of the citadel

    All the buildings within thecitadel were arranged

    around courtyards

    Assyrian Architecture

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    Palace of Sargon The palace was arranged

    around two major

    courtyards about whichwere grouped smaller

    courtyards

    The palace consisted oflarge and smaller rooms

    with the throne room being

    the largest The building was decorated

    with relief sculpture and

    glazed brick

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    Babylonian Architecture

    Babylonian Architecture

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    Introduction After the fall of Nineveh in

    612 BC and the end of the

    Assyrian civilization, focusof Mesopotamian civilization

    shifted to old Babylon

    A new dynasty of kings,including Nebuchadnezzar,

    revived old Babylonian

    culture to create a Neo-Babylonian civilization

    Old Sumerian cities were

    rebuilt

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    Babylonian Architecture

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    City of Babylon The city of Babylon is

    shaped in the form of aquadrangle sittingacross and pierced bythe Euphrates[64]

    The city wassurrounded by afortification of double

    walls These had defensive

    towers that project wellabove the walls

    Babylonian Architecture

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    City of Babylon The walls also had a

    large moat in front, which

    was also used fornavigation

    The length of the wall andmoat is about five and aquarter miles

    The city had a palace,Nebuchadnezzars

    palace, located on itsnorthern side on the outerwall

    Babylonian Architecture

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    Ishtar Gate From the palace originated a

    procession street that cutsthrough the city raised abovethe ground to the tower ofBabel

    The procession street enters

    the city through the famousIshtar gate

    The Ishtar gate is built acrossthe double walls of the city

    fortification The gate had a pair of

    projecting towers on each

    wall

    Babylonian Architecture

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    Ishtar Gate All the facades of gates

    and adjoining streetswere faced with blueglazed bricks andornamented with figuresof heraldic animals- lions,bulls, and dragons

    These were modeled inrelief and glazed in othercolors

    None of the buildings ofold Babylon has survivedto the present age

    Babylonian Architecture

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    Architecture in the city of Babylon Nebuchadnezzars palacecovered a land area of 900 feetby 600 feet

    It had administrative offices,barracks, the kings harem,private apartment all arranged

    around five courtyards The palace is also praised for its

    legendary hanging garden

    This is recorded as one of theseven wonders of the ancientworld, but exact knowledge ofthe nature of this garden is notknown

    Babylonian Architecture

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    Architecture in the city of Babylon Temples and towers werealso prominentarchitectural elements of

    Babylon The legendary tower of

    Babel located at the end ofprocession street is

    mentioned in the Christianbible

    There is also no

    information about thedesign and construction ofthe tower

    Most of what is available

    on the tower is hypothetical

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    Persian Architecture

    Persian Architecture

    Introduction

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    Introduction The Persian empire started in about 560 BC when

    Cyrus the great from the province of Fars swept overthe region with his powerful cavalry

    By the end of the century, Cyrus and his successors,Darius 1 and Xerxes had conquered the entire civilizedworld from Indus to Danube River with the exception ofGreece

    It was the wish of the Persians to construct greatbuildings

    They were to achieve greatness with their architecturalsolutions

    The architectural solutions were a synthesis of ideasgathered from almost all parts of their empire and from

    the Greeks an Egyptians

    Persian Architecture

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    Introduction Their materials of construction was also from

    different locations

    Material included mud-brick from Babylon,

    wooden roof beams from Lebanon, precious

    material from India and Egypt, Stone columnsquarried and carved by Ionic Greeks

    Despite sourcing materials and ideas fromdifferent areas, their architecture was original

    and distinctive in style

    Persian Architecture

    Palace at Perspolis

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    Palace at Perspolis Persian architecture achieved

    its greatest monumentality atParsepolis

    It was constructed as a newcapital for the Persian Empire

    The city was started 510 BCand finished in 460 BC

    It is set along the face of amountain leveled to create alarge platform 1800 feet by 900

    feet It was surrounded by a

    fortification wall

    The site was more than halfcovered by buildings

    Persian Architecture

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    Palace at Perspolis The palace consisted of

    three parts:

    An approach ofmonumental staircases,gate ways and avenues

    Two great state hallstowards the center of theplatform

    The palace of Xerxes, theharem, and other livingquarters at the south endof the site

