Abstract— This paper looks at the question "Will androids like

Data from Star Trek: The Next Generation be living amongst us any

time soon, and is this likely to happen in our lifetime?" To answer these

questions, and to better understand android topics, the current state of

artificial intelligence (AI), android and robotics research has been

investigated, and the possible future of autonomous android robotics

discussed; the paper also looks at the type of network infrastructure

that would be required in order to manage androids, and how we could

possibly overcome the current limitations of android technologies.

Keywords—Android Technology, Artificial Intelligence (AI),

Automatonophobia1, Robotics & Science Fact.

I. INTRODUCTION:

ata, is a fictional character in Star Trek: The

Next Generation; he is also a Lieutenant

Commander and Chief Operations Officer, as

well as being the Second in command aboard the

Federation starships USS Enterprise-D & E; he

is an anatomically fully functional sapient, self-

aware, android2 sentient being, a human-like

synthetic life form with a super-fast futuristic

positronic3 brain with impressive computational

capabilities; Data was designed and built by

Doctor Noonien Soong in his own image (Star

Trek, 2015). Star Trek may be based in the

future but androids are not a new concept,

Chambers (1727) coined the robotic word in his

Cyclopaedia when referring to a brass head that

St Albertus Magnus created to answer questions.

Due to the over-imaginative sci-fi writers and movie makers

mankind has long feared the rise of the robots, or androids in

this case; even Prof Stephen Hawking has recently stated that

research into AI poses a serious existential threat to humanity,

and could seriously threaten, if not wipe out, the human race;

he has openly admitted that our primitive form of existing AI

has proven very useful, for himself, and others, but he dreads

the consequences of creating a more advanced AI that could

match or even surpass human intelligence; Prof Hawking is not

alone in his fears for the future, many people are concerned that

as time goes on robots, and then androids, will undertake tasks

much faster and more economically than is currently possible

by skilled humans, effectively unemploying millions of humans

(Cellon-Jones, 2014).

1 Automatonophobia The fear of things falsely representing sentient beings. 2 Android: from the Greek ‘ανδρ’ and the suffix 'oid', and means man-like.

II. ROBOTIC CAPABILITIES, USABILITY, SPECS AND COSTS:

A. Robotic Thoughts:

If androids, human-like robots with similar limbs, looks and

comparative mobility, were ever to live amongst us and interact

with anthropomorphic abilities, they would have to first be able

acquire epistemological4 information from testimony, which is

a current AI impossibility, so much more research is required

before androids will truly become intelligent. (Diller, 2014).

B. Robots Replacing Human Workers:

Human workers are becoming increasingly more disposable

as sophisticated robots overcome previous limitations and work

on robotic assembly lines 24/7/365; robots are now employed

in many of today’s commercial applications, due to being more

cost-effective and skilled than human workers; in scenarios like

miniaturisation robots far outclass us humans (Markoff, 2012).

C. Record Number Of Industrial Robots Sold:

2013 has presaged an alarming trend with the record sale of

178132 robots, the most robots ever sold in one year; each robot

deployed effectively decreases human work availability by at

least one job; 70% of these robots have affected job markets in

China, Germany, Korea, Japan and the US; and this trend in

robot sales is estimated to increase by an average of 12% p/a,

up to 2017 (IFR, 2014).

D. Cost-Effective Robots:

Robots currently perform about 10% of the world’s repetitive

manufacturing tasks, and falling robotic costs are now allowing

businesses to replace even more human workers with highly

efficient industrial robots, in order to further decrease labour

costs; robots that can perform repetitive tasks cost about 1/10

of what they cost 10 years ago; this shift from human to robot

will mean an increased demand for skilled robot handlers, who

will receive higher wages; however, less human workers will

be required (TheJapanTimes, 2015).

Robotic applications improve the accuracy, efficiency and

speed of repetitive industrial processes such as assembly, die

casting, precision drilling, glass making, precision grinding,

painting, loading and unloading, picking and placing, product

inspection and welding, not to mention working within

hazardous environments. Many manufactures would not be able

to provide their high quality products without them!

3 Positronic: A CPU, conceived by Asimov, enabling android consciousness. 4 Epistemology: Theory of knowledge, regarding methods, validity, scope,

and distinctions between belief and opinion.

(Williamson, D. 2015)

Are Androids Amongst Us?

