ArgumentationWhat is it and what are its parts?

Argumentation: What is it?It is a reasoned, logical way of asserting the soundness of a position, belief, or conclusion.It takes a standsupported by evidenceand urges people to share the writers perspective and insights.

Argumentation: PurposesTo convince other people to acceptor at least accept the validity ofyour positionTo defend your position, even if others cannot be convinced to agreeTo question or refute a position you believe to be misguided, untrue, or dangerous without necessarily offering an alternative

Purposes ContinuedTo achieve these purposes, argumentation has a formal structure which evolves according to a writers interpretation and presentation of evidence.

Elements of an argumentative essayEvidenceAppealsNods to and refutation of the oppositionA clear sense of purposeA clear thesis or claimA clear sense of audience

Evidence is evaluated in terms of four criteria:Relevance: evidence should support the essays thesis or claim and be pertinent to the argument being made.Example: in an essay supporting mandatory HIV testing for all health care workers, one writer made the point that the spread of AIDS is at epidemic proportions. To illustrate the point the point, the writer provided a discussion of the bubonic plague in 14th century Europe. Why might that be a problem?

Evidence and the Four Criteria ContinuedRepresentative or Typicality: evidence should represent the full range of opinions about the subject and not just one side or the other. You want a balanced and convincing discussion. In addition, the examples and expert opinions you include should be typical rather than aberrantIf you argued against the use of animals in medical experimentation, you would not use just the information provided by animal rights activists. Why?

Evidence and the Four Criteria ContinuedSufficient: there should be enough evidence to support the claim(s). The amount of evidence required depends upon the length of your paper, your audience, and the nature of your thesis. Why would an author arguing for the validity of alien abduction stories require more evidence than one arguing against their validity?

Evidence and the Four Criteria ContinuedAccuracy: Data shouldnt be used unless it is accurate and up-to-date, and it cant be persuasive unless the audience believes in the writers credibility. Faith in the accuracy of a writers data is one function of ethos.

Evidence: Different KindsFactual (Chester A. Arthur was the 21st president): The most commonly used type of evidence; may be drawn from your own experience but primarily drawn from research and reading. Facts are more convincing when supplemented by opinions, or interpretations of facts.

Evidence: Different KindsAuthoritative (expert testimony): Not all opinions are equal. The opinions of experts are more convincing that are those of individuals with no specialized knowledge. In the end, what is important is not just the quality of evidence but also the credibility of the person offering it.

Evidence: Different KindsPersonal/anecdotal (calling upon your first-hand experience), Volunteering at the battered womens shelter, I was constantly reminded of the emotional and psychological devastation wrought by spousal abuse on the most innocent of victims: the children. In this time of slash-and-burn budget cuts, we must protect the social programs that protect our youngest and most vulnerable citizens.

Evidence: Different KindsStatistical (graphs, surveys) A 2001 survey by Nielsen Media Research found that 71 percent of the top 10 programs in 60 countries were locally produced in 2001, representing a steady increase over previous years. American movies on television still drew big ratings, grabbing 9 percent of the top 10 slots, but American dramatic or comedic series typically rated much lower than local shows. Work Cited Kapner, Suzanne. U. S. TV Shows Losing Potency Around the World. NY Times on the Web 2 Jan. 2003. 2 Jan. 2003 http://www.nytimes.com/2003/ 01/02/business/businessspecial/02TUBE.html.

Evidence: Different KindsLogical Appeals (using inductive or deductive reasoning, or Toulmin logic) All books from the RU bookstore are used.These books are from RU bookstore.Therefore, these books are used. Emotional Appeals (appealing to readers feelings)Social/Ethical Appeals (appealing to readers sense of right and wrong)

2.0 The Three Levels of Appeal Logical: an appeal to the readers mind and sense of reason. This is the most heavily used appeal in argumentative essays. We want our readers to trust our opinions because they trust not only our evidence but our interpretations of it.

