armies of mesoamerica

8/20/2019 Armies of Mesoamerica

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irst Pu-lished in .reat /ritain in 1000 -( oundr( /oos

Hu-ert2s 3ane

4o(le 5oad

&t Peter Port

.uernse( .61 15.

Tel "1%1 71+1

Cop(ri8ht 9 1000 -( Ian Heath

The ri8ht of Ian Heath to -e identified as the author

of this :or has -een asserted in accordance

:ith sections 77 and 7% of theCop(ri8ht 4esi8ns and Patents Act 10%%*


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I&/N 1#0"1!;#;%#+

I&/N 07%#1#0"1!;#;%#

Print I&/N< 07%10"1!;";+

4i8ital I&/N< 07%10"1!;;%

All ri8hts reserved* No part of this pu-lication ma(

-e reproduced, stored in a retrieval s(stem, or transmittedin an( form or -( an( means, electronic, mechanical,

photocop(in8, recordin8 or other:ise, :ithout the prior

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Other -oos -( the same author<

Armies and Enemies of the Crusades 1096–1291 =>5. 107%?

Byzantine Armies 886–1118 =Ospre( 1070?

Armies of the Dark Aes 600–1066 +nd edition =>5. 10%"?

A !aramers" #uide to the Crusades =Patric &tephens 10%"?

Armies of the $iddle Aes )ol*1 =>5. 10%+?

Armies of the $iddle Aes )ol*+ =>5. 10%?

The %ikins =Ospre( 10%!?

Armies of &eudal Euro'e 1066–1(00 +nd edition =>5. 10%0?

The )rish !ars 1*8+–160( =Ospre( 100;?

The Tai'in ,e-ellion 18+1–66 =Ospre( 100?

Byzantine Armies 1118–1*61 AD =Ospre( 100!?

Armies of the .i/teenth Century )ol*1 =oundr( /oos 1007?

Armies of the ineteenth Century Asia )ol*1 =oundr( /oos 100%?

Armies of the ineteenth Century Asia )ol*+ =oundr( /oos 100%?

The orthEast &rontier 18(3–1901 =Ospre( 1000?


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INTRODUCTION

One of the principal pro-lems encountered in :ritin8 this -oo has -een the difficult( of stoppin8 it from

-ecomin8 either an anthropolo8ical surve(, or a histor( of 1$th centur( e'ploration* Preventin8 it from doin8

either has not -een alto8ether possi-le, nor, perhaps, entirel( desira-le, since in contrast to the relative

uniformit( of much of >estern Europe -( this time, it :as their cultural diversit( :hich ena-led the American

peoples to -e told apart, -oth amon8 themselves and -( the earl( European e'plorers :hose :ritin8s are ourmain source of information* Nevertheless, I have tried to concentrate principall( on those aspects of their dress

and customs :hich are most relevant to their militar( rather than their social or8anisation @ thou8h the t:o

:ere often insepara-le @ and to their st(le of fi8htin8, -oth a8ainst each other and, :ith var(in8 de8rees of

success, a8ainst the European invaders*

It is not an alto8ether prett( stor(* All the earl( European vo(a8es of e'ploration :ere distin8uished -( the

pride, i8norance, 8reed, and casual -rutalit( of the maorit( of their participants* None of the earl( colonial

po:ers @ &pain, Portu8al, rance, and En8land @ :ere entirel( innocent in this conte't, -ut of them all it

:as the &panish 4on5uistadores :ho proved to -e the -ravest, the most determined, and (et at the same time

the ver( :orst am-assadors that an alien civilisation could ever hope to foist upon an unsuspectin8 Ne:

>orld* The( had their critics even :ithin &pain, nota-l( in the person of /artolomB de 3as Casas, :ho :rote

that &paniards operatin8 in the Americas acted lie ravenin8 -easts, illin8, terrorisin8, afflictin8, torturin8,

and destro(in8 the native peoples, :ith the stran8est and most varied ne: methods of cruelt(*2 It :as this sort

of oppro-rium that led to the so#called /lac 3e8end2 of &panish malevolence, :hich En8land in particular

e'ploited to considera-le political advanta8e at the time, and :hich to a 8reater or lesser de8ree has coloured

forei8n attitudes to:ards &pain and &panish#speain8 countries ever since*

Althou8h the vaunted mi8ht of the fa-ulous Aztec and Inca empires2 collapsed lie a prover-ial house of

cards in the face of European militar( e'pertise, success proved pro8ressivel( less eas( to come -( for the

conquerors as the centur( ran its course* 4espite -ein8 decimated -( the ne: diseases :hich accompanied

each European e'pedition, numerous unsophisticated American peoples proved resilient enou8h to :ithstand

and sometimes even to turn -ac the invaders* &ome :ere not conquered for centuries, :hile others chose to

-e decimated to the point of e'tinction rather than su-mit* As Doseph de Acosta o-served in the 1!%"s< 3et noman thin that the Indians are of no consequence and if the( do thin so, then let them 8o and put it to the

test*2

>herever possi-le the line dra:in8s :hich illustrate this volume are taen directl( from, or at the ver(

least -ased on, pictures -( 1$th centur( artists or pu-lished in 1$th centur( -oos* An( reconstructions that

have -een necessitated -( the a-sence of survivin8 contemporar( illustrations are -ased instead on

archaeolo8ical finds, 1!th or 17th centur( representations, and the detailed descriptions of e(e#:itnesses*

Needless to sa(, I have not attempted to deal :ith ever( Amerindian people, ust those :ith :hom the

4on5uistadores and other European adventurers came into more than fleetin8 contact durin8 the course of the

period under revie:* Nor are individual European conquests or Indian re-ellions covered in an( detail, that not

