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    Te Florida State University

    DigiNole Commons

    Electronic eses, Treatises and Dissertations e Graduate School

    7-31-2006

    Architecture Pedagogy: Psychological, Social, andOther Emergent Issues in the Design Studio

    Anubhuti Bhatia TakurFlorida State University

    Follow this and additional works at: hp://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd

    is Dissertation - O pen Access is brought to you for free and open access by the e Graduate School at DigiNole Commons. It has been accepted for

    inclusion in Electronic eses, Treatises and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigiNole Commons. For more information, please contact

    [email protected].

    Recommended Citationakur, Anubhuti Bhatia, "Architecture Pedagogy: Psychological, Social, and Other Emergent Issues in the Design Studio" (2006).Electronic eses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 1607.

    http://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/?utm_source=diginole.lib.fsu.edu%2Fetd%2F1607&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPageshttp://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd?utm_source=diginole.lib.fsu.edu%2Fetd%2F1607&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPageshttp://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/tgs?utm_source=diginole.lib.fsu.edu%2Fetd%2F1607&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPageshttp://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd?utm_source=diginole.lib.fsu.edu%2Fetd%2F1607&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPagesmailto:[email protected]:[email protected]://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd?utm_source=diginole.lib.fsu.edu%2Fetd%2F1607&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPageshttp://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/tgs?utm_source=diginole.lib.fsu.edu%2Fetd%2F1607&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPageshttp://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd?utm_source=diginole.lib.fsu.edu%2Fetd%2F1607&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPageshttp://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/?utm_source=diginole.lib.fsu.edu%2Fetd%2F1607&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
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    THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

    COLLEGE OF VISUAL ARTS, THEATRE AND DANCE

    ARCHITECTURE PEDAGOGY: PSYCHOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, ANDOTHER EMERGENT ISSUES IN THE DESIGN STUDIO

    By

    ANUBHUTI BHATIA

    A Dissertation submitted to theDepartment of Art Education

    in partial fulfillment of therequirements for the degree of

    Doctor of Philosophy

    Degree Awarded:Fall Semester, 2006

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    ii

    The members of the Committee approve the Dissertation of Anubhuti Bhatiadefended on 31 July, 2006.

    ___________________________Tom AndersonProfessor Directing Dissertation

    ___________________________Lois HawkesOutside Committee Member

    ___________________________Lisa WaxmanCommittee Member

    ___________________________Marcia RosalCommittee Member

    ___________________________Pat VilleneuveCommittee Member

    ___________________________Sande MiltonCommittee Member

    Approved:

    __________________________________________Marcia Rosal, Chair, Department of Art Education

    _____________________________________________________Sally McRorie, Dean, College of Visual Arts, Theatre and Dance

    The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above namedcommittee members.

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    iii

    This dissertation is dedicated to my father Mr. Omprakash Bhatia and my motherVanita Bhatia, for their inspiration; and to my husband Vikram Thakur for

    believing in me at every step of the way. Thank you for standing beside me.

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    iv

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSMy success, not only in this project but in everything I have academically

    achieved so far will be incomplete without acknowledging the contribution of several

    people who have been the key figures in defining where and who I am. I would like to

    thank my committee chair, Dr. Tom Anderson for having been there to listen and

    provide advice, and most importantly for instilling confidence in my abilities whenever

    any doubts arose. He has been a mentor not only for my academic development, but

    also with respect to the person I am today. Thanks Dr. Anderson for being the family

    that I have missed having near me for the past several years.

    I would also like to take this opportunity to thank other members of my

    committee Dr. Marcia Rosal, Dr. Pat Villeneuve, Dr. Lisa Waxman, and Dr. Sande

    Milton, and Dr. Lois Hawkes for their continued support and advice on various matters

    and for providing me the scholarly insight that has been instrumental in my work on this

    project. Special thanks to Dr. Waxman who has been my guide since my masters study

    at the department of interior design. Lisa was always there to listen not only as a

    guide on academic matters but also as a friend on personal matters.

    I wish to extend my sincere thanks to the faculty at participating schools for their

    support during the study. Thanks to all the participants and students of the fourth year

    studio for bearing my presence during their classes and giving me their precious time.

    I am where I am because of my husband Vikram Thakur who has been there

    beside me providing his invaluable support at every step of the way. He has read drafts

    of my papers and provided important inputs, despite his complete unfamiliarity with the

    material. Of course, I dont know what I would have done if he had not retrieved all mywork every time the computer betrayed me and if he had not provided all the technical

    support. My sister, Pratiti Bhatia deserves a special mention for the number of times

    she has accompanied me on trips to the library and spent hours photocopying articles.

    There is a special position that my parents; my father Mr. Omprakash Bhatia and

    my mother Mrs. Vanita Bhatia; hold in my life for all the guidance and support, but more

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    v

    importantly for their faith in me even past geographical, cultural, and linguisticboundaries. Thanks for instilling in me the ability to set my objectives and strive to

    achieve them. Last but not the least my sincere regards to my parents-in-law;

    Commodore Vinod Thakur and Mrs. Kanchan Thakur; for their continued moral support

    through the most stressful times in this process.

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    vi

    TABLE OF CONTENTS

    List of Tables .................................................................................... ixList of Figures .................................................................................... xi

    Abstract .......................................................................................... xiii

    1. Introduction .................................................................................... 1

    Statement of the Problem .............................................................. 2Research Question ........................................................................ 3Supporting Questions ..................................................................... 3Significance of the Study ................................................................ 4Scope of the Study ......................................................................... 5Research Design ............................................................................ 6

    Assumptions and Limitations ......................................................... 7Definition of Terms ......................................................................... 8Summary .................................................................................... 11

    2. Review of Literature .......................................................................... 12

    Introduction .................................................................................... 12Function in Architecture ................................................................. 13Psychological Concerns in Architecture ......................................... 15Society and Culture ........................................................................ 21

    Architecture Education ................................................................... 27Summary .................................................................................... 34

    3. Methodology .................................................................................... 37

    Introduction .................................................................................... 37Research Questions ....................................................................... 37

    Research Strategy ......................................................................... 38Theoretical Foundations of the Methodology ................................. 39Research Design ............................................................................ 45Summary .................................................................................... 55

    4. Presenting the Data: Description, Immersion and Thematics ........... 57

    Introduction .................................................................................... 57

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    University and School Background Information ............................. 58Faculty Profiles ............................................................................... 61Introducing Student Participants .................................................... 62Design Studio Projects ................................................................... 64The Design Studio Environment .................................................... 69Themes from Data Coding ............................................................. 73Summary .................................................................................... 122

    5. Interpretation and Inferences ............................................................ 124

    Introduction ................................................................................... 124Data Interpretation and Inferences for Supporting Question #1 ..... 125Data Interpretation and Inferences for Supporting Question #2 ..... 128Data Interpretation and Inferences for Supporting Question #3 ..... 140Data Interpretation and Inferences for Supporting Question #4 ..... 150

    Answering the Research Question ................................................. 156Synthesis of Findings ..................................................................... 160Implications for Architecture Education .......................................... 164The Researcher in Context ............................................................ 166Limitations of this Research ........................................................... 167Recommendations for Future Research ........................................ 169

    APPENDICES .................................................................................... 171

    A Internal Review Board Approval Letter ..................................... 171B Consent Form for Student Participants ..................................... 172C Interview Protocol for Professors .............................................. 173D Interview Protocol for Focus Group Interviews ......................... 174E Observation Field Notes from School A .................................... 175F Observation Field Notes from School B .................................... 180G Second Set of Observation Field Notes from School B ............ 189H Interview Transcripts for Professor Karen at School A ............. 199I Interview Transcripts for Professor Roger at School B ............. 206J Interview Transcripts for Focus Group Interview at School A ... 215