    Persian Architecture

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    Palace at Perspolis Structurally, the buildings

    relied on a hypostylescheme throughout

    They used it to achievespaces of varying scale

    Some of the spaces werevery big and generallysquare in plan

    The spaces were enclosed

    by mud brick walls The most impressive aspect

    of the palace was the royalaudience hall

    Persian Architecture

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    Palace at Perspolis The Royal audience hall was a

    square 250 feet in length

    It contained 36 slender columns

    widely space & 67 feet high The columns had a lower diameter

    of only 5 feet

    The centers of the columns werespaced 20 feet or 4 diameters apart

    The column was the greatestinvention of the Persians

    The columns were fluted and standon inverted bell shaped bases

    Their capital combine Greek motifswith Egyptian palm leaf topped byan impost of paired beast

    Persian Architecture

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    Palace at Perspolis Another famous aspect of thepalace at parsepolis was thethrone room

    This was also known as hallof a 100 columns

    The columns in the roomwere 37 feet high, with a

    diameter of only 3 feet They were spaced 20 feet

    apart or seven diametersfrom axis to axis

    The slim nature of the columncreated room and spaciousfeeling in the room when

    compared to the audiencehall

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    Assyrian Architecture

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    Palace at Perspolis The relief structure

    addresses different

    themes relating to therole of Parsepolis as

    the capital of the

    Persian Empire

    Assyrian Architecture

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    Palace at Perspolis In some places, the

    sculpture shows delegates

    from the different parts ofthe Persian bringing giftsand rare animals to theking during celebrations

    In some places, royalguards and nobles of theimperial court are shown

    Elsewhere, the king is seenin conflict with animals orseated beneath aceremonial umbrella

    Assyrian Architecture

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    Palace at Perspolis The ruins of Parsepolishave survived to thepresent day

    Existing ruins howevergive a faulty expressionof the citys original

    appearance Some columns

    supporting the halls of thegreat halls have survived

    The mud brick fabric ofthe palace and itsenclosing walls haveperished completely

    Assyrian Architecture

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    Palace at Perspolis Only the sculptures

    which adorndoorways or windows

    and openings and the

    relief ornamenting itsentrance way remain

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    End of Module 3 Lecture 7

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    Module 3 Lecture 8

    Architecture of the Ancient Near East

    Outline of Lecture

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    Lecture 8

    Architectural Characteristics Buildings and other architectural elements

    Building materials, construction and

    technologies Architectural Organizing principles

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    Architectural Characteristics

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    Buildings & Other ArchElements

    Buildings & Other Arch. ElementsBuilding Types

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    g y 3 building types examined in ANE; Cities and

    houses, temples and palaces

    Temples and palaces were the mostoutstanding buildings types in ANE

    Significant development in house organization

    and city fortification was also witnessed In Sumerian civilization, development in house

    organization led to the evolution of the inward

    looking courtyard house Houses formed the dominant buildings of the

    city with narrow passages to distribute people

    Buildings & Other Arch. ElementsBuilding Types

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    g yp

    Across all the civilizations, cities were usually

    walled

    The walls were of massive brick material, with

    evenly distributed towers serving as buttresses.

    Examples of city wall or fortification examined

    include City of Khorsabad and Babylon

    The chiefs house at precinct of the GreatZiggurat and the Palace at Parsepolis were

    also fortified with brick walls.

    Buildings & Other Arch. ElementsTemples and Palaces

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    p

    Importance of temples and palaces variedduring the different periods of the ANE

    Temples started during the Sumerian periodand were also common during the Babylonianperiod.

    The Sumerian temples were raised onZiggurats, while the character of the Babyloniantemples is not certain because there is no trace

    of them The Sumerian temples had chief temples

    located outside the city and the city temple

    located within the fabric of the city

    Buildings & Other Arch. ElementsTemples and Palaces

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    p

    Neo-Babylonians also built great palaces. The

    legendary palace of Nebuchadnezzar with its

    hanging garden is widely reported in history

    Temple building declined during the Assyrian

    period, when palaces took over as theprominent building type

    The Palaces at Khorsabad and Parsepolisshows the rise of the palace as the focus of

    architectural development over the temple

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    Materials, Const. & Tech.

    Materials, Construction & Tech.

    Materials

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    Stone and timber suitable for building was rare

    in the plains of the Tigris and Euphrates.

    Clay was however in abundance

    This was compressed in moulds and dried in

    the sun to provide bricks for all buildings

    Sun dried brick became the standard building

    material It was used across all the cultures of the

    ancient Near East

    Materials, Construction & Tech.