-ein8 the specific purpose of this series* I have concentrated instead on the or8anisation, fi8htin8 st(le, and

appearance of the opposin8 forces, and am hopeful that the end product :ill surprise a 8reat man( readers :hohad previousl( thou8ht that the conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires2 constituted the sum total of &panish

militar( activit( in the Ne: >orld in 5enaissance times*

Ian Heath

4ecem-er 100%

CONTENTS

The Caribbean 1492–1603 …...................... 7

Mesa!eri"a ".14#0–1600 ….................... 26

S$%h &!eri"a 1#00–1600 ….................... '#Nr%h &!eri"a 1497–160' ...................... 121

S(anish &!eri"a 1492–1600 …............... 14#

)ib*i+ra(h, …......................................... 170


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The Cari--ean 10+F1$";


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T-E EST INDIES

The islands that 8o to mae up the >est Indies

consist of the 3esser Antilles, the .reater Antilles,

and the /ahamas* It is 8enerall( a8reed that :henthe &paniards arrived the four main islands of the

.reater Antilles @ Cu-a, Hispaniola, Damaica, and

Puerto 5ico @ :ere no:n respectivel( to their

native populations as Cu-a, A(ti =:hence modern

Haiti?, 6ama(e or Ga(maca =spelt Damai8ua2 -(

1!"+?, and /oriquBn or /orichi* Ho:ever, Pietro

artire d2An8hiera =more usuall( referred to in

En8lish -oos as Peter art(r? :rote that the

native name for Hispaniola :as actuall(

Juizquella, and it seems that A(ti =:hich meant

rou8h hi8hlands2? actuall( referred onl( to amountainous re8ion in the east of the island* The

.reater and 3esser Antilles :ere peopled

principall( -( Ara:as1 and Cari-s respectivel(,

:hile an earlier Ara:a people, the 3uca(os,

inha-ited the /ahamas =the &paniards consequentl(

referrin8 to these islands as the Islas 3uca(as?*

T-E &R&&/S

i8ratin8 north:ards from the coasts of)enezuela and .uiana either side of the Orinoco

delta, the Ara:as had occupied the entire >est

Indian archipela8o durin8 the course of the first

millennium A4* >hen the &paniards arrived in

10+, ho:ever, the( :ere themselves in the throes

of -ein8 pushed steadil( north -( the Cari-s* The(

lived in lar8e a8ricultural communities consistin8

of loose, unfortified clusters of houses, each villa8e

8enerall( havin8 a population of 1F+,"""* The(

:ere 8overned -( hereditar( chieftains called

4a4i5ues, a term :hich the &paniards su-sequentl(

utilised indiscriminatel( to refer to the native rulers

found in ever( corner of the Americas* Amon8 the

Ara:as the office of cacique seems to have

8enerall( descended from father to eldest son, -ut if

a cacique left no sons of his o:n then his sister2s

son inherited instead* If a cacique inherited in this

:a( @ i*e* via his mother @ then at his death it

:as her nearest relative :ho succeeded, not his* In

Puerto 5ico and Hispaniola at least this method of

succession occasionall( resulted in the e'istence offemale caciques, nota-le amon8st :hom :ere

Hi8uanama, cacique of Hi8Ke(, and Anacaona, :ho

succeeded to the chieftainship of Gara8ua at the

death of her -rother /ehBchio*

In the four main islands of the .reater Antilles

some caciques :ielded considera-le po:er over a

domain :hich mi8ht encompass man( villa8es

e'tendin8 over a considera-le tract of territor(*

E'cept in Puerto 5ico, :here a sin8le cacique

=A8ue(-anL? seems to have held s:a(, each island

appears to have consisted of several principal and

numerous smaller chiefdoms, or 4a4i4azos, as the

&paniards called them* Those of the principalcaciques :ere su-divided into -et:een ten and t:o

dozen smaller districts under lesser caciques*

Damaica, for instance, had -et:een ei8ht and ten

main 4a4i4azos, :hile Cu-a had perhaps si'*

Hispaniola had five, comprisin8 those of the

chieftains .uacana8ari of arien, Colum-us2 lo(al

all( .uarione' of a8ua Caona-M of a8uana

a(o-ane' and Cotu-anama of Hi8Ke( and

/ehBchio of Gara8ua* Thou8h lea8ues :ere

occasionall( formed, individual caciques acted

lar8el( independentl( of one another =on oneoccasion, durin8 the Puerto 5ican re-ellion a8ainst

the &paniards in 1!11, an alliance :as even formed

:ith the chiefs of the nei8h-ourin8 island of &t*

Croi'?*2 /elo: the caciques came their -lood#in,

adopted or other:ise, called nitanos* The

&paniards considered these to -e no-les, and

recorded that in :artime the( provided the caciques

:ith their -od(8uards, :hile in peacetime the(

assisted in the 8overnment of individual villa8es*

4espite the estimates of earl( &panish e'plorers

that there :ere a million or more Ara:as inHispaniola alone =a census of 10!$ 8ives 1*1;

million, at a time :hen num-ers in &panish#

controlled areas of the island had alread( declined

-( perhaps t:o#thirds?, and that there :ere a further

$"",""" on Puerto 5ico and Damaica, it seems

liel( that their true num-ers :ere pro-a-l(

smaller* odern estimates of the population at first

contact var( dramaticall(, from +"",""" up:ards,

-ut it is certainl( possi-le that there :ere as man(

as a million in all* Ho:ever, in a pattern that :as to

recur repeatedl( throu8hout the Ne: >orld

thereafter, these num-ers dropped dramaticall(

follo:in8 the arrival of the 4on5uistadores, as :ar,

disease, starvation, and enslavement too their toll*

The Ara:a population of Hispaniola, :hich ma(

have stood at +!"F;"",""" in 10+, had dropped to

$",""" -( as earl( as 1!"%, and to 11,""" -( 1!1%*

/( the 1!;"s there :ere said to -e less than !""*

The stor( :as the same else:here* /( 1!!" ust

1,""" free Ara:as :ere left of Cu-a2s estimated

pre#Conquest population of 1"",""", and onl( $"could -e found on Puerto 5ico in 1!+, :hile the