    K Interview Transcripts for Focus Group Interview at School B ... 243L Results from Pilot Study ........................................................... 264M Sample for Color Coding of Data .............................................. 265N Sample for Color Association of Themes ................................. 266O Sample for Entering Descriptors for Themes and Categories .. 267P Sample of Frequency Calculation for Themes and Categories 268Q Programmatic Requirements Handout at School B .................. 269

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    viii

    REFERENCES .................................................................................... 270

    BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .................................................................... 279

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    Table 4.15: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding ProfessionalPractice ............................................................................... 101

    Table 4.16: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding BudgetaryConcerns ............................................................................. 102

    Table 4.17: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding Culture of theProfession ........................................................................... 104

    Table 4.18: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding OtherProfessional Concerns ........................................................ 105

    Table 4.19: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding OtherDesigners Work ................................................................. 107

    Table 4.20: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding TechnicalAspects ............................................................................... 111

    Table 4.21: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding PersonalBackground ......................................................................... 114

    Table 4.22: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding StudentsExperiences in Spaces ....................................................... 115

    Table 4.23: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding Site Context .... 117

    Table 4.24: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding Studio Culture . 121

    Table 4.25: Frequency Chart for Comments Regarding PresentationTechniques and Graphics ................................................... 122

    Table 5.1: Percentage Distribution ofStudents and Facultys Responsesfor the 14 Themes ................................................................. 157

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    LIST OF FIGURES

    Figure 4.1: Summers Model of the Tai Chi Pavilion ............................. 65

    Figure 4.2: Summers Model Placed in the Class Site Model ............... 66

    Figure 4.3: Luthers Model of the River Walk ........................................ 68

    Figure 4.4: Students Personalize their Space with PersonalMemorablia ......................................................................... 71

    Figure 4.5: Exterior View of the Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain .. 108

    Figure 4.6: Students Catch a Nap after Burning Mid-night Oil Workingon Their Projects .................................................................. 120

    Figure 5.1: Percentage Distribution of Student Responses toPsychological Concerns ....................................................... 131

    Figure 5.2: Percentage Distribution of Students Responses in FocusGroup Interviews and Critiques for Psychological

    Concerns .............................................................................. 133

    Figure 5.3: Percentage Distribution of Student Responses to SocialConcerns ............................................................................. 136

    Figure 5.4: Percentage Distribution of Students Responses in FocusGroup Interviews and Critiques for Social Concerns ............ 137

    Figure 5.5: Percentage Distribution of Student Responses for the 14Themes ................................................................................ 139

    Figure 5.6: Percentage Distribution of Faculty Responses toPsychological Concerns ....................................................... 141

    Figure 5.7: Percentage Distribution of Facultys Responses inInterviews and Critiques for Psychological Concerns .......... 142

    Figure 5.8: Percentage Distribution of Faculty Responses to SocialConcerns ............................................................................. 145

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    xii

    Figure 5.9: Percentage Distribution of Facultys Responses inInterviews and Critiques for Social Concerns ...................... 146

    Figure 5.10: Percentage Distribution of Student Responses for the 14Themes ................................................................................ 149

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    ABSTRACT

    This study was aimed at understanding the perceptions of students and faculty

    at two National Architecture Accreditation Board accredited architecture programs

    regarding the social and psychological considerations in architectural design. A

    comprehensive review of literature in the field revealed a strong need for integrating

    these concerns in the architecture curriculum to enhance students sensitivity toward

    human issues thereby resulting in design of environments more conducive to the

    society and people. In that context I attempted to identify the position of two accredited

    architecture schools on psychological and social concerns in architecture as well as

    students and facultys interpretations of the schools foci. The study was qualitative in

    nature and included techniques of observations, individual interviews and focus group

    interviews. I observed students presentations of their design projects, and faculty and

    visiting architects critiques of these projects. I also interviewed the professor teaching

    the fourth year design studio at each school. Students from the fourth year design

    studio also participated in a focus group interview at each school.

    The data from observations and interviews was coded to identify themes related

    to the concerns expressed by students and faculty. Fourteen themes emerged and

    some themes were divided into categories during subsequent stages of data coding. An

    analysis of the responses toward each theme with reference to the emphasis on

    psychological and social aspects led to inferences for the four supporting questions and

    the research question for the study.

    Both schools selected for the study indicated that their curriculum is structured

    around creative and technical aspects of architecture while peripheralizing

    psychological and social concerns. However, faculty and students showed sensitivity

    toward these issues and various facets associated with them in the discussions of their

    projects. Additional questions were raised and attempts were made to postulate

    probable reasons for the attitudes that emerged.

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    CHAPTER 1

    INTRODUCTION

    The architectural student should be educated, skillful with a pencil,

    instructed in geometry, well educated in history, have followed

    philosophers with attention, understand music, have some knowledge of

    medicine, know opinions of jurists, and be acquainted with astronomy and

    the theory of the heavens. (Vitruvius, 1960)

    Vitruviuss list of expectations desired of an architectural student included

    technical, graphic and multidisciplinary knowledge. Through his writings,

    Vitruvius established the position of the architect as the designer of the whole

    civilization (Kay, 1975). Kay (1975) mentioned that architecture and interior

    design are fields that influence occupants of designed spaces as well as the

    society to which they belong, and these considerations should be added to the

    list of qualifications required in architecture. More recent literature (Gifford, 2002;

    Nicol & Pilling, 2000; Rapoport, 1987) on architecture and architecture education

    includes considerations like knowledge of societal beliefs, customs, psychology,

    and interaction of human beings with the built environment.

    Fitch (1972) defined architecture as an instrument whose central function

    is to intervene in mans [sic] favor (p. 9). He elaborated that architecture has the

    ability to satisfy several biological, social, cultural, and psychological needs of the

    people it serves. The size, form, elements, and interiors of buildings have an

    immense effect on our emotional responses (Holgate, 1992). The idea that

    architecture has psychological and social dimensions, and thus that architecture

    pedagogy should too, has formed the basic premise of this study.

    As an architect and interior designer, I have been concerned, through my

    education and professional experience, about the influence of the built

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    environment on occupants of the spaces we design. How the built environment

    influences our psyche is a topic of extensive research. Scholars emphasized that

    there is no aspect of the human psyche and lifestyle that is not influenced by

    various elements of the built environment (Evans, Lepore & Schroeder, 1996;

    Gifford, 2002; Hemphill, 1996). We are living in an age of controlled

    environments. Most people only spend as much time in the natural environment

    as required from the door of their office or home to the car. The remaining time

    they are in a built environment. It becomes essential, then, to identify and assess

    the concepts that are emphasized as part of the education of designers of the

    built environment in order to ensure that the structures they design are

    appropriate with respect to the needs of the people who will occupy them.

    The aim of this study is to identify the perceptions of students and faculty

    at selected architecture schools about concepts related to psychological and

    social issues in architectural design. As stated by Jarrett (2000), [The]

    Architects role in society, is working not to make the object per se the building

    but in cultivating a sense of place and belonging a work of life (p. 61). I

    wish to identify whether this role of the architect is acknowledged and nurtured in

    architecture schools.

    Statement of the Problem

    An extensive review of literature on architecture and architecture

    pedagogy indicated the need for instituting a strong emphasis on psychological

    and social issues pertaining to design (Gifford, 2002, Nicol & Pilling, 2000, Rudd,

    1989). Based on my experiences in architecture and interior design pedagogy

    and practice, I was able to identify and understand the need for addressing

    human aspects of architecture, which was further reinforced by the literature I

    read. In that context, this study examined two architecture programs accredited

    by the National Architecture Accreditation Board (NAAB) to identify their

    approach to and incorporation of psychological and social issues. The guiding

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    questions in this research stem from the issues emphasized by literature as

    important to architecture education.