    Materials

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    Wood was scarce but was imported fromLebanon

    Wood was probably applied mainly for roofingor for producing tools and ornaments

    Stone was used by the Assyrians but only for

    relieve carving and for columnar support

    It was in ancient Persia that extensive use ofstone witnessed

    The Babylonians introduce glazed brick, whichwas used in the faade of their gates and

    prominent buildings

    Materials, Construction & Tech.

    Construction

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    The abundance of mud brick led to thedevelopment of construction methods

    appropriate to its physical properties. Structurally Mud brick is weak when compared

    to stone

    To compensate, walls were very thick andreinforced with buttresses.

    This construction system is evident in the

    Sumerian temples.

    Vaulting was known and used during theMesopotamian period

    Materials, Construction & Tech.Construction

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    Rooms were usually roofed with domes orvaults.

    Tunnel vaults were used to cover long narrowoblong spaces.

    Columnar construction was not very popular inthe ANE

    It was used in few instances in the late Assyrianand Neo-babylonian periods.

    It was however extensively used by the Persians Persian architecture, was an architecture that

    borrowed from other cultures in the region,

    including Egypt and Greek sources

    Materials, Construction & Tech.

    Technology

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    Two technologies appear to have beencommonly used in the Ancient Near East;passive cooling and water supply.

    The evolution of courtyard in Mesopotamia wasprobably a product of its desert environmentand the need for climate modification.

    Courtyards were used for cooling to createlivable environments in houses

    The thick walls of houses may also have servedas a thermal storage

    They help to mitigate against the wide

    fluctuations of temperature

    Materials, Construction & Tech.

    Technology

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    People of the ancient Near East also masteredthe earth of water supply

    Channels were used to move water and supplyit to agricultural fields and houses.

    Ancient Babylon was said to have an aqueductthat supplied water to the city.

    The hanging garden in Nebuchadnezzarspalace would also be impossible without ameans of transporting water from the ground tothe garden

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    Principles of Arch.Organization

    Principles of Arch. OrganizationPrinciples

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    Three principles appear to predominant in

    the organization of architectural form andspace

    Courtyard organization

    Lifting of buildings on artificial mountains

    Organic organization of city fabric

    Forces Shaping Arch. Organ.Forces

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    Three forces account for the prevailing

    architectural organizing principlesobserved Geography,

    Symbolism and meaning to the people Social factors

    Combination of the factors account for the

    architectural forms that are witnessed in

    all the cultures of the ANE

    Forces Shaping Arch. Organ.Geography

    A strong factor in shaping spatial organization

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    A strong factor in shaping spatial organizationand built form

    Limited the availability of construction materialand constrained the development ofconstruction technology

    Desert environment also meant t hash climatic

    conditions which lead to the evolution of thecourtyard form of building

    Prevalence of mud bricks coupled with the use

    of courtyard fixed the form of buildings as aregional solution.

    Most buildings- whether house or palace, were

    of one story multi-courtyard form

    Forces Shaping Arch. Organ.Symbolism and Meaning

    Organizing principles may also be a factor of

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    Organizing principles may also be a factor ofsymbolisms and meaning

    The role of symbolism is evident in the Ziggurat

    Sumerians think of ziggurat as a ladder to thesky and to god

    They believed that God came down to theZiggurat to communicating with the chief priest

    Climbing the ziggurat is also associated with a

    holy experience. Symbolic meaning of ziggurat provides

    motivation for the construction of larger and

    more impressive mountains

    Forces Shaping Arch. Organ.Symbolism and Meaning

    Palaces also symbolize power and authority

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    Palaces also symbolize power and authority

    In Assyria, architecture expressed the authority

    and power of the king The palace at Khorsabad also shows the decline

    in the symbolic importance of the temple

    compared to the palace of the king, which is thecenter of authority.

    At Parsepolis, the palace also expresses the

    authority and power of the emperor of thePersian empire

    This power is evident in the ability tocommandeer resources from as far as Egypt andLebanon to create a unique palace

    Forces Shaping Arch. Organ.Social Concerns

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    Social concerns contributed to the evolution of

    design principles There was need for defense due to warfare

    Led to construction of wall fortifications for cities Also to ziggurat as a place of refuge from attack

    Concerns for privacy Courtyard house may have evolved because of

    privacy needs

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    End of Module 3