/ahamas had -een entirel( depopulated -( &panish

slave#raids as earl( as 1!1;*3 Thou8h a fe: isolated

pocets ma( have survived lon8 enou8h to mer8e

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:ith the incomin8 &panish population, the Ara:as

of Hispaniola, Damaica, and Puerto 5ico :ere all

effectivel( e'tinct -( the middle of the centur(*

In addition to the Ara:as proper, there :as a

su-#8roup called the Ci8ua(o livin8 in the

mountains and alon8 the north#east coast of

Hispaniola, :ho spoe a different lan8ua8e*

Colum-us descri-es those of Ca(a-o, :ho he calls

the acori', as -ein8 of stran8e speech2, ando-serves that the( and the lon8#haired2 Ci8ua(o of

Huha-o province :ere more :arlie than the

Ara:as* &ince, unlie most Ara:as, the( are

recorded to have used -o:s, it is conceiva-le that

the( :ere of mi'ed Ara:aFCari- descent,

ethnolo8ists havin8 noticed other distinctive Cari-

traits in the mea8re evidence availa-le2* The( are

said to have -een a-le to raise 1!,""" :arriors*

)esti8es of the .reater Antilles2 a-ori8inal

population also survived alon8side the Ara:as in

some areas* /artolomB de 3as Casas sa(s these:ere called .uanahaca-i-es, -ut toda( the( are

8enerall( referred to as Ci-one(s =as a result of an

earl( misreadin8 of 3as Casas?* Another source

sa(s the( :ere referred to as Cenavas, meanin8

fleet as deer2* A considera-l( more primitive

people than the Ara:as, the( follo:ed a nomadic

e'istence, feedin8 themselves -( huntin8 and

fishin8 rather than a8riculture, and livin8 in

temporar( camps :hich :ere often in caves* /( the

time the &paniards arrived the Ci-one( :ere

confined to :estern and isolated parts of centralCu-a, and the south#:est corner of Hispaniola*

The( still constituted perhaps as much as 1" of

Cu-a2s population, and thou8h e'perts differ

re8ardin8 e'actl( ho: much territor( the( held, it is

si8nificant that, despite havin8 Ara:a names, the

five :estern#most Cu-an provinces2 mentioned -(

earl( &panish :riters @ .uanahaca-i-es,

.uani8uanico, arien, Ha-ana, and HanL-ana @

all contain :idespread evidence of Ci-one(

occupation -ut little of Ara:a*

>ith the e'ception of the 3uca(os, Ara:a

Indians :ere 8enerall( shorter than the &paniards*

The( had a copper#coloured comple'ion descri-ed

-( contemporaries as reddish2, clear -ro:n2, or a

chestnut colour2, and deformed their sulls from

-irth so that the( had -road, flat foreheads* This

ma( have -een a factor in the claim made -( some

&paniards that their sulls :ere so thic that the

&paniards often -roe their s:ords in hittin8 them*2

The Ci-one(, ho:ever, didn2t indul8e in cranial

deformation* The Ara:as appear to have :orntheir -lac hair in a variet( of st(les, 3as Casas

descri-in8 it as lon8 and tied in a not either on the

forehead or at the -ac of the sull* Colum-us2

companion 4ie8o Chanca sa(s that the Ara:as of

Hispaniola had their heads shaved in places and in

places have tufts of tan8led hair of such shapes that

it cannot -e descri-ed2, :hile Colum-us himself

:rote in 10+ that the 3uca(os :ore theirs short

do:n to the e(e-ro:s, e'cept a fe: locs -ehind,

:hich the( :ear lon8 and never cut*2 The Ci8ua(o

:ore theirs :aist#len8th, dra:n -ac and fastened

-ehind, and put into a small net of parrots2

feathers2, :hich Colum-us descri-es as plumes offeathers of parrots and other -irds2 :orn -ehind the

head*

All the sources a8ree that the( :ent lar8el(

naed, .onzalo ernLndez de Oviedo =1!+!? -ein8

alone in mentionin8 the :earin8 of a certain leaf as

-road as a man2s hand2 =presuma-l( a penis sheath?

to conceal their private parts* It :as onl( after the

Conquest that 8enital coverin8s :ere :idel(

adopted* The Damaican Ara:as, ho:ever, are

descri-ed -( AndrBs /ernLldez in 10 as havin8

the -reast and stomach covered :ith palm leaves2, pro-a-l( indicatin8 some sort of short plaited palm

8arment*

ost men decorated themselves e'tensivel(

:ith -lac, :hite, red =especiall( for :ar?, and

(ello: paint, at least some such decoration tain8

the form of tattoos* /ernLldez descri-ed the

Damaican Ara:as as painted a thousand colours,

-ut the maorit( -lac2, :hile Colum-us descri-ed

the 3uca(os as paintin8 themselves -lac, :hite,

red, or an( colour that the( find* &ome of them

paint their faces, others the :hole -od(, some onl(round the e(es, others onl( the nose*2 Oviedo tells