D

Fig. 1

Fig. 3

III. CURRENT RESEARCH IN ROBOTICS:

A. Existing Technology:

Otonaroid, a brown haired, silky,

smooth skinned, elegant Japanese beauty,

started work as a visitor guide at Tokyo's

science museum on the 25th June 2014,

and has already proven to be an asset; this

in itself may not seem that special, but the

fact that she is a remotely controlled hi-

tech teleoperated robot that looks and acts

like a human is; Otonaroid can often be

seen conversing with museum visitors

whilst affecting life-like characteristics

such as regularly breathing, blinking,

twitching her eyebrows, swaying her head

and using her hands for emphasis; she is

not that life-like that she would be taken

as a human if scrutinised closely, but she

will no doubt surprise many a visitor (Russon, 2014).

NB. Androids, albeit non-sentient, are already amongst us!

B. Prosthetics with life-like Human Sensation:

Up until recently it was difficult for amputees to precisely

manipulate objects with prosthetics, due to a lack of sensation;

however, a new implant that is used to connect human nerves,

via electrodes and electrical stimuli, to robotic prosthetics is

able to provide constant sensory feedback that stimulates

human nerves; this ability has enabled users to sense varying

degrees of sensation and pressure and enable more precise

control with robotic arms, hands and fingers; users can sense

the difference between a slight amount of pressure and a firm

grip, enabling them to pick up a glass without shattering it; they

can even sense being touched; this type of technology further

advances the feasibility of future androids being able to live

amongst us unnoticed (Fang, 2014).

C. Is Android like AI Ethical and Safe:

Researchers are continually looking into ways to effectively

pass the Turing test, a test which is meant to detect whether or

not AI machines can exhibit enough intelligent behaviour,

through conversation, to be undistinguishable from humans, but

is this ethical or even safe? If we intentionally design AI robots

to deceive us humans into believing that they are also human,

what stops them from deliberately deceiving us in other ways?

D. AI Neural Network Tests:

The human brain, with around 100 billion neurons and 1000

trillion synapses (Mastin, 2010), is so complex that even the

world's fastest supercomputers struggle to simulate it; the

Japanese Okinawan supercomputer 'K computer' managed,

with NEST5 simulation software, to simulate a neural network

consisting of 1.73 billion nerve cells & 10.4 trillion synapses by

using 82944 processors for 40 minutes to simulate just 1 second

of biological neuronal type network activity (Whitwam, 2013);

however, if this can be achieved with peta-scale computing,

then what will exa-scale computing enable us to achieve?

5 NEST: Noble Element Simulation Technique.

E. Android Brains:

Even if a supercomputer did manage to simulate human brain

activity for any serious length of time and was able to make

human-like decisions, it would still be many a year before a

computerised brain, with the same amount of computing power

of a supercomputer, could be made small enough to fit inside a

human sized android skull; and even if a supercomputer became

sentient and wirelessly controlled an android, the android would

only be a remote controlled high-tech robot, and would not even

remotely resemble an android like Data from Star Trek, the

subject of this paper.

F. Would AI Consciousness Be An Existential Threat?

Due to the amount of current research into AI, the possibility

of AI systems finally achieving consciousness, and therefore

life but not as we know it, is a distinct possibility; there is no

doubt that at first we humans would obtain incredible daily

benefits from these new lifeforms, from gaining advances in

education, medicine, fields of science, manufacturing and the

construction of hi-tech androids, etc.; however, if conscious

machines became able to redesign themselves, then they would

soon be able to create what many of us fear, real anatomically

fully functional sapient, self-aware, androids with intelligences

far surpassing humans; and worse still these androids may end

up living amongst us without our knowledge, which leads to the

main reason why we would fear these lifeforms, the complete

loss of control over them; in comparison we humans would be

a fragile sub-standard form of life that could not compete with

androids, and would therefore be superseded by them; this

could make it really difficult for us to survive amongst them.

G. Living and working with Artificial Intelligence:

Our everyday lives are becoming ever more automated by

computerised devices, and intangible software, a trend that will

likely continue; and even though many of these devices may not

look human-like, all computers and robotic machines, no matter

how humanoid they may be, are controlled by ‘CPUs’ central

processing units of some kind, meaning that AI machines, if not

androids, are already amongst us; however, whilst studying AI

we are not just learning about how to create artificially

intelligent machines, we are also learning about ourselves; and

before we could create a sentient being, with AI, we would first

need to know how we ourselves ‘Humans’ became sentient;

without that knowledge, it would be difficult, if not impossible,

to work out how to create conceptual human-like AI programs

such as common sense, ingenuity and adaptability; and without

such programming all forms of automaton would be no more

than useful hi-tech human tools like Repliee Q2.