    Research Question

    The primary research question which is the central focus of this study is:

    What are the perceptions of students and faculty in selected National

    Architecture Accreditation Board accredited architecture programs regarding the

    psychological and social concerns related to architectural design as they are

    being taught by the program?

    Supporting Questions

    To answer the primary research question certain supporting questions

    must be answered. These questions were formatted based on the insights

    derived from the synthesis of a comprehensive literature review and include:

    1. How does the faculty of two programs in Southeastern United States

    present each schools position on psychological and social aspects of

    architecture that are the central focus of this study?

    2. What are students perceptions of the psychological and social concerns

    related to architectural design?

    3. What are facultys perceptions of the psychological and social concerns

    related to architectural design?

    4. How do selected students and faculty in two selected programs in

    Southeastern United States interpret the schools position on

    psychological and social aspects in architecture as suggested by faculty

    members?

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    Significance of the Study

    Rosenman and Gero (1998) defined the design process as a purposeful

    human cognitive activity (p. 162) that is based on proposed required behaviors

    which the design must exhibit and meet. As stated earlier, architectural design

    influences a large part of human life in several ways. It seems essential

    therefore, to incorporate concerns related to human behavior and psychology as

    well as society and culture in design decisions (Escherick, 1984; Gifford, 2002;

    Honikman, 1975; Jarrett, 2000; Nicol & Pilling, 2000). The concerns that have led

    to this study may be summarized in the following statements by Bandini (1997):

    An architectural lack of empathy beyond the formal and an architects

    difficulty in sharing the dreams of others (architects so often believe

    themselves to be the only ones who can change the world!) has done so

    much damage to the social profile of that sort of architect who, in spite of

    all the evidence coming from the real world, still appears to believe that

    the true mission of architecture is only to formalize human inhabiting. Such

    an attitude is common in the teaching of design which is increasingly

    distancing itself from a problem-solving activity anchored into reality. (p.

    428)

    Portillo and Dohr (1993) conducted a study to identify color-planning

    criteria used by interior designers and the categories that took precedence over

    all others were compositional criteria (manipulating spaces and form for unity or

    emphasis) followed by symbolic criteria (expressing design concepts). Both these

    criteria are largely based on the designers aesthetic and design concepts.

    Behavioral criteria (addressing activity needs) were placed after the criteria

    related essentially with the designers ideas and concepts. Kaupinnen (1989)

    mentioned that the architects thought processes during the design process and

    their perception of buildings can be very different from and may even conflict with

    the way the public views them. If the central role of the architect is to build human

    culture (Kay, 1975; Bandini, 1997), provide a value to the social structure by

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    responding to social needs (Escherick, 1984; Honikman, 1975; Nicol & Pilling,

    2000), and design spaces to cultivate a sense of belonging for human beings

    (Gifford, 2002; Jarrett, 2000), the functional as well as psychological needs of

    people and society ought to be the central concerns in the conceptualization and

    development of designs. If architecture schools are to further psychological and

    social ends, it is essential that schools reinforce the role of architects as

    designers of human society and culture. This study attempted to identify the

    philosophy and practice of selected schools related to psychological and social

    issues in architectural design, as a first step toward making the field overtly

    cognizant of the issue.

    Scope of the Study

    The major focus of this study is the examination of issues that are

    emphasized as central to the design process with an eye to psychological and

    social concerns of design. The study explored attitudes of students and faculty

    toward issues that influence concept development and design decisions. More

    specifically, the research focused on the evaluation of students and professors

    attitudes toward psychological and social issues, and whether these concepts

    are addressed during the design process in the schools examined.

    The study is qualitative in nature. The first step was the selection of two

    schools from the list of accredited programs available on the National

    Architecture Accreditation Board (NAAB) website. Data collection for the

    research took place at the two selected sites. Observation of design activities,

    focus-group interviews with students and individual interviews with faculty were

    the key forms of data collection at the selected schools. Observations were

    recorded in field notes. Open-ended questions in semi-structured interviews were

    formatted to provide the ability to add, delete, or modify questions as required

    during the interview in order to effectively capture attitudes, opinions, and

    emotions as desired for the study (Merriam, 1998).

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    I, as the researcher, was the primary data collector in the study. Due to

    the subjective nature of qualitative research, my own responses to the data at

    hand, experiences during the process of data collection, and sensibility and

    sensitivity as a researcher as well as an architect guided data collection and

    analysis (Eisner, 1998; Merriam, 1998). I went back to my experiences in

    education and practice, and associated my observations with these recollections

    in relation to collecting, assessing, encoding, and evaluating the data to draw

    conclusions and raise further questions.

    Research Design

    The proposed study was aimed at evaluating the concerns addressed and

    emphasized by architecture programs with an eye to human issues. The central

    concerns were psychological and social concerns in architectural design, and the

    attitudes of professors and students toward the importance of these facets of

    design development. The data collection and analysis for the proposed study

    may be described as follows:

    1. Selection of two NAAB accredited schools as a convenience sample from

    the list provided by NAAB on their website. In consideration of the fact that

    data collection may require repeated visits to the selected schools, the

    attempt was to identify schools within close vicinity (within 2-5 hours

    driving distance) to Tallahassee, Florida where I lived. Both selected

    schools were therefore located in Southeastern United States.

    2. Interviews with faculty teaching the fourth year design studio at the two

    selected schools. The faculty interview was a means for understanding the

    position of the school on psychological and social issues of design as well

    as the facultys personal perspective about the issues. The information

    provided by the faculty about the projects students were working on and

    their expectations of student projects proved vital for the subsequent

    stages in this research. These interviews were tape recorded and later

    transcribed.

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    3. Observation of design studio activities, students presentations and jury

    critiques at the two selected schools. These observations were recorded

    in the form of field notes and memos. I also used visual documentation in

    the form of sketches of the environment and setting.

    4. Focus group interviews with students in the fourth year of the

    undergraduate program. After observing student critiques, I invited six

    students at each school to participate in the focus groups for

    approximately 90 minutes. The interviews were tape recorded and later

    transcribed.

    Assumptions and Limitations

    Since the study primarily relied on data collected through observations

    and interviews, the main assumption was that participants activities as recorded

    by the researcher are a true representation of their attitudes, and that they

    answered my questions truthfully and to the best of their ability (Rossman &

    Rallis, 2002). The influence of the researchers opinions during data collection

    and analysis may be seen as a limitation, but the sensibility and perception that

    my opinions bring to the study may prove to be the strength of the study (Eisner,

    1998). Eisner argued that complete objectivity in procedure may eliminate any

    scope of personal judgment in description and assessment of the situation. The

    introduction of individual subjectivities provided a variety of paradigms. Although

    emotions, experiences and subjectivities are considered antithetical to research,

    the subjective world cannot be separated from the objective logic postulated by

    the field of study. Eisner suggested a transactive approach as a juxtaposition of

    subjective and objective theories to provide richness to studies of social

    phenomenon.

    In qualitative research such as this, generalizability is not the central aim

    of the study (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003), but the results of the study may have

    implications for other schools accredited by the NAAB and for assessment,

    evaluation, and restructuring or development of similar programs in spite of the

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    fact that findings will be non-generalizable. The findings of the study may be

    used to further research in the field and also to provide a framework for bodies

    like the NAAB to identify the needs for architecture programs.