us that the Ara:as of Hispaniola and Cu-a

tattooed their -odies :ith the ima8es of their

demons in -lac colour2* The Ci-one( are

specificall( descri-ed as usin8 red and (ello: paint,

:hile the Ci8ua(o are said to have stained

themselves completel( -lac :ith charcoal, some

encountered in -attle -( the &paniards in 10%

-ein8 descri-ed as all painted and spotted, -lac

and red2*

/od( ornaments comprised pendants, ear#plu8s,

and nose#plu8s of 8old or coloured stone, and

neclaces of seeds, seashells, or -eads of a variet(

of materials, includin8 mar-le, cla(, -one, and

:hite, 8reen, and red stones* One -ead neclace

presented to Colum-us comprised %"" stone -eads,

-ut most comprised pro-a-l( no more than a fe:

score* .reen and :hite stones mi8ht also -e

inserted in the chees and forehead* Caciques and

nitanos :ere distin8uished -( their ornaments, 3as

Casas descri-in8 such men as :earin8 in addition -racelets, anlets, earrin8s as lar8e as -racelets,

and, as a s(m-ol of a cacique2s ran, a pectoral

variousl( descri-ed as moon, disc, or fleur#de#lis

shaped and as lar8e as a plate2* All these


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decorations :ere of 8old or a 8old#copper allo(

called uarin or tum-aa* 5adial coronets of

coloured feathers :ere also :orn, /ernLldez

mentionin8 seein8 such coronets of -oth :hite and

8reen feathers set ver( close to8ether2 amon8st the

no-le retinue of a Damaican cacique, others of

:hom :ore :hat he descri-es as a lar8e plume in

the shape of a zelada Qsalade helmetR2* He also

mentions that the principal cacique he sa: in 10:ore a lar8e open cro:n of small stones, 8reen and

red, arran8ed in order, and intermin8led :ith some

lar8er :hite stones And he also :ore a lar8e

ornament hun8 over his forehead, and from his ears

t:o lar8e diss of 8old :ere suspended -( some

little strin8s of ver( small 8reen stones* Althou8h

he :as naed, he :ore a 8irdle, of the same

:ormanship as the cro:n, and all the rest of his

-od( :as e'posed*2 The forehead ornament :as

pro-a-l( one of the small stone fi8ures of men,

representin8 their 8ods, :hich Ara:a :arriors:ore on their foreheads in -attle* These little

fi8urines :ere depicted :ith their nees dra:n up

and a prominent penis*

Numerous earl( e'plorers remared on the

peaceful disposition of the Ara:as, and especiall(

those of Damaica and Cu-a Colum-us, for instance,

repeatedl( descri-es them as un:arlie2* The( are

said to have :arred amon8 themselves onl( rarel(,

thou8h the( often had to defend their villa8es

a8ainst Cari- raids launched from the 3esser

Antilles* The Ara:as of Puerto 5ico :ere themost :arlie, dou-tless as a result of sufferin8 the

8reatest num-er of Cari- attacs*

Characteristic Ara:a :eapons :ere spears,

thro:n stones, darts =hurled -( means of spear#

thro:ers?, and t:o#handed palm:ood s:ords2

called ma4anas* The macana :as actuall( a variet(

of clu-, descri-ed as -ein8 lon8 and heav(, t:o

fin8ers thic narro:in8 to the ed8es, and capa-le of

cleavin8 throu8h even a helmeted &panish head at a

sin8le -lo:* The spear#thro:ers @ :hich for :ant

of a -etter :ord the &paniards initiall( called

tiraderos =slin8s2? @ :ere less sophisticated than

those later found in esoamerica =for :hich see the

te't accompan(in8 i8ure ;!?, and comprised no

more than a 8rooved :ooden stic :ith a fish-one

pe8 at one end and a pair of -raided#cotton loops

for the first t:o fin8ers at the other* 4ie8o Chanca

recorded in 10; that usin8 these, the Hispaniolan

Ara:as could shoot their fire#hardened darts to a

considera-le distance :ith much accurac(2* Oviedo

mentions that the points of such darts @ :hich:ere tipped :ith a sharpened piece of :ood, a

fish2s tooth, or sundr( other natural materials @

:ere desi8ned to -rea off in the :ound* A more

unusual Ara:a :eapon :as a variet( of stinpot,

in :hich no'ious 8as :as 8enerated -( addin8

pepper to -urnin8 coals contained in a cla( pot*

Thou8h -o:s :ere also used in some quarters

their distri-ution :as erratic, and the( seem to have

-een found predominantl( in those areas most

influenced or threatened -( the Cari-s* The -o:

:as not found at all in Cu-a at first contact, 4 for

instance, -ut :as :idel( used in Puerto 5ico and

amon8 the Ci8ua(o of Hispaniola and their Ara:anei8h-ours in the 4a4i4azo of Hi8Ke(, :here it

:as more often found in the hands of no-les than

commoners* Colum-us descri-es Ci8ua(o -o:s

-ein8 as lar8e as those of rance and En8land2,

and their unfletched arro:s as a 7ara and a half or +

7aras lon8 =the 7ara -ein8 the len8th of a man2s

arm, or ;; ins% cm?, tipped :ith the same

materials as the darts descri-ed a-ove after the

arrival of the &paniards iron nails :ere also utilised*

Ci8ua(o and Hi8Ke( arro:s :ere customaril(

poisoned usin8 a local her-, -ut those of the Puerto5ico Ara:as :ere not* Colum-us states that the