Fig. 2

Fig. 6

IV. THE FUTURE OF ANDROIDS:

As robotic technology improves, androids will likely play an

increasing role in our lives, especially amongst the young who

will grow up accepting the presence of, and interaction with,

androids as the norm, possibly leading to the development of

meaningful pet-like relationships; however, no matter how life-

like they may be, until emotional feelings can be reciprocated,

a possibility which may well terrify many of us, they would be

nothing more than useful hi-tech robotic tools.

A. Science Fiction Creating Automatonophobia?

Any avid sci-fi fan, who has read Asimov’s

complete collection of robot stories, and has

watched the mainstream android movies such

as A.I., Blade Runner, Forbidden Planet, The

Day the Earth Stood Still, The Terminator(s),

Transformers and the latest blockbuster film

‘Ex Machina’, and sci-fi soaps like Babylon 5,

Battlestar Galactica and Star Trek will know

that many of the android characters within are

seen in a very bad light; these science fictions,

involving androids, may well be the ones that

are guilty of instilling automatonophobia,

which includes the fear of sentient androids

secretly living, and working, amongst us.

B. Isaac Asimov A Most Prolific Sci-Fi Writer:

In order to allay such fears Isaac Asimov, over 70 years ago,

devised the three Laws of Robotics in his 1942 story

"Runaround", which are: “a robot may not injure a human being

or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.", "a

robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except

where such orders would conflict with the First Law." and "a

robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection

does not conflict with the First or Second Law." (Asimov, 1995,

p. 269-270). These laws that Isaac envisaged would protect us

from harm by robots may seem logical safeguards, but if human

lawyers are clever enough to circumvent many of our own strict

laws; then I do not believe that it would be too far-fetched to

assume that super-intelligent sentient androids would be clever

enough, to be able to conceive of, and come up with, several

plausible scenarios to circumvent the three Laws of Robotics.

C. Robotic Evolution:

Ever since the 1960's, robots have increasingly been used in

a variety of ways to help mankind, and in a span of only 50

years we have, some would say, a plethora of walking, talking

semi-autonomous robots amongst us, so what will the next 50

years of robotics research likely achieve, will there be Data-like

androids amongst us in the 2060s? The simple answer is no, our

AI capability is not that advanced; however, android robots that

are capable of doing basic cooking, cleaning, repetitive and/or

dangerous tasks and even providing us with a drink, etc., will

effectively replace many of us in the workplace; robots may

break down or need replacement parts, but in general they do

not get tired, get bored, sleep or make repetitive mistakes, and

businesses will save money in the long run by replacing us with

robots, but will this be an advanced form of human evolution,

or the start of a feared robotic revolution? This is something

only the future will show!

D. Humanoid Evolution Or Robotic Revolution:

As humans have evolved, they have continually created and

used tools to make life easier, and this trend is continuing with

the design and creation of robots; however, this search for an

easier life may lead to the formation of a new species.

Having super-intelligent semi-autonomous androids amongst

us may sound like an overactive sci-fi writer’s dream of the

future, but many experts now say that the idea is not too far-

fetched, and some even believe that the singularity, the point

when AI matches and overtakes human intelligence, is not too

far away in the future, possibly in the 21st century; and though

many will disagree on the how, and the when, this is likely to

happen, most agree that it will; some predict a utopian future

where humans will transcend physical limitations with robotic

enhancements, much like the "Six Million Dollar Man", and

others believe that the same robotic enhancements will cause

humanity to relinquish, or replace, many human abilities and

lead to the rise of a wealth orientated cyborg race, effectively

relegating humans as an inferior species (Ghose, 2013).

E. The Future of Robotics:

It may not be long before medical robots are able to perform

delicate surgery such as removing blood clots and fatty deposits

(plaque) from our veins; and smart robotic prosthetic devices

are used to replace lost limbs to provide mobility for amputees

and paraplegics, and to replace failing organs to prolong lives;

and rescue robots are used to save lives where human safety

would be put at risk; these futuristic scenarios, and robotic

capabilities, are the result of decades of research at prominent

universities, many of which have now been applied to current

robots by robotic manufacturers that have built these advances

into products that require pattern-recognition, motion-control,

kinematics and software programming; products that range

from semi-autonomous vacuum cleaners, to high-tech assembly

line robots, to bomb-disposal robots and rescue robots like the

510 Packbots used during the aftermath of 9/11 at the World

Trade Center (Salisbury, 2013).