    Definition of Terms

    Aesthetics: A study of concepts related to the conception and appreciation of

    beauty, and to the notion of taste and pleasure (Ziff, 2000).

    Built Environment: Spaces/structures designed and constructed by people.

    Case-based Instruction: Ertmer and Russell (1995) defined case-based

    instruction as a teaching method which encourages active participation by

    students in real or hypothetical problem situations, followed by reflection and

    discussion on the experiences encountered in the field under study. Akin (2002)

    defined this method as the dissemination and acquisition of requisite knowledge

    in a domain principally through the systematic examination of cases encoded in a

    case base (p. 415).

    Community Architecture: A movement in architectural and urban design that

    favors the inclusion of the people who will occupy or use the space in the

    creation and management of the environment (Wates & Knevitt, 1987).

    Conceptualization/Concept Development: The process of developing a design

    concept.

    Crowding: Crowding refers to a personally defined subjective feeling arising from

    an experience of other people in the space (Gifford, 2002).

    Design Concept: The theoretical concept that forms the basis of architectural

    design. The American Heritage Dictionary (2002) defines conceptas a general

    idea, a thought or notion, a scheme or a plan. The design concept is an abstract

    idea that will guide the development of the proposed design. Akin (2002) defined

    the term conceptual variablesas the schemata that provide the underlying order

    and structure for an aspect on an architectural design (p. 410).

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    Design Development/Design Process: The process of design starting with the

    development of the concept behind the proposed design (conceptual

    development) and culminating in the proposed design for the space/structure.

    Environmental Perception: Environmental perception includes gathering of

    information about the environment as well as the means of assessing the

    environment (Gifford, 2002).

    Environmental Psychology: The study of people and their interaction with their

    physical surroundings. These studies include theory, research and practice

    aimed at making buildings more humane and improving our relationship with the

    natural environment (Gifford, 2002, p. 1).

    NAAB Accredited Programs: The National Architecture Accreditation Board is the

    sole agency in the United States authorized to accredit professional architecture

    degree programs. The accreditation process is meant to ensure that all

    architecture programs substantially meet the standards that comprise an

    appropriate education for future architects. The requirements listed by the NAAB

    for all graduates include: competence in a range of intellectual, technical, spatial,

    and interpersonal skills; understanding of historical, socio-cultural, and

    environmental contexts; ability to solve design problems in architecture while

    integrating technical as well as health and safety requirements; and

    comprehension of the role of the architect and the responsibilities associated with

    this role (NAAB, 2005)

    Personal Space: The distance between individuals and their relative orientation

    when they interact (Gifford, 2002).

    Psychological Concerns: The American Heritage Dictionary (2002) defines

    psychologicalas influencing or intended to influence the mind or emotions.

    Psychological concerns in architecture may include concerns related to the way

    the environment affects the occupants psyche, emotional reactions, and

    behavior in the designed space. These concepts are largely based on the

    apparent interaction of occupants with the environment/space. Aesthetics of

    architecture is the primary aspect studied with reference to psychological

    implications of built environment.

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    Social Concerns: For the purpose of this study, social concerns may be defined

    as concerns related to the social structure, culture, and traditions specific to the

    society where the space/structure being designed is located. This factor also

    includes the interaction between individuals in a space. These concerns may be

    addressed at a macro or a micro level depending on the project. For example,

    while designing a corporate office cultural considerations may include the culture

    of the community in which the office is located, or the culture of the corporation

    for which the office is designed.

    Socio-cultural Concerns: This term will be used in this study as an extension of

    social concerns to encompass the culture, traditions, beliefs, and lifestyle of the

    particular society. Culture-specific design is defined as one that responds to and

    supports the specific cultural characteristics of various user groups. (Rapoport,

    1987, p. 10).

    Social Design: An approach to design that involves research on the way physical

    settings can optimally serve human desires and requirements (Gifford, 2002).

    Sommer (1983) defined social design as a process that involves people in the

    planning and management of their spaces, educating them about the optimal use

    of their environment, inculcating a sense of responsibility among people, and to

    generate an understanding of the effects of the physical environment on human

    psychology.

    Studio Critiques: Studio or jury critiques include student presentations of design

    projects and critique by a panel. The panel may comprise of professors teaching

    the studio, other professors in the program and invited professionals. Students

    present their designs and the concepts that led to the development of the design.

    Members of the panel as well as other students ask questions and present their

    opinions about various aspects of the design. The procedures, structure and

    guidelines for these critiques vary with professors and programs.

    Territoriality: Gifford (2002) defined territoriality as a pattern of behavior and

    attitudes held by an individual or group that is based on perceived, attempted, or

    actual control of a definable physical space, object, or idea that may involve

    habitual occupation, defense, personalization, and marking of it (p. 150).

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    Summary

    The central focus of this study was to understand the perceptions of

    students and faculty at selected NAAB certified architecture programs about

    psychological and social concerns related to architectural design. In this chapter I

    discussed the concepts and ideas that led to this research and that formed the

    foundation for the path that it takes. I have outlined the purpose and scope of the

    study, the primary and secondary research questions, the assumptions and

    limitations, and briefly the research design.

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    CHAPTER 2

    REVIEW OF LITERATURE

    Introduction

    Pruitt-Igoe was a housing project designed with the intention of replacing

    deteriorating living spaces in inner-city housing (Gifford, 2002). The project

    boasted a design that wasted no space, included features that were resistant to

    vandalism, and was individualistic. The design however was not analyzed with

    respect to human behavior and contributed to feelings of fear, vandalism,

    vacancy and increased crime. The complex was demolished by the city of St.

    Louis 18 years after its opening. Gifford mentioned that Pruitt-Igoe may be the

    most dramatic example of the failure of building design. In the case of Pruitt-Igoe,

    its failure as a living space may be attributed to the fact that architects view

    buildings differently from occupants, and did not take sufficient account of the

    psychological and social issues involved in actually living there during the design

    (Brown & Yates, 2000; Deasy, 1974; Gifford, 2002; Kaupinnen, 1989).

    Architecture can provide immense value to the social structure if it

    responds to social needs and if architecture education incorporates a theoretical

    understanding of the way people impart meaning to their physical environments

    (Honikman, 1975). Literature on architecture emphasizes the need for

    architecture to encompass social and cultural issues in addition to function and

    aesthetics (Findeli, 2001; Kosidowski, 1996; Gommel, 1995). Scholars have

    extensively emphasized the need for inclusion of behavioral and psychological

    implications of physical settings (Gifford, 2002; Honikman, 1975; Rambow and

    Bromme, 1995; Rudd, 1985; Rudd, 1989).

    This review of literature will explore research on the views, opinions,

    suggestions, and recommendations of various scholars for architecture practice

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    and pedagogy. This chapter is divided into four major sections based on the

    issues that are central to this study: functional, psychological, and socio-cultural

    concerns in architecture. The discussion of functional issues will stem from

    functionalist and post functionalist philosophies (Eisenman, 1976/1996; Holgate,

    1992; Norberg-Schulz, 1998; Tschumi, 1977/1996a). The philosophy that guides

    this study is pragmatism (Anderson, 2003; Dewey, 1958; James, 1907) and I will

    briefly discuss pragmatism in art and architecture. I will examine psychological

    concerns in architecture, environmental psychology and its association with

    human behavior, and how these issues may be incorporated in architectural

    design. This will be followed by a discussion of socio-cultural concerns in

    architecture and how they are or can be incorporated in architecture. Finally I will

    discuss the general structure of architecture programs, and scholars views about

    architecture programs and design studios.

    Function in Architecture

    The supremacy of functional consideration in architectural design was

    summarized by Sullivan (1947) in the dictum form follows function (Michl, 1995).

