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THE STRUCTURE OF ARGUMENT

ANNETTE ROTTENBERG

DONNA WINCHELL

Chapter 1Understanding Argument

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Discussion Questions

How have you written papers or writing assignments containing Argument, in the past? E.g. plans, supporting ideas, research, data etc.

Were your Arguments convincing for the audience?What process did you use?When you listen to an argument – what are the factors

that convince you the argument is valid?

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A definition of Argument

Definition:

“Argumentation is the art of influencing others, through the medium of reasoned discourse, to believe or act as we wish them to believe or act”

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Stages of a thesis argument

There are three parts to an argument in thesis writing

 

1. Claim

2. Support

3. Warrant

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The Claim

The ClaimCan be a proposition - what you are trying to prove.Can be the “ thesis statement” of an essay.In some arguments it may not be stated directly, or

immediately.

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Types of Claim

3 principle types of claim

Claims of factClaims of valueClaims of policy

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Claims of fact:Assert that a condition did, does or will existBased on facts or data that the audience can verify

e.g. HORSE RACING IS THE MOST DANGEROUS SPORT

This claim must be supported by facts or data to be credible with the audience

Claims of fact

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Claims of value:Attempt to prove something is more or less desirable

than othersExpress approval/ disapproval of standards of taste/

moralityExhibited in advertising and cultural reviews

Claims of Value

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FOOTBALL IS ONE OF THE MOST DEHUMANISING EXPERIENCES A PERSON CAN FACE.

- Dave Meggyesy

ENDING A PATIENTS LIFE INTENTIONALLY IS ABSOLUTELY FORBIDDEN ON MORAL GROUNDS

- Presidential Commission on Medical Ethics, 1983

Claims of Value - Examples

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Claims of policy:Assert that specific policies should be instituted as

solutions to problemsUsually contain expressions such as ‘should, must or

ought’Call for analysis of both fact and value

e.g. PRISONS SHOULD BE ABOLISHED BECAUSE THEY ARE CRIME-MANUFACTURING CONCERNS

Claims of policy

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The Support

The support:Includes evidence and motivational appeals to

convince the audienceEvidence is data – including facts, statistics, experts

testimonialsMotivational appeals are arguments to the values and

attitudes of the audience‘Motivational’ as a word implies movement of an

audience to accept an idea and take action

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The Warrant:The assumption that underlies all claims we makeCan be stated or unstated, if the arguer believes the

audience backs the assumptionCan be stated for a doubting audienceThe ‘Warrant’ enables the reader to make the same

connection between claim and support as the author.

The Warrant

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Warrant ( unstated) - example 1

Claim: Adoption of a healthier diet leads to healthier and longer life.

Support: The authors of becoming a healthy family say so.

Warrant: Unstated because.....

The authors are published experts which presupposes their opinion is tested and valid, and reliable sources of information

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Warrant ( stated ) – Example 2

Claim: Laws making marijuana illegal should be repealed

Support: People should have the right to use any substance they wish

Warrant: No Laws should prevent citizens from exercising their rights 

The warrant here is stated because it appeals to ethical and legal issue/ values implicit in Western Society. It also clearly links the warrant with the claim by using the topic word ‘laws’.

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Warrants can be broad statements

Note: The warrants are in many cases more broader statements of belief than the claim.

i.e. they can be used to support many different claims.

e.g. Warrant: “No Laws should prevent citizens from exercising their rights” can be used to justify claims against many laws

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The Audience

All arguments are composed with the audience in mindOften an argument is made in response to another writer

or speaker whose claims needs to be supported or opposedWriters of arguments should always anticipate a

disagreeing reader.

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Authors audience question check list

Self- check questions about the audience for the writer

Why/ Has this audience requested this report?What do they want to get out of it?How much do they already know about the subject?Are they divided or agreed on the subject?What is their emotional involvement with the issues?

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Importance of Credibility

Credibility - the key issue in winning over an audience “intelligence, character and goodwill” attributes which

produce credibility

Ethos, Aristotle

The writer must convince the audience of their following

attributes knowledgeable and well informedTruthful, morally upright and dependableGood intentions, taking into account the needs of others,

as well as himself.

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Other factors in successful argument

Other issues in Argument Discourse:

Defining key termsChoosing an Appropriate ClaimChoosing and documenting Appropriate sourcesAnalysing assumptionsAvoiding logical errorsEditing for appropriate language

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Defining Key Terms

Defining Key TermsMany controversial questions will be primarily of

definitionFor example, topics such as.....Racism, Pornography, Poverty, Freedom of Speech

etc. must be defined before solutions are proposed.This is vital so the audience understands how you are

using the key term

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Choosing an appropriate claim

Choosing an appropriate claimClarify to audience what the change in thought/ action

you want to achieve isConsider audiences current thinkingBe realistic about the extent of change you hope to

achieveBe realistic about how far the audience is able to effect

that change

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Sources for support

Choosing and Documenting appropriate sources:

 Submit evidence of careful researchDemonstrate you have been conscientious in....Finding the best authoritiesGiving creditAttempting to arrive at the truth

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Analyzing Warrant assumptions

Analyzing AssumptionsConsider the warrant or assumption carefullyThe warrant need not be expressed if the audience will

reasonably not need proofBe prepared to defend any other warrant you include

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Avoiding Logical Errors

Avoiding Logical Errors

Understand how to use.....

- Inductive reasoning processes

- Deductive reasoning processesThese will help you to determine truth and validity of

yours and other argumentsIdentify and correct faulty reasoning

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Editing for appropriate language

Editing for Appropriate LanguageCareful use of language necessary to .....

- Define terms

- Express personal style

- Reflect clarity of thought

- Avoid clichésAvoid word choices that turn your audience off your

ideas

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And Finally......

Good luck with your Argumentative Discourse!

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