Ci8ua(o didn2t shoot as in other parts, -ut in a

certain :a( :hich cannot do much harm*2

3ittle is recorded of Ara:a tactics* Thou8h,

lie other Indians, the( appear to have favoured the

use of am-ushes and surprise attacs, the( are also

recorded to have fielded lar8e phalan'es of men in

the open field :hen fi8htin8 the &paniards, :hich

:ere led -( musicians :ith conch#shell trumpets

=AndrBs /ernLldez mentions the Damaican Ara:as

usin8 -lac :ooden trumpets :ith ela-oratecarvin8s of -irds and other conceits2?* The( ma(

also have had fla8s of some sort, the Damaican

cacique descri-ed -( /ernLldez havin8 a :hite

-anner :ith no desi8n on it2* Ara:a :arriors too

8reat pride in their a-ilit( to dod8e missiles, and

practised this at ever( opportunit(*

Trinia

The Ara:as :ho survived the Cari- mi8ration

in some corners of the 3esser Antilles :ere no:n

as I8neri, a Cari- term* The( :ere said to -e more

:arlie than other Ara:as, :hich dou-tless

e'plains ho: the( survived in the first place* The

-ul of them :ere to -e found in Trinidad and

To-a8o, a &panish report of 1!+" acno:led8in8

that the( also occupied the islands of /ar-ados,

.i8antes, and ar8arita* There :ere, nevertheless,

several attempts -( the &paniards to 8et Trinidad2s

population officiall( redesi8nated as Cari-, in orderthat it could -e le8all( enslaved =the island :as

-ein8 ille8all( raided for slaves from 1!1" on?, and,

ironicall(, Cari-s did indeed -e8in to settle on the

island in the course of the 1$th centur(, havin8

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apparentl( esta-lished themselves on the northern

coast -( c*1!;"* ar8arita2s I8neri population

seems to have -een similarl( displaced -( Cari-s

-( the 1!$"s at the latest*

Colum-us had discovered Trinidad in 10%, and

it theoreticall( -elon8ed to his famil( from that

time until Antonio &edeSo attempted to esta-lish

the first &panish settlements there in the 1!;"s,

:hich had to -e a-andoned in the face of fierceopposition from the Indians inha-itin8 the north#

east corner of the island =pro-a-l( Cari-s?* Other

attempts at colonisation in 1!!; and 1!$0F7" :ere

similarl( unsuccessful, and permanent occupation

onl( commenced in 1!0+ :ith the foundation of

&an DosB =saced -( &ir >alter 5alei8h en route to

.uiana in arch 1!0!#?* As else:here in the >est

Indies, the native population :ent into catastrophic

decline after the arrival of the &paniards* Trinidad2s

estimated +"",""" I8neri inha-itants in 1!; had

-een halved -( 1!7", and stood at ust ;!F",""" -( c*1!0!* >hen the /ritish captured Trinidad +""

(ears later there :ere onl( a thousand Indians left*

In 8eneral appearance the I8neri :ere similar to

the Ara:as of the .reater Antilles, 8oin8 naed

e'cept for a -elt* Ho:ever, the( also demonstrated

Cari- and even mainland )enezuelan

characteristics* Their chiefs :ore 8old pectorals,

and 8old cro:ns2 and ea8le#shaped frontlets on

their heads, :hile their :arriors painted themselves

red, :ore their hair lon8 lie the Cari-s, had

coloured cotton head-ands, and :ore featherdecoration* Armament consisted of spears, darts,

spear#thro:ers, macanas, slin8s, and -o:s firin8

feathered arro:s tipped :ith poisoned -one heads*

nlie the Ara:as of the .reater Antilles the(

also used shields, descri-ed as -ein8 round or

rectan8ular*

The S(anish Cn$es%

>hen, in 10+, Christopher Colum-us

discovered the /ahamas, follo:ed -( Cu-a and

Hispaniola =3a Isla EspaSola?, he :as actuall(

looin8 for the ar East, and initiall( -elieved that

Cu-a :as Dapan, or possi-l( a peninsula of

mainland China or some other place in the Indies

=:hence the inha-itants :ere mistaenl( referred to

ever after as Indians2?* 5eturnin8 :ith 17 ships and

some 1,+"" men in Novem-er 10;, he esta-lished

the first permanent &panish settlement in theAmericas at Isa-ela, on Hispaniola, -ut almost

immediatel( met :ith resistance from the lar8er

part of the Ara:a population* Tain8 the field

a8ainst them :ith ust +"" foot, +" horse, and a

contin8ent of pro#&panish Indian au'iliaries @ the

e( to ever( 1$th centur( &panish success in the

Ne: >orld @ Colum-us defeated the main

Ara:a -od( at the /attle of )e8a 5eal in late#

arch 10!* Another re-ellion erupted in 10%,

:hen Ci8ua(os -esie8ed the settlement of

ConcepciMn, -ut Colum-us :as a8ain a-le to

disperse them at the head of a-out a hundred

&paniards -aced up -( ;,""" Ara:a au'iliaries,traditional enemies of the Ci8ua(o* 4espite his

militar( successes, his incompetence as an

administrator nevertheless led to Colum-us -ein8

replaced as 8overnor in 1!"" -( rancisco de

/o-adilla* He :as succeeded in turn -( NicolLs de

Ovando =1!"+F0?, :ho conquered Gara8ua in 1!";

=after -rutall( e'terminatin8 its caciques at a

:elcomin8 feast and han8in8 their queen,

Anacaona? and Hi8Ke( in 1!", eliminatin8

Hispaniola2s last po:erful independent cacique* In

1!+", ho:ever, Enriquillo, the ne: cacique ofGara8ua, re-elled, and onl( su-mitted on

favoura-le terms in 1!;; after the &paniards had

-een una-le to defeat him in the field* &panish

control of the island :as consolidated -( the

foundation of as man( as 1! ne: to:ns durin8

Ovando2s term as 8overnor*

Colum-us2 second vo(a8e of 10;F0 had also

discovered the 3esser Antilles, Puerto 5ico, and

Damaica* The island of Puerto 5ico :as actuall(

named &an Duan /autista -( Colum-us, -ut -ecause

of :hat .irolamo /enzoni terms the a-undance of8old and silver found there2 it soon -ecame &an