More on the Three Levels of AppealEmotional: an appeal to the readers emotions. Use this type of appeal most sparingly and be especially careful to avoid using an unfair appeal. When writers employ inappropriate emotional appealsto prejudice or fear for exampleto influence readers, they destroy their own credibility and authority. Social/Ethical: an appeal to the readers sense of right and wrong. We want our readers to view us as good, trustworthy people; therefore it is important that we establish a shared sense of ethics and we establish our credibility.

Beware the Inappropriate AppealAgain, of the three, the emotional appeal is the most dangerous and should be used the most sparingly. Why? Because writers with little concrete support for their claims often resort to manipulating readers with fear tactics or to exploiting readers insecurities. Skeptical readersyour college-level audiencewill always be alert to such manipulation. An inappropriate appeal always renders your argument ineffective because it makes readers question your credibility and your ethics.

Appeals continuedThough argumentation emphasizes logical appeal and rational reasoning, that does not mean that it cannot involve the other levels of appeal.

3.0 Nods to the oppositionA rhetorical strategy whereby a writer acknowledges the points of view of those that do not agree with him or her in order to refute (disprove) that position.

4.0 Sense of Purpose This boils down to two all important questions: What do you want to accomplish in your essay? Do you want to correct a misconception or straighten a record? Do you want to prove or disprove a particular point of view? What do you want readers to do when theyve finished reading your piece?

5.0 Strong claimArgumentative writing takes a stand; it requires that the writer stick his/her neck out and make a claim. This claim comes in the essay as a strong thesis

6.0 Clear Sense of AudienceIn argumentative writing, it is best to assume that you are writing for an educated, skeptically neutral audience. They may not be hostile to your claim(s), but they need to be convinced.

6.0 Clear Sense of AudienceEffective argumentation depends upon having a clear sense of audience. Who a writer is attempting to convince controls the types of evidence selected and the form of argument.

6.0 Clear Sense of AudienceYou must accommodate the views of your audience even if you are arguing with those views. Nobody wants to be lectured to or to be told that he or she is a bad person for having certain views, beliefs.

Other Things to Consider: FallaciesStatements that may sound reasonable or true but are deceptive and dishonest. The most common are

Fallacies: Examples ContinuedBegging the question: assumes in the premise what the arguer should be trying to prove. This tactic asks readers to agree that certain points are self-evident when they are not. Ex.: The unfair and shortsighted legislation that limits free-trade is clearly a threat to the American economy

More on FallaciesFalse analogy: Asks readers to assume two things are comparable when they, in fact, are not.Ex: The overcrowded conditions in some parts of our city have forced people together like rats in a cage. Like rats, they will eventually turn on one another, fighting and killing until a balance is restored. No evidence is offered that people behave like rats under these or any other conditions.

More FallaciesPersonal Attack: Tries to divert attention from the facts of an argument by attacking the motives or character of the person making the argument. Ex. The public should not take seriously Dr. Masons plan for upgrading county health services. He is a recovering alcoholic and his second wife just left him.

Fallacies Cont.Hasty or Sweeping Generalization: when a conclusion is based on too little evidence.Our daughter Maggy really benefited from nursery school; every child should go.Either/Or Fallacy: Assumes only two alternatives exist thought there may be othersWe must choose between life or death, between intervention and genocide. There can be no neutral position.

Still MoreRed Herring: When the focus of an argument is changed to divert the audience from the actual issueEx.The mayor has proposed building a new baseball-only sports stadium. How can he even consider allocating millions to this irresponsible scheme when so many professional baseball players have drug problems?Appeal to Doubtful Authority: Citing people who may have name recognition but no authority on an issue.Ex. According to the late Joey Ramone, interest rates will remain low during the next fiscal year.

Fallacies: Examples ContinuedMisleading statistics: a misrepresentation or distortion of statistics.Ex. Women will never be competent firefighters; after all, 50% of the women in the citys training program failed the exam. The writer has neglected to mention that there were only two women in the program. Because this stats is not based on a large enough sample, iti s unreliable

Fallacies: Examples ContinuedPost hoc reasoningNon sequitur

Fallacies: Examples ContinuedSee Michael Fumentos Article for an example of an argumentative essay directed at debunking bad science, http://www.fumento.com/outlooksci.html

Another Point to COnsider: DocumentationAll points in your paper must be supported and all of your evidence must be documented. If you dont document your sour sources your readers are likely to dismiss your evidence as inaccurate, unreliable, or false. Documentation gives readers the ability to judge the sources you cite and to consult them if they wish. When you document your sources you are telling readers that your are honest and have nothing to hide.You dont have to document every idea in your paper. Common knowledge can be presented without documentation. The trick is figuring out what is common knowledge.