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

V. THE LIMITATIONS OF AI & HUMAN-LIKE ROBOTS:

A. Artificial Intelligence Limitations:

AI limitations include the lack of robotic common sense, a

basic ability found within most young children; for example,

current robots are efficient, and fast, at repetitive tasks that can

be automated and set up as part of a standardised process such

as assembly line work, but are unable to respond accordingly to

changing environments; they are unable to study a situation and

make logical decisions of their own; robots may be capable of

interpolation6, but not extrapolation7 which requires abstract

thought combined with previous experience to arrive at a

conjectural result; the robotic ability to think-on-one’s-feet and

deal with unexpected problems remains in the realms of sci-fi;

this type of human creativity and common sense is something

that AI technology cannot yet replicate.

Robotic limitations include perception, object recognition

and execution, much researched topics in AI, which is why we

use Completely Automated Public Turing tests to tell

Computers and Humans Apart (CAPTCHAs) on websites to

deter none human use; however, a new algorithm developed at

MIT, that utilises multiple perspectives, may enable robots to

perceive, identify and handle previously unidentified objects

from a collection of objects; unfortunately, the current

algorithm also decreases robotic task speed, due to an

exponential increase of calculations required to execute tasks

(O'Connor, 2015).

B. How Can Current Robotic Limitations Be Overcome?

Some AI limitations can be overcome by the development of

improved algorithms that will be able to work with more, and

faster, parallel type CPU/GPU microprocessors in order to

improve, and increase, the computational power; and humanoid

robotic limitations can be overcome by improving limb types,

and increasing the number of, and functionality of, the actuators

and sensors used within them; this would greatly improve limb

flexibility and overall robotic mobility.

Even the most high-tech robot in the world cannot walk any

better than a toddler, so if this robotic mobility limitation is to

be overcome, then researchers will have to come up with

something that will enable robots to walk like adults; however,

being able to maintain an humanoid robotic stability in an

unstructured environment would require many human-like

tactile sensors and highly complex task-specific controllers in

order to manage the vast amounts of information retrieved from

the sensors, not an easy task; however, this limitation may have

been partially solved by Stanford University researchers who

are looking into ways to enable humanoid SupraPed8 robots to

navigate through, and maneuver over, rough terrain with the aid

of special Smart Trekking Poles, that are packed with sensors,

that enable them to balance themselves and decide where to step

next; this capability is backed by remote haptic teleoperation

systems that allow human operators to remotely provide high-

level commands (Ackerman, 2014).

6 Interpolation: The process of estimating, what is observable (the known),

the value of variables depending on their relationship with other variables. 7 Extrapolation: Similar process, beyond what is observable (the unknown),

the value of variables depending on their relationship with other variables.

VI. ROBOTIC TRACKING NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE:

A. Researching Cyber-Physical Network Infrastructure:

In June 2014, the National Science Foundation announced a

5-year, $4000000 award to tackle the time synchronisation in

cyber-physical systems that integrate sensing, computation,

control and networking into autonomous robotic objects and

infrastructure; this real-time situational awareness is required to

connect to, communicate with and control machines such as

autopilot systems, tele-robotics devices and androids; without it

the robots could not infer exact location or coordinate detailed

real-time activities (NSF, 2014).

B. NASA Robotic Networking Infrastructure:

NASA relies on their extremely capable, sophisticated and

versatile robotic arms, robots and rovers to investigate our solar

system's planets, and their moons, in order to help pave the way

for the more fragile human crewed missions; their Human

Exploration Telerobotics (HET) Technology deals with the

semi-autonomous control of hi-tech robots from a distance, and

currently uses a mix of Cabled, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and Deep

Space Network technology for its network infrastructure; using

robots in this way removes the routinely, highly-repetitive,

dangerous and/or long-duration tasks from human hands, which

helps us to improve and safely hasten human space exploration

(Boen, 2013).