Duan de uerto ,i4o =the rich port2?* Its

colonisation -e8an in 1!"%, the Indians puttin8 up

little resistance, perhaps looin8 upon the &paniards

as potential allies a8ainst the Cari-s, :ho had

alread( esta-lished themselves in eastern parts of

the island* /( 1!11, ho:ever, the( had endured as

much as the( could stand of the &paniards2

depredations and cruelt( and re-elled under the

leadership of caciques .ua(-anL and .uarione',

:ho even received support from the local Cari-s*

4espite initial success =/enzoni reports that the(

illed a-out 1!" &paniards :ho :ere dispersed

a-out the island seein8 8old2?, the re-ellion :as

crushed -( Duan Ponce de 3eMn -( Dune*

Colum-us had -een stranded on Damaica for a

(ear in 1!";F, -ut its first formal &panish

settlement :as not esta-lished until 1!"0, :hen his

son 4ie8o ColMn =8overnor of Hispaniola 1!"0F1!

and 1!1%F+$? sent Duan de Esquivel to occup( the

island* His e'pedition appears to have met :ith noresistance, the Damaican Ara:as -ein8 found to -e

of a ver( pacific temperament* Damaica remained a

colonial -ac:ater thereafter until it :as eventuall(

seized from &pain -( the /ritish in 1$!!* Its native

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population :as virtuall( e'tinct -( as earl( as 1!10*

On discoverin8 Cu-a in 10+ Colum-us had

initiall( called it Duana, -ut its native name had

soon prevailed* It :as not until 1!11 that the first

&panish settlement :as esta-lished, and Cu-a

remained less important than Hispaniola for the rest

of this period, despite its capital Havana -ein8 a

vital sta8in8 post for fleets home:ard#-ound to

&pain* The ;""#stron8 e'pedition :hich 4ie8oColMn had sent to occup( Cu-a in 1!11 :as

commanded -( 4ie8o )elLzquez, :ho -( 1!1! had

conquered much of its eastern half* Ho:ever, the

rest of the island, especiall( remote parts of the

:est, remained unsu-dued, and after the maorit( of

4on5uistadores had moved to the mainland durin8

and in the immediate aftermath of CortBs2 conquest

of e'ico, a 8eneral Indian re-ellion erupted in

1!+;* Thou8h this :as rapidl( suppressed,

lin8erin8 pocets of resistance persisted into the

1!!"s, flarin8 up into re-ellion :henever theopportunit( arose, nota-l( in 1!;%F :hen the

&paniards suffered several reverses*

In the first three decades of the centur( the tin(

&panish presence in the >est Indies :as seriousl(

:eaened -( the launchin8 of e'peditions to the

mainland, :hich frequentl( all -ut depopulated

Cu-a, Damaica, and Puerto 5ico* The fact that fe:

of those :ho set out on such enterprises ever

returned meant that the &panish population 8re:

onl( slo:l(* There :ere still onl( a-out 7""

&paniards on Cu-a in 1!!", and onl( 1,!"" onDamaica even at the -e8innin8 of the 17th centur(*

A report of 1!%+ put the entire free population of

Hispaniola at ust +,""", even :hen Indians,

mestizos =people of Euro#Amerindian mi'ed

parenta8e?, and mulattoes =people of Euro#African

mi'ed parenta8e? :ere included*

T-E C&RI)S

The Cari-s2 name @ more properl( rendered

Caliponam, Calina8o, or Calino, meanin8 harmful

nation2 or quarrelsome people2 @ :as 8iven to

them -( the Ara:as on account of their raidin8

propensities* Colum-us rendered their name

Cari-ales, :hich, -ecause the Cari-s :ere eaters of

human flesh =the( ate their enemies2 -odies in order

to inherit their :arlie qualities?, 8ave rise to our

:ord canni-als2*6 The( had alread( driven the

Ara:as out of most of the 3esser Antilles -efore

the &paniards arrived, and -( the late#1!th centur(:ere re8ularl( raidin8 south:ards a8ainst Trinidad

and the coasts of )enezuela and .uiana, especiall(

the Orinoco delta re8ion and north:ards to Puerto

5ico and Hispaniola, possi-l( even fora(in8 as far

as Cu-a and the /ahamas* The( had occupied the

offshore Puerto 5ican island of )ieques, and had

started to esta-lish permanent footholds alon8 the

southern and eastern coasts of Puerto 5ico itself, so

it seems liel( that -ut for the &panish Conquest

the( :ould have eventuall( pushed the Ara:as out

of the .reater Antilles too*

Their inter#island raidin8 continued una-ated

throu8hout the 1$th and 17th centuries, since the&paniards, realisin8 that the 3esser Antilles laced

sufficient mineral :ealth to mae them via-le for

colonial e'ploitation, sa: no 8ood reason to

confront such a patentl( hostile people* The onl(

si8nificant &panish intrusions into Cari- territor(

:ere unsuccessful e'peditions a8ainst .uadeloupe

in 1!11 and 1!1!, -oth repulsed :ith sizea-le

losses, and several equall( unsuccessful attempts to

esta-lish a settlement on 4ominica* Other:ise onl(

slave#raiders ventured here, official authorisation

havin8 -een 8ranted for the :holesale enslavementof the Cari-s in 1!";* This led to the depopulation

of numerous islands durin8 the 1!+"s and 1!;"s as

their Cari- =and I8neri or Ara:a @ the slavers

:ere not particularl( discriminatin8? inha-itants

:ere enslaved, illed, or forced to flee to the

mainland or other islands* Other than the

occupation of islands close to the mainland, such as

CuraUao in 1!+7 and Trinidad on several occasions

-et:een 1!;+ and 1!0+, the first permanent

European settlements in the 3esser Antilles did not

appear until the 17th centur(, startin8 :ith the4utch colon( founded on &t* Eustatius in 1$""*