By evidence we mean all the verifiable information a writer might use as support for an argument. This includes facts, observations, examples, cases, testimony, experimental findings, survey data, statistics Each type of evidence has pros and cons, and should be viewed in thersm of the rhetorical situation: what will work best to sway my audience? How can I frame the data to make my case? By this we also mean to draw attention to the writers rhetorical choices. Where each of us stands on issue is partly a function of our own critical thinking, inquiry, and research. But it is also a function of who we are as peopleour values and beliefs as informed by the particular issues of our family history, our education, our gender and sexual orientation, our age, class and ethnicity, and all the others aspects of us that give us a unique view of the world. All our baggage in other words. An example of this might be my personal history with dyslexia or my family history of heart disease: these private issues inform many of my reactions and responses to broader national issues such as education reform and advances in health care. Today we are going to focus on EVIDENCE Remember, extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. An audience likely to argue with your position will need more evidence than one likely to agree with you. Take again the case of Iraq and WMD. Tony Blair, Britains PM may have to resign because the case he made for sending British troops relied on inaccurate information that stated that Iraq has a 45 minute launch capability against British troops. It has since been revealed that this statement was not accurate. In 45 minutes Iraq could launch ground troops, but NOT WMD. As a result, his credibility is shot and many argue he has lost his effectiveness as a leader. Of course, facts need to be treated carefully: what one writer considers a fact might not be considered as such by an opponent. For example, if my ultra liberal Granny states as a fact that the 2000 presidential election was robbed from Al Gore, my ultra conservative brother-in-law could dispute this claim and state as a fact that regardless of how many times those Florida ballots were counted, someone was going to call foul. It is extremely important to use sources your reader trusts. For this reason, as a writer you should be aware of the bias or angle of your sources. Know whether the National Review is liberal or conservative. Know whether skeptics can raise doubts about sufficiency, typicality and relevance of the data. For example, when Joey Ramone surmised that the stock market would continue to boom right before the 2001 crash, those that heeded his advice were later asked why they followed the advice of a musician and not of qualified stock analysts or brokers. Another example, today there are questions surrounding the kinds of evidence the US and Britain used to justify the war on Iraq. What is becoming clear is that the testimony given by Iraqi expatriates and intelligence operatives about Saddams WMD was not credible for one reason or another.

Testimony is frequently used when data are too technical or complex for lay audiences to understand easily. Testimony is best when used alongside actual data from experimental reports, research studies, surveys, interviews, etc. Two kinds: examples from personal experience and knowledge, and personal observation or field researchPersonal experience data has the advantage of giving your argument a human face. It can help readers identify with an issue and show a writers personal connection to an issue. On the flip side, it can be attacked as inaccurate, nontypical, or insufficient for supporting a claim. Often personal evidence is netralized by skeptics who claim a Hasty or Sweeping Generalization: when a conclusion is based on too little evidence.Our daughter Maggy really benefited from nursery school; every child should go.

Be careful when playing with or reading statistics as they can be calculated and displayed in different ways to achieve different results.

You should always look for a note about the margin of error and for information about the statistical sampling: how many people were surveyed, for example, and what questions were they asked. The survey question, Do you think medical malpractice insurance is too high? coaches for different answer than a question that asks, Should doctors be accountable for patient injuries incurred as a result of their care.

Also beware of the misleading statistic: Misleading statistics: a misrepresentation or distortion of statistics.Ex. Women will never be competent firefighters; after all, 50% of the women in the citys training program failed the exam.

The writer has neglected to mention that there were only two women in the program. Because this stats is not based on a large enough sample, it is unreliable

See the essay on the Texas Miracle for more on this.