    In the age of Renaissance and Baroque, technicalities were considered

    subservient to formalist objectives and function was the most important quality for

    a building to be considered delightful (Holgate, 1992). The belief was that good

    architecture and beauty are automatically achieved if the design process is

    strictly geared toward logic, functionality, and economic efficiency. Functionalists

    believed that the form of all objects is a derivative of the intended purpose and

    designers can find forms relevant to their intended function in previous examples

    (Michl, 1995).

    Proponents of functionalist theories in architecture avoided the term

    architecture because it references art, which was associated with aesthetic

    qualities (Norberg-Schulz, 1988). They adopted the term building which,

    according to them, was a true depiction of what the field meant. Norberg-Schulz

    further mentioned that aesthetics were replaced by the idea of creating clear and

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    functional construction which did not in any way express or symbolize. This form

    of architecture was essentially neutral and homogenous providing few

    possibilities for variations in life. Some proponents of modernism like Walter

    Gropius and Mies Van der Rohe stated that function or rationalism is only the

    basic premise for the modern movement but the intent was aesthetic satisfaction

    (Norberg-Schulz, 1988). The consensus however remains that even though the

    underlying agenda for modernism may have included an aesthetic component it

    was function that predominantly guided architectural design.

    Going Beyond Functionalism

    Eisenman (1976/1996) introduced the concept of post-functionalism which

    essentially negates functionalism while proposing certain theoretical alternatives.

    He argued that function is only worthy as a representative of the meaning that

    architecture is intended to symbolize. Post-modernism, which is used as a

    synonym with post-functionalism in architecture, was largely a demand for a

    meaningful architecture while rejecting the formalist belief in the definition of

    architecture as being a mere translation of practical and socio-economic

    conditions into the form of buildings (Norberg-Schulz, 1988). Postmodernists like

    Tschumi (1980/1996a) discarded modernist concepts and propagated the basic

    difference between building and architecture as the idea that buildings are based

    entirely on usefulness whereas architecture goes beyond that limitation.

    Tschumi (1977/1996b) identified the problem with previous definitions of

    architecture stating that typically architecture is considered as a thing of the

    mind rather than an experiential art an empirical event based on the senses

    (p. 534). He further mentioned that geometry and the pleasure of the senses

    come together to define the pleasure of architecture. Architecture is an

    appreciation of both sensory spatial experience and rational concepts, and a

    work of architecture is defined not by pleasure or functionality, but by the fact that

    it sets the unconscious in motion.

    Tschumi (1981/1996c) adopted the idea of post-structuralism which

    identifies architecture as a human activity and space as related not to function

    but to events. He claimed that both modernism and post-modernism were

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    tangled in the web of formalism although the definition differed one is

    autonomous and self-reflecting while the other echoes historical and cultural

    precedents. There is a need to include the human body, and all its experiences in

    any discourse about architecture.

    Psychological Concerns in Architecture

    There is a reciprocal interaction between human beings and the place

    they enter (Lippard, 1997). The identity that human beings bring to a space/place

    undergoes some alteration based on the place, the relationship to the place, and

    other occupants of the place. Holgate (1992) argued that there are certain

    emotional or psychological states and reactions associated with elements of

    building designs, which are in a constant interplay with our rational responses to

    the same. The design of spaces affects our perception of the space, our sense of

    security, sense of place, and feelings such as empathy and nostalgia. Scholars

    have widely emphasized and studied the need for incorporating theories of

    behavioral psychology and the interaction of human beings with the built

    environment as important stages in the architectural design process (Gifford,

    2002; Rudd, 1985; Honikman, 1975).

    Deasy (1974) summarized that the psychological and social effects of

    spaces work in three ways: (1) the stress we experience in accomplishing our

    goals group or personal, (2) the form and nature of our social contacts, and (3)

    our feelings of identity and self-worth. Spaces that are not designed with these

    concerns impose unnecessary handicaps on their occupants. In other words, the

    designed spaces essentially affect occupants psychological state, relationship

    with others, and personal opinion. There are several discussions on the idea of

    architects working in association with behavioral scientists and social

    psychologists in order to design and build structures that are responsive to

    society and human psychology (Gutman, 1972; Deasy, 1974). Deasy stated that

    this association will be proven highly feasible and rewarding by outlining a design

    process that starts with the study of the people whom the building will serve.

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    Rambow and Bromme (1995) emphasized a need for the study of psychology in

    architecture training in order to enhance the evaluation of pre-theoretical

    personal experiences in the formation of convictions and assumptions during

    professional practice.

    Psychological concerns in architecture may be best discussed with

    reference to architectural experience and sensory perception, essentially the

    aesthetics of architecture. Several philosophers have discussed the importance

    of experience and sensory perceptions in shaping lifestyles, beliefs, and

    identities. The belief that everything in our minds is a result of our sensory

    experiences formed the basis of empiricism in the eighteenth century and has

    been prevalent in philosophical discussions (Gaardner, 1994). Empiricist thought

    is based on the idea that human understanding is confined within the boundaries

    of experience (Scruton, 1995). Pragmatism derived from the interaction between

    human beings and art works, an active analysis of the experiences during this

    interaction, and the consequent reorientation of peoples beliefs toward

    themselves and events surrounding them (James, 1907; Rorty, 1989; White,

    1998). Pragmatism and the ideas associated with this philosophy guided this

    study.

    Pragmatism

    Pragmatism is the philosophy which guides this study because of its

    emphasis on the importance of experience (Dewey, 1958; Dewey 1925/1981).

    The basic premise of pragmatic philosophy is the idea that experience consists of

    interaction between human beings and their environment (James, 1907) and by

    extension human beings experience with art (Dewey, 1958), including

    architecture. The test of the truth, the authenticity of experiences lies in its

    validation in real life. James defined the pragmatic method as one that steers

    away from supposed necessities and first impressions, and focuses on

    consequences and facts. Spiegel (1998) identified that art exists in order to

    achieve certain designed purposes in terms of its effect on the audience.

    Anderson (2003) outlined the underlying assumption behind pragmatic theories

    of art as the need for art to do something meaningful while paving the way for the

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    social, political, and spiritual betterment of the world. Pragmatically, the function

    of art is to maintain the values, attitudes, and sense of reality across generations;

    and to give character, identity, and status to communities, individuals, and

    institutions like styles of architecture (McFee, 1970).

    Neo-pragmatic art educators proposed that pragmatic methods of

    instruction will enable students to actively analyze their experiences eventually

    reorienting their beliefs toward themselves and the events that they encounter

    (White, 1998). Applied to architecture, the pragmatic method will involve a

    thoughtful analysis of experiences resulting from the interaction between

    occupants and their environment (Gelenter, 1988; Nicol & Pilling, 2000). This will

    help architects and students to develop insights into the way architectural

    elements affect occupants psyche and behavior as well as their worldview. The

    pragmatic view of experience, architecture, and the means to explore and

    analyze grounds this study. The active analysis of architectural space will include

    an assessment of aesthetic criteria which are central to the experience and

    interaction between people and the space they occupy, and therefore the

    psychological response to the space (Hill, 1999).

    Aesthetic Experience and Architecture

    Discussions of beauty and aesthetics have been prevalent since Plato and

    his definition of absolute beauty as a concept that could only be comprehended

    by intellectuals (Holgate, 1992). Holgate further described Platos idea that the

    objects common people encounter in their daily lives are just imperfect reflections

    of ideal forms presaging the formalist, architect as-designer-above-the-common

    people.