an( islands nevertheless resisted European

conquest ri8ht up until the 1%th centur(*

Cari- or8anisation :as ver( simple* Each villa8e

:as independent under its o:n chief, :ho :as

treated :ith deference -ut had little real authorit(,

&te:ard =10%? o-servin8 that Cari- men :ere

individualists, and the( looed do:n upon the

Europeans for tain8 orders*2 Chieftainship :as not

hereditar( -ut elective, the holder 8enerall( -ein8

chosen for his martial qualities, his a8e, his

:isdom, or -ecause he had inherited 4ara4oli

=s(m-ols of authorit( @ see -elo:? from his

ancestors* Each villa8e also usuall( had one or t:o

elected :ar#chiefs =u-utu?, e'perienced :arriors

:ho held their posts for life and :ere invaria-l(

accompanied -( a retinue of :arriors :herever the(

:ent* T:o or more u-utu customaril( too part in

ever( Cari- raid, one -ein8 acno:led8ed as

overall commander for the duration of the

e'pedition* To ud8e from later evidence eachcanoe in a raidin8 part( :as commanded -( its

o:ner, :ho -ailed :hile the rest of the cre:

paddled* Their canoes, lie those of the Ara:as,

:ere du8#outs, :hich came in a variet( of sizes,

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14/176

some -ein8 onl( -i8 enou8h to carr( one man,

:hile others could hold up to !"* The lar8est :ere

called 'iroues, :hich had their sides -uilt up :ith

plans* These could -e up to " ft =1+*+ m? lon8,

:hile the lar8est of the smaller variet( :ere a-out

half that size* /( the latter part of the 1$th centur(

-oth t(pes could -e found fitted :ith masts =three

and t:o respectivel(?, pro-a-l( adopted in

imitation of &panish practice* 4ie8o Chancarecords that the Cari-s :ere prepared to travel 1!"

lea8ues on a raidin8 e'pedition, and, as :e have

alread( seen, the( ma( have travelled a 8reat deal

further if the( did indeed reach as far as the

/ahamas* On lon8 ourne(s the( :ould stop and

rest on uninha-ited islands encountered en route,

actuall( plantin8 patches of edi-le crops on some of

these to cater for such an eventualit(*

As :ith ever( other Indian tri-e, the Cari-s

relied on surprise to 8ive them an advanta8e in their

attacs, preferrin8 to fall on an enem( villa8e :hileit still slept, either at da:n or -( the li8ht of a full

moon* ost Ara:a and Cari- communities posted

sentries near potential landin8 sites to :atch out for

raidin8 parties, and if so much as a -arin8 do8 lost

the raiders their element of surprise the( :ould

usuall( a-andon the e'pedition, re8ardless of ho:

far the( mi8ht have travelled* If the( remained

undiscovered, the raiders :ould attac in three

parties, ho:lin8 and shootin8 fire#arro:s into the

thatched roofs* If their attac failed to over:helm

the enem( :ithin the ne't fe: hours the( :ouldcollect to8ether their dead and :ounded and

:ithdra: at noon* Thou8h a second attac :as

occasionall( attempted, it :as more usual for the

enterprise to -e a-andoned* In a successful raid, the

captured villa8e :ould -e looted and the enem(

dead roasted and eaten* emale prisoners,

especiall( the (oun8 and handsome2, -ecame part

of the captor2s famil( =individual :arriors

sometimes ended up :ith dozens of concu-ines in

this :a(?, :hile an( men taen alive :ere illed

and eaten at the su-sequent victor( feast* Ho:ever,

men :ith :hom the raiders traded durin8 their

peacetime ventures :ere released, a tit#for#tat

arran8ement that :ould 8uarantee the captor2s life

:hen his o:n villa8e :as raided* Chanca records

that captive -o(s :ere castrated and emplo(ed as

servants until the( are full( 8ro:n, and then

the( ill and eat them2*

ost Cari- raidin8 parties involved a couple of

hundred :arriors* In 1!+", for instance, five canoes

:ith 1!" men landed on the eastern end of Puerto5ico, as did 11 canoes :ith !"" men in 1!;"* In

&eptem-er 1!+0 ei8ht 8reat canoes2 attaced &an

Duan har-our, :hile Dohn Ha:ins :itnessed a raid

-( +"" Cari-s on the &panish settlement of

/or-urata, )enezuela, in 1!$* Considera-l( lar8er

forces could -e assem-led on occasion, as is proved

-( the raid launched a8ainst the rench and En8lish

settlement on &t* Vitts in 1$+!, :hich involved an

estimated ,""" Cari-s*

Dohn &pare, :ho accompanied Ha:ins, :rote

that :hen fi8htin8 &panish slave#raiders the(

choose for their refu8e the mountains and :oods

:here the &paniards :ith their horses cannot follo:them* And if the( fortune to -e met in the plain