C. A Privately Funded Space Internet Network:

Elon Musk, an American billionaire with his own rocket

company ‘SpaceX’, has announced plans to deploy hundreds of

satellites at approximately 750 miles above the Earth to create

a Space Internet that could provide a fiber-optic type speed, and

cheaper internet access, around the globe, improving world-

wide coverage; the project, that may be in effect within 6 years,

could plausibly aid in forming an improved communications

system with Mars, but would definitely aid our existing robotic

communications on Earth, and has broad applications for future

robotic and human led operations in space (Allen, 2015).

8 SupraPed: Having increased walking capability beyond bipedal limits, to

possible quadrupedal capability.

Fig. 7

D. Cloud Robotics, An Information Revolution:

The term, Cloud Robotics, introduced by Google in 2010,

describes how robots could use existing wireless networking

and expanding Internet resources to enable massively-parallel-

computing and the real-time sharing of data; this would be used

in conjunction with existing onboard computational, memory

and programming capabilities; Google already uses this type of

technology to index maps and images, collected by satellites,

for their Street View app, and for crowdsourcing, which obtains

services, ideas and content by soliciting information from large

groups of people and online communities, instead of just from

local employees and suppliers; and Kiva Systems uses the same

type of technology for their warehouse automation and

logistics, utilising multiple mobile platforms to move pallets

within local networks to co-ordinate platforms and update their

tracking data in real-time (Goldberg, & Kehoe, 2013).

E. RoboEarth Networking:

The RoboEarth project intends to create a cloud-based

WWW infrastructure solely for robots; essentially creating a

massive online network and database repository to enable

robots to share and store data and information, and to aid them

in learning from each other's experiences in real-time; this could

mean that any connected robot could also share its individual

programming between other robots, meaning that only one

robot would need to be programmed for all robots to be able to

use that programming.

It would also mean that multiple robots could work together,

in parallel, to solve supercomputer type problems; in addition

to this RoboEarth offers the Robot Operating System (ROS),

which is a set of software libraries, drivers, state of the art

algorithms and tools that can assist with robotic applications for

high-level robotic control (RoboEarth, 2014); as I wrote this I

began to think, have I not heard of something like this described

before, such as the 'Cyberdyne Systems Skynet' type global

network, which became the fictional self-aware, sentient,

synthetic intelligence featured within the Terminator franchise?

VII. IN CONCLUSION:

Even though it is really fascinating, remarkable and amazing

what the current AI and Robotic technology can now achieve,

what the high-tech humanoid robots are now capable of, how

human-like some of the androids can be, and what networking

facilities are, and will be, available to these humanoid robots,

many researchers still believe that we are a very long-long way-

a-way from being able to create Data-like androids; researchers

are making many advances in all these areas, helping mankind

in a myriad of ways, proving that, apart from the real prospect

of robot enforced unemployment, they are a source of good.

We currently utilise AI, within gadgets, computers, robots

and androids to equal or exceed human intelligence and/or

efficiency at specific tasks, and apart from manufacturing

thousands of different products for us, they also look after our

mobile phones, anti-lock brakes, Google search, e-mail filters,

flying planes, etc., and they even beat us at chess, scrabble and

backgammon, so they are in control of our lives, albeit not

completely, we still have the power to be in control of them;

however, sub-standard AI programming could still be the cause

of catastrophic events like crashing a plane or a power grid,

causing a nuclear power melt-down, or even causing a financial

market disaster; and though AI would initially be blamed for

this, AI controlled machines can only do what we humans

program them to do; they cannot think and plan against us.

I believe this paper answers the question posed in the abstract

"Will androids like Data from Star Trek: The Next Generation

be living amongst us any time soon, and is this likely to happen

in our lifetime?" My answer to this is a resounding no! We need

not fear an AI, Robotic or Android take-over any time soon;

androids like Data will stay within the realms of Science fiction,

and will only become realities within our imaginations, scary

novels, sci-fi programs and films.

Fig. 8

REFERENCES:

Ackerman, E. (2014). SupraPed Robots Will Use Trekking Poles to Hike

Across Rough Terrain. IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved from

http://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/humanoids/supraped-robots-will-

use-smart-trekking-poles

Allen, N. (2015). Elon Musk announces 'space Internet' plan. The Telegraph.

Retrieved from

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/11353782/Elon-Musk-announces-space-Internet-plan.html

Article XLIV. Cyclopaedia; or an Universal Dictionary of arts and sciences, &c. by E. Chambers, gent. london. 1728 (1727). London: M. de la Roche.