    The idea of aesthetics in architecture has been a matter of great debate

    largely because of the basic difference between architecture and other arts

    architectures utilitarian nature (Bearn, 1997). Bearn elaborated on Kants

    argument for separating architecture from fine art. Kant labeled architecture as

    impure because it is purposeful while beautiful artworks only give the impression

    of having a purpose but actually have none. As an attempt at reducing the

    subjectivity in aesthetic discussions, some trains of thought suggested exclusion

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    of objects with a practical purpose including architecture (Holgate, 1992).

    Architectures intent, in its modernistic era, was labeled as fulfillment of a

    particular function.

    Fitch (1988) accepted the difference between architecture and other arts

    based on the utilitarian quality of architecture but attempted to place architecture

    a step above art on the same grounds stating that we inhabit works of

    architecture; we merely perceive the work of art (p. 6). Pevsner (1961)

    emphasized the importance of aesthetics in architecture stating that anything that

    encloses space and facilitates movement of human beings may be said to be a

    building, whereas the term architecture will only apply to those buildings that are

    designed with a view to aesthetic appeal. Pevsners definition places aesthetics

    as the prime criteria for a work to classify as architecture and emphasizes the

    importance of aesthetics in architectural design (Rowe, 1987). Cherryholmes

    (1994) elaborated that beauty, harmony, pleasure, joy, success, and well-being

    are all criteria that should be used in assessing consequences of bringing out

    aesthetic implications of the pragmatic maxim. Aesthetics in architecture goes

    beyond beauty and acts as a tool toward the fulfillment of its pragmatic purpose.

    The main goal of architecture should be to create buildings where the aesthetic

    aspect is related to experiential reality (Fitch, 1972; Fitch, 1988).

    The idea of aesthetics in built forms has been restricted to visual stimuli

    (Fitch, 1972; Holgate, 1992). Scholars have argued for a need to encompass the

    other senses; qualities that are pleasing to the mind, exalt the senses, and

    appeal to taste and pleasure (Holgate, 1992; Spiegel, 1998; Ziff, 2000). Fitch

    discussed the need to include context, physical conditions of viewers, their

    psychological state, and the response of the occupants to the impact of the

    building on them. Hill (1999) defined aesthetic experience with respect to

    architecture as an architectural experience which is accompanied by a sense of

    place and the emotions attached to the interaction of occupants psyche with the

    space. Bhatt (2000) argued that our aesthetic experiences become justifiable

    reactions, emotions, acts, and perceptions of our experiences. A study of the

    interaction between human beings and their environment will yield important

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    information for architects with respect to the emotional and behavioral reactions

    that the interactions provoke (Gifford, 2002).

    Environmental Psychology

    Dewey (1925/1981) stated that Experience is of as well as in nature. It is

    not experience which is experienced, but nature stones, plants, animals,

    diseases (p. 12). As a result of built structures becoming an integral part of the

    surrounding, a large part of nature has now been replaced by environment

    (Lippard, 1997). In his book Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practice,

    Gifford (2002) defined environment as built settings. He defined environmental

    psychology as the study of transactions between individuals and their physical

    setting (p. 1). He mentioned that these studies would lead to more humane

    environments and improved interactions between people and their built as well

    as natural surroundings.

    Environmental Perception

    Gifford (2002) stated that environmental perception includes gathering of

    information about the environment as well as the means of assessing the

    environment. This process of information gathering is primarily visual but

    includes other senses (Gifford & Ng, 1982). Robson (1999) mentioned three

    modes of perception in human beings: (1) operational mode, in which we

    concentrate on elements of the environment important to accomplishing a task;

    (2) the responsive mode, which includes our everyday noticing of things around

    us; and (3) the inferential mode, in which we focus our attention on elements that

    support our knowledge of the environment. An environment which provides

    information on all three levels is a successful environment especially when it also

    presents things that are familiar and relate to past experiences of the occupants.

    Architecture and Environmental Psychology

    Pelli (1999) talked about emotions and architecture and stated that,

    Architecture is one of the great arts. We find proof of this in the depth of emotion

    that good buildings provoke in us (p. 9). Architectural elements of a space affect

    the perception of spaces and consequently the psychological emotional or

    behavioral response to the environment (Holgate, 1992). These architectural

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    elements include, but are not limited to, walls, ceiling, floors, windows, light and

    color (Gifford, 2002).

    Color has a significant impact on daily life and plays an important role in

    self-presentation as well as forming of impressions (Hemphill, 1996). The

    behavioral connotations of color influence the states of mind as well as the

    perception of physical qualities of the immediate environment (Wells, Need &

    Crowell, 1979-1980). If used resourcefully in the design of spaces, color can

    influence the users emotional and mental balance (Portillo & Dohr, 1993; Wells

    et al, 1979-1980). Hogg, Goodman, Porter, Mikellides and Preddy (1979)

    identified five factors related to color that influence the perception of an

    environment. These factors include dynamism, spatial quality, emotional tone,

    complexity and evaluation.

    Another factor that influences perception of space is lighting. Sorcar

    (1987) mentioned that there is an association between illumination and the mood

    created in interior spaces. Lighting affects impressions of space, relaxation,

    privacy, pleasantness, boredom, excitement, confusion, insecurity, and

    brightness. Lighting conditions in a space also affect the perceived color.

    Gifford (2002) stated that the environment has an effect on the personality

    of the occupants and thus on the behavior that the environment provokes. Gifford

    mentioned that understanding personalities of occupants of a space will enable

    designers to assess the satisfaction, productivity, and relevant behavior of

    individuals in a given environment. Personality and perception affect behavior

    and personal as well as social space.

    Personal and Social Space

    Gifford (2002) defined personal space as the geographic component of

    interpersonal relations (p. 122). Although the term is personal space it actually

    refers to the distance between individuals and their relative orientation when they

    interact. Other than personal and social factors, physical environment and

    settings influence personal space. Theories of personal space can provide

    architects with information that can be incorporated into building designs. They

    can provide important behavioral basis for humane design of buildings (p. 143).

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    Hall (1968) defined space as a medium of communication between

    individuals and introduced zones of proximal development to identify boundaries

    of social interaction and feelings of privacy. He identified proxemic zones based

    on relationships between people and objects within the microenvironment. These

    zones include: intimate (18 radius), personal (18 to 4-0 radius), social-close

    (4-0 radius), social-far (7-0 radius), public-close (12-0 radius), and public-far

    (25-0 radius). De Long (1991) argued that Halls proxemic zones were

    inconsistent with more recent research on microspatial analysis. He introduced

    axial orientation of occupants in the space as a factor in defining the zones. The

    arrangement of objects and occupants relative orientation in the space is an

    important factor affecting these relationships. De Long concluded that the zones

    should be more ovoid in shape instead of the regular circles in Halls original

    theory. The zones introduced by De Long include: Intimate/personal-close,

    personal-far, social-close, social-far, public-close, separation, privacy, and public-

    far. De Long mentioned that the zones are based on occupants perception and

    interpretation of the space, and feelings of relative privacy.

    De Long (1991) discussed the application of proxemic theories to furniture

    planning and spatial design. The zones identified by Hall (1968) and De Long are

    a means of incorporating behavioral studies in the planning and arrangement of

    microenvironments. These zones may be used to identify the optimum or

    preferred proportionality of living spaces, furniture arrangement, location of areas

    relative to the entrance to the space, and the perception of relative formality and

    informality in the space (De Long, 1991). The arrangement and design of spaces

    with consideration of proxemics will play an important role in predisposing

    occupants to certain behavior in the space. The behavioral patterns include

    individual behavior as well as social interaction.