:here one horseman ma( overrun 1"" of them,

the( have a device of late practised -( them to pitch

staes of :ood in the 8round, and also small iron

QspiesR to mischief their horses2*

Cari-s :ere shorter and stocier than Ara:as,

practised cranial deformation, and -ore facial

tattoos from the time that the( :ere initiated as

:arriors =descri-ed -( Chanca as a hundred

thousand devices, such as crosses and other

marin8s of different inds2?* The( :ore their hairlon8 and most often loose, cuttin8 it short onl(

a-ove the e(es* &ome, ho:ever, tied it in some

undefined :a( on the -ac of the head, decoratin8

the not :ith maca: feathers* en and :omen

alie painted themselves red, in part at least to

eep a:a( the -itin8s of mosquitoes2* Chanca

descri-es some as havin8 their e(es and e(e-ro:s

stained2, pro-a-l( :ith -lac paint* The( :ent

naed lie the Ara:as, -ut differed in coverin8

their penis :ith a sheath, &pare e'plainin8 that the

men covered no part of their -od( -ut their (ard,upon the :hich the( :ear a 8ourd or piece of cane,

made fast :ith a thread a-out his loins, leavin8 the

other parts of their mem-ers uncovered*2

De:eller( comprised the usual mi'ture of

feathers, fish#-ones and stone pendants in their

pierced ears, noses and lips, and neclaces of :ood,

stone, -one and shell -eads* The most hi8hl(#prized

items, ho:ever, called 4ara4oli, :ere crescent#

shaped pieces made of 8old#copper allo( = tum-aa?

ed8ed :ith :ood* These came in various sizes, the

smallest -ein8 used as ear, nose, and lip plu8s,

:hile others :ere :orn as pendants round the nec*

/ecause the metal from :hich the( :ere made

could onl( -e o-tained -( raids onto the mainland

these :ere re8arded as a si8n of hi8h ran,

8enerall( -ein8 :orn onl( on ceremonial occasions

and rarel( durin8 raids* A chief seen on 4ominica

in 1!0$ had the model of a lion in shinin8 -rass

Qi*e* tum-aaR han8in8 upon his -reast2 and carried

a &panish rapier*

The characteristic :eapon of the Cari-s :as a $ft =1*% m? lon8-o: firin8 lon8 poisoned arro:s*

The latter, ept in a cane quiver of the -i8ness of a

man2s arm2, :ere made of reed :ith fish#-one,

tortoise#shell, or fire#hardened :ooden points* The(


15/176

had no fletchin8* &pare recorded that the( are so

8ood archers that the &paniards for fear thereof arm

themselves and their horses :ith quilted canvas of

t:o inches thic, and leave no place of their -od(

open to their enemies, savin8 their e(es, :hich the(

ma( not hide, and (et oftentimes are the( hit in that

so small a scantlin8*2 He adds that the poison :as

fatal :ithin the space of + hours* Other :eapons

consisted of darts, and clu-s called -outou,decorated and painted :ith 8eometric and

anthropomorphic patterns* The len8th of the -outou

apparentl( depended on a :arrior2s ran, those of

chiefs -ein8 up to !F$ ft =1*;F1*% m? lon8*

IURES

1 2. &R&&/ &RRIORS There are fe:

1$th centur( pictures that can -e claimed :ith

certaint( to portra( >est Indian natives* i8ure 1 isa reconstruction -ased in part on dra:in8s made in

1!+0 -( Christopher >eiditz, of Indians taen -ac

to &pain -( CortBs* Thou8h usuall( descri-ed as

Aztecs the( are clearl( not, and it is possi-le that

the( represent Ara:as* Certainl( several aspects

of their appearance conform to earl( :ritten

descriptions of Ara:a adornment, nota-l( the

loose cloa of coloured feathers, and the stones set

into the chees and forehead* /oth of these features

appear to have -een characteristic of Ara:a

caciques, as too, pro-a-l(, :as the featherdecoration of the -elt* It is nevertheless possi-le

that the dra:in8s portra( Indians from else:here in

the Cari--ean, not least -ecause one fi8ure is

sho:n :ith a shield :hen none of the &panish

descriptions mention the Ara:as of the .reater

Antilles usin8 these* i8ure +, ho:ever, is

definitel( an Ara:a, -ein8 -ased on pre#Conquest

fi8urines* &everal sources mention 8irdles2 such as

that :orn here, :hich :ere of :oven cotton* Those

of chiefs :ere sufficientl( hi8hl( prized that the(

:ere considered suita-le 8ifts for presentation to

Colum-us* He is armed :ith a spear#thro:er, darts,

and a clu-* &pear#thro:ers had once -een emplo(ed

throu8hout the Americas, and remained :idespread,

-ut -( the 1$th centur( the( had -een replaced inman( areas -( the -o:* &ee the te't descri-in8

i8ure ;! for further details*

3 4. C&RI) &RRIORS i8ure ; is derived

principall( from dra:in8s e'ecuted -( a mem-er of

4rae2s e'pedition of 1!%!F%$ in :hat is no:n as

the 4rae anuscript2* Note the small red 8ourd

containin8 his arro:#poison, :hich, the te't

e'plains, :as made -( mashin8 to8ether the leaves

of a tree called mensenille, the -lood of a -leatin8

toad, and the flesh of a centipede2* &pare sa(s thatother 8ourds carried :hen on an e'pedition

contained the uice of sorrel QandR flour of their

maize, :hich -ein8 moistQenedR, the( eat2* i8ure

, -ased on 17thF1%th centur( sources :hich

demonstrate that Cari- costume had not chan8ed

si8nificantl( in the interim, :ears a small

-reechclout, has his hair tied up @ apparentl( on

the top of his head @ and has a feather head#dress*

/oth men are armed :ith lon8-o: and -outou*

#. C&RI) OM&N Each Cari- :arrior :asaccompanied on campai8n -( one or more :omen,

:hose o- it :as to prepare his food and to appl(

his -od(#paint each mornin8* Cari- :omen :ere

also prepared to fi8ht, and Colum-us2 first part(

ashore on .uadeloupe in 10$ :as confronted -( a

verita-le arm( of Cari- :omen armed :ith

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lon8-o:s* Their onl( dress consisted of a small

:hite cotton -reechclout pulled throu8h a strin8

front and -ac in the form of an apron, and :hite

cotton -ands -elo: the nees and a-ove the anles,

resultin8 in sli8htl( s:ollen calves* The