Asimov, I. (1995). The Complete Robot. Great. Britain: Clays Ltd, St. Ives plc

Boen, B. (2013). Human Exploration Telerobotics (HET). NASA.

Retrieved from http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/tdm/telerobotics/telerobotics_overview.ht

ml#.VM4S19KsX0w

Cellon-Jones, R. (2014). Stephen Hawking warns artificial intelligence could

end mankind. BBC News Technology.

Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-30290540

Collins, N. (2013). Evolution to blame for bad backs, dropped arches and

impacted wisdom teeth, say scientists. The Telegraph. Adapted from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/evolution/9873352/Evolution-to-

blame-for-bad-backs-dropped-arches-and-impacted-wisdom-teeth-say-

scientists.html

Cox, W. (2010). Top 10 Robots of the Past 10 Years – Robots of the Decade

Awards. RobotShop. Retrieved from http://www.robotshop.com/blog/en/top-10-robots-of-the-past-

10-years-robots-of-the-decade-awards-3743

Diller, A. (2014). Limitations of Artificial Intelligence.

University of Cambridge - cantab.net.

Retrieved from http://www.cantab.net/users/antoni.diller/ai/limitations.html

Fang, J. (2014). Health and medicine: Robotic Arms and Hands That Can

Feel. IFL Science. Retrieved from http://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/closest-weve-

come-robot-arms-and-hands-can-feel

IFR. (2014). Industrial Robot Statistics: World Robotics 2014 Industrial

Robots. International Federation of Robotics.

Retrieved from http://www.ifr.org/industrial-robots/statistics/

Ghose, T. (2013). Intelligent Robots Will Overtake Humans by 2100. Experts

Say. LiveScience. Retrieved from http://www.livescience.com/29379-intelligent-robots-will-

overtake-humans.html

Goldberg, K., & Kehoe, B. (2013). Cloud Robotics and Automation: A Survey

of Related Work. University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved from http://goldberg.berkeley.edu/cloud-robotics/cloud-robotics-

survey-Dec2012.pdf

MacDorman, K., & Ishiguru, H. (2008) The uncanny advantage of using

androids in cognitive and social science research. ScienceWatch.

Retrieved from http://archive.sciencewatch.com/dr/fbp/2008/08junfbp/08junfbpMacIsh1/

Markoff, J. (2012, ). As robots overcome limitations, humans are looking disposable. International Herald Tribune.

Mastin, L. (2010). Neurons & Synapses. The Human memory. Retrieved from http://www.human-memory.net/brain_neurons.html

NSF. (2014). Revolutionizing how we keep track of time in cyber-physical systems. National Science Foundation.

Retrieved from

http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=131691&org=NSF&from=news

O'Connor, F. (2015). MIT tries to make household robots better with object-detection algorithm. PCWorld.

Retrieved from http://www.pcworld.com/article/2868592/mit-tries-to-make-

household-robots-better-with-objectdetection-algorithm.html

Perreault, A. (2009). Christian Bale in Terminator Salvation. Gr8tFate.com.

Retrieved from http://www.gr8tfate.com/wp/2009/04/23/christian-bale-in-terminator-salvation/

RoboEarth, (2014). What is RoboEarth? RoboEarth, Retrieved from http://roboearth.org/

Russon, M. (2014). Human or Machine? Life-Like Android Robots from Japan Show Glimpses of the Future. International Business Times.

Retrieved from http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/human-machine-life-like-android-

robots-japan-show-glimpses-future-1453992

Salisbury, D. (2013). Robot Evolution. Vanderbuilt University.

Adapted from http://news.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbiltmagazine/robot-evolution/

Star Trek. (2015). Star Trek: The Next Generation - Data. CBS Studios Inc.

Retrieved from http://www.startrek.com/database_article/data

Staszel, B. (2007). Index of /~staszel/stuff/robothalloffame2007/Data.

Carnegie Mellon University. Retrieved from http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~staszel/stuff/robothalloffame2007/Data/

TheJapanTimes. (2015). Cheaper robots predicted to replace more factory workers over coming decade. The Japan Times on Sunday. Retrieved from

http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/02/10/business/economy-

business/cheaper-robots-predicted-to-replace-more-factory-workers-over-coming-decade/#.VOC3uuasX0w

Whitwam, R. (2013). Simulating 1 second of human brain activity takes 82,944 processors. ExtremeTech.

Retrieved from: http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/163051-simulating-1-

second-of-human-brain-activity-takes-82944-processors