    Society and Culture

    Society may be defined as a group of people clustered together as a result

    of shared patterns of interaction (McFee, 1970). Culture may be defined as the

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    values, attitudes, and acceptable behavior based on a common heritage. Several

    scholars have emphasized the importance of culture and social context in the

    arts (West, 1991; Anderson, 2003).

    Anderson (2003) defined art as culturally significant meaning, skillfully

    encoded in an affecting, sensuous medium. (p. 238). Art in societies relates to

    subjects in the socio-cultural framework that produced the work. McFee (1986)

    argued that art derives its meaning and structure from culture and it gives

    continuity to culture. Rosenman and Gero (1998) emphasized the role of socio-

    cultural context stating that an artifact removed from its socio-cultural

    environment will continue to function in the same manner but its purpose will alter

    based on the context. They stated that human beings exist in a physical

    environment while operating in a socio-cultural context that depends a lot on their

    personal conceptions of the environment. According to Hicks (1992/1993), there

    are cultural filters superimposed on peoples perception and visual experiences.

    Further, a complete understanding of a space will require extensive knowledge

    about how it fits into the varied perceptions that people from varied cultural

    backgrounds and worldviews will bring to the space.

    Philosophers like Kant and Marx emphasized the importance of society,

    culture, and family in the formulation of human ideas, experiences, and beliefs

    (Gaardner, 1994). Artistic activity depends on the social, cultural, political, and

    economic influences on artists in the particular socio-cultural context (Gilmore,

    1990). Conditions of every day social life have a direct effect on the way that

    members of the society perceive and interpret art works (Baxandall, 1972).

    Socio-cultural Concerns in Architecture

    According to Festinger (1972), architects have largely concerned

    themselves with providing physical convenience and fulfilling physical needs, but

    there is a need for architecture to respond to social convenience and needs.

    Nicol and Pilling (2000) argued that the key to success in the profession of

    architecture is not only the ability of the profession to represent quality and

    deliver high standards, but also its ability to represent the values and aspirations

    of the society that it serves. Designers should be aware of their ability to affect

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    society, individual life-styles, and the interaction within communities through their

    designs (Waxman, 2003).

    In the profession of architecture, the idea of culture-specific design, and

    how the environment responds to the culture in which it is situated has not

    received sufficient attention (Rapoport, 1987). Rapoport defined culture-specific

    design as one that responds to and supports the specific cultural characteristics

    of various user groups. (p. 10). He further mentioned that architecture needs to

    question the structure of cultures and how these concepts relate to the structure

    and use of built forms.

    Schermer (2001) stated that nurturing an expertise in social and cultural

    issues is as important in the design studio as technical skills, in order to enable

    students to produce more meaningful work, promote the values of the profession,

    and broaden their understanding of the profession. Esherick (1984) mentioned

    that the claims that architecture makes should surpass issues like ensuring that

    the buildings will be structurally and technically stable. Architects should be able

    to take such issues for granted and focus on concerns like social and cultural

    issues. According to Esherick, this approach will give rise to a refined set of

    standards for architects, which will embrace societal traditions, and reflect the

    entire society and its values.

    Holgate (1992) discussed meaning-making in architecture with reference

    to the cultural and social implications of architectural structures and their

    interpretation by observers. Meaning in architecture refers to the manner in which

    the structures in a society reflect its relationship with the land (geography and

    topography), technology, economy, social order, world views and religious

    beliefs. Holgate mentioned that meaning-making is not a process that starts at

    the built structure to deduce meanings that are expected to be shared by the

    culture. Discerning meaning is a process that starts both at the building as well

    as understanding of the culture in order to finally discern the relationship between

    the two.

    Incorporating social and cultural concerns in architectural design requires

    studies of architectural history to address these concerns. Bandini (1997)

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    emphasized that the problems with current architecture historians lies in the fact

    that they are solely engrossed in the past and critiquing about the formal features

    of contemporary designs, while ignoring the relationships between the

    economic, social, sensual, political, and cultural structures (p. 425). From a

    critical analysis of the history of architecture based on these relationships,

    architects should be able to derive inspiration and legitimization. The task of the

    historian thus includes an analysis of case studies with respect to the social and

    cultural context in the specific period. West (1991) mentioned that architecture

    education ought to emphasize the need for students to look at history and

    analyze it from their personal perspectives in terms of social histories of

    technology and architectural practices. History would then depend on cultural

    issues and incorporate contemporary cultural issues.

    Social Design and Community Architecture

    Gifford (2002) discussed the concept ofsocial design as a way to design

    more humane buildings for occupants as part of a community. Social design

    involves research on the way physical settings can optimally serve human

    desires and requirements. Sommer (1983) defined social design as a process

    that involves people in the planning and management of their spaces, educating

    them about the optimal use of their environment, inculcating a sense of

    responsibility among people, and generating an understanding of how the

    physical environment influences human psychology.

    Gifford (2002) mentioned that several architects and designers now

    acknowledge the importance of designing for people without sacrificing

    technological or aesthetic considerations. Aesthetics have been a driving

    concern in architectural design but beautiful buildings may be pleasing to multiple

    senses and serve the intentions of social design by facilitating social interaction.

    In order to achieve this, architects can work in association with social

    researchers during the design process.

    Gifford (2002) listed six goals for social designers and researchers (1)

    create physical settings that cater to the needs and activities of the occupants,

    (2) satisfy the occupants who will spend a considerable part of their lives in the

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    setting, (3) contribute to behavioral changes that may include increased

    productivity in offices, enhanced social ties, reduced aggression and increased

    communication, (4) enhance occupants personal control by providing them the

    ability to make changes to the setting so that it will suit their needs, (5)

    encourage social support by facilitating cooperation, assistance and support, and

    (6) enhance way-finding for occupants as well as visitors around the building

    without getting lost. Gutman (1972) discussed the association between architects

    and sociologists during the design process. He proposed that architects will need

    to consult with sociologists at three stages during design development. These

    consultations include: (1) for guidance in understanding the clients requirements,

    (2) to discuss whether the proposed or present structure of social organization

    complies with the objectives stated in the design brief, and (3) estimating space

    requirements for activities.

    Aside from social researchers, people who will occupy the spaces may

    also be involved in the process of design. This movement has been termed

    community architecture and its intentions were defined by Wates and Knevitt

    (1987) as

    to build housing that people want to live in; to give people a sense of

    pride and reinforce their identity with their local community; to build social

    facilities that are needed and properly looked after; to develop

    neighbourhoods and cities in ways that enrich peoples lives by being

    genuinely responsive to their needs and aspirations (p. 17).

    The designed environment works best if the people who will use and

    occupy it are involved in the creation and management of the environment

    (Wates and Knevitt, 1987). The design style that is usually adopted through

    community architecture is one that is contextual and regional with emphasis on

    establishing identity of the occupants. The primary motivation is to improve

    quality of life for individuals and the community as a whole, and to respond to

    localized needs and opportunities. Wates and Knevitt mentioned that community

    architecture is important for two reasons: (1) creating an environment that fulfills

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    user needs, and (2) creating a strong and participatory community. It will provide

    the occupants with a sense of community. Sense of community and enhanced

    quality of life also depend on the psychological reactions to occupied spaces.

    Design and Social Behavior

    Deasy (1974) discussed a movement which proposed that the

    fundamental purpose of design goes beyond creating buildings and

    encompasses the idea of designing settings for human behavior and for human

    beings to live together with useful and pleasurable interactions. The design of

    spaces has an immense bearing on human interaction with others in the

    community others sharing the place (Waxman, 2003).

    Territoriality. Gifford (2002) defined territoriality as a pattern of behavior

    and attitudes held by an individual or group that is based on perceived,

    attempted, or actual control of a definable physical space, object, or idea that

    may involve habitual occupation, defense, personalization, and marking of it (p.

    150). It involves locating objects to define ones territory in a manner which

    indicates ones identity. Several personal as well as social factors influence

    territoriality. These factors include gender, personality, social setting, socio-

    economic status, prevalent competition for available resources and legal

    ownership.

    Gifford (2002) mentioned that dominance and control is the major social

    behavior with which territoriality has been associated. Control refers to the ability

    to influence ideas, space, and other resources in the territory. Peoples behav ior

    is affected by the control they have or seek over their territories. Territoriality

    essentially has an affect on a variety of human behaviors. Personalization of

    spaces was found to encourage social interaction and improve the atmosphere

    (Holahan, 1976; Vinsel, Brown, Altman, & Foss, 1980).

    If designers incorporate knowledge about territoriality in the design of

    homes, offices and institutions, the spaces will allow occupants optimum amount

    of control over the space (Gifford, 2002). Such environments can improve the

    quality of life significantly by providing occupants with a greater sense of self-

    determination, identity, and safety.

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    Crowding. Crowding refers to a personally defined subjective feeling

    arising from an experience of other people in the space (Gifford, 2002). Several

    personal, situational and cultural factors affect the experience of crowding.

    Gender, personality, psychiatric status, preferences, experience, mood, and

    sociability are personal variables associated with crowding. Culture and

    community size are other factors related to crowding. Crowding usually evokes

    negative behavioral and emotional responses and adversely affects social

    interaction (Stokols, 1978; Sundtrom, 1978). Negatively toned attitudes that may

    be associated with crowding include less perceived control, safety, privacy,

    building satisfaction and lower quality of relationship with others in the space

    (McCarthy & Saegert, 1979). Gifford summarized that crowding has

    physiological, behavioral and cognitive effects, including health problems.

    Architectural design has a substantial influence on the experience of

    crowding. The scale, arrangement of rooms in buildings, organization of spaces,

    ceiling heights, and light conditions are some architectural characteristics that

    influence crowding and its behavioral or emotional implications (Gifford, 2002).

    Factors that augment the experience of crowding include lower ceilings, longer

    corridors, higher density, taller buildings, curved walls and less light. Evans,

    Lepore and Schroeder (1996) mentioned that increased architectural depth of

    high density residences results in less psychological distress and social

    withdrawal for the occupants. Architectural depth is related to the number of

    spaces one must pass to go from one room to another. Careful environmental

    design may help to ease the experience of crowding in a space.

    Architecture Education

    Nicol & Pelling (2000) described the five areas of study in the United

    Kingdom architecture system as architectural design; the cultural context of

    architecture; environmental design, constructional and architectural technologies;

    communication skills; and professional studies and management. The most

    important among these in terms of the time spent and curriculum emphasis is

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    architectural design, making the design studio the core of all architecture

    programs. Although attempts are made to introduce psychology, history and

    other subjects, design takes up almost 80% of the students time, whereas in the

    professional world there are other concerns in addition to design (Akin, 2002).

    In the United States, the National Architecture Accreditation Board is the

    sole agency to accredit professional architecture degree programs. There are

    currently 114 accredited programs offering Doctor of Architecture, Master of

    Architecture, and Bachelor of Architecture degrees. There are 67 Bachelor of

    Architecture programs accredited by the NAAB. The NAAB sets certain

    standards which form the basis of the accreditation process. The accreditation

    process is meant to ensure that all architecture programs meet the standards

    that comprise an appropriate education for future architects. The requirements

    listed by the NAAB for all graduates include: competence in a range of

    intellectual, technical, spatial, and interpersonal skills; understanding of historical,

    socio-cultural, and environmental contexts; ability to solve design problems in

    architecture while integrating technical as well as health and safety requirements;

    and comprehension of the role of the architect and the responsibilities associated

    with this role (NAAB, 2005).

    An American undergraduate program in architecture normally is

    approximately four to five years of study. The five year program equips students

    with a professional degree making them eligible to appear for licensing exams

    after completing the stipulated number of internship hours. Students who leave at

    the end of the fourth year earn an undergraduate degree usually in design

    instead of architecture and are not eligible to get licensed based on this degree.

    The design studio is usually the only course that students take every semester.

    Other courses students take during the program include, but are not limited to

    structural design, mechanical systems, graphic techniques and computer

    drafting. The design studio is comprised of multiple projects of varying time

    frames and complexity every semester. Students work on projects assigned by

    the faculty and the faculty act as clients as well as critics (Akin, 2002). Correa

    (1997) explained the basic intent of architecture programs as being structured

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    around developing design skills through a series of design studio courses in the

    course of their program, usually two studio courses per year.

    Marmot and Symes (1985) argued that studies of social context and role

    of architecture are being substituted for greater emphasis on the design studio,

    and topics such as building evaluation, user studies and design methods are

    becoming difficult to sustain in architecture programs. Jarrett (2000) stated that

    the design studio works as a laboratory where design methodology is contained,

    artificially controlled and frequently prescribed with guaranteed success (p. 59).

    He attributed this situation to the confinement of the design process within the

    studio such that students are often isolated from real life. Honikman (1975)

    suggested that a theoretical understanding of the way people impart meaning to

    their physical environments through their values should be an integral part of

    design programs.

    Educational Issues in Architecture Education

    This section includes a discussion of certain concepts that have been

    discussed by various scholars as issues that need to be addressed in design

    studios and how this may be achieved. These ideas include; reflective inquiry in

    architecture (Forester, 1985; Livingston, 2000; Nicol & Pilling, 2000),

    communication abilities and interpersonal skills (Deasy, 1974; Kaupinnen, 1989;

    Nicol & Pilling, 2000), interdisciplinary learning and teamwork (Schermer, 2001;

    Wittman & Wittman, 1976), and case-based instruction (Akin, 2000; Ashbaugh &

    Kasten, 1991; Verma, 1997).

    Reflective Inquiry in Architecture

    According to Dewey (1970), the value of an experience lies in the

    perception of relationships which we reach after reflecting upon our experiences.

    Extension of our insights through thoughtful analysis of our experiences will lead

    to more accurate foresights. Thinking is the conscious effort to discover the

    relationships between what we do and what the consequences of our actions

    are, so that they both become interlinked steps in a continuous process. This

    conscious process is one of inquiry and investigation, and involves four stages

    including sensing a problem, observing the conditions, formulating informed

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    hypothesis and experimenting actively. The knowledge attained as a result of this

    process is secondary to the process itself since it occurs in an ever-changing

    world.

    Dewey, as part of his pragmatic philosophy, rejected the idea of fixed,

    eternal structures; laws that are considered to be continuous occurrences

    (Garrison, 1994). Dewey stated that a large part of our epistemological problems

    arise from our tendency to assume as real what we experience without

    embarking upon any reflective inquiry. This notion applies to architectural design

    elements that are assumed universally viable for fulfillment of aesthetic as well as

    functional requirements (Bhatia, 2005). Bhatia postulated that a large part of the

    problems in architectural designs are a result of architects finding shelter in

    previously successful designs without questioning the relevance to the specific

    project at hand. Functional criteria that work for one project are considered

    appropriate for all similar projects, but the need is to assess functional criteria

    with reference to the specific project, social setting, and the aesthetic qualities

    that will enhance the space and the experience of the space.

    The process of design is a process of conversations with oneself and

    design is realized through a social processes of review, evaluation, crit icism,

    modification, partial rejection, and partial adoption (Forester, 1985, p. 14). By

    encouraging students to actively analyze and experience a situation is a better

    means of teaching certain concepts (Livingston, 2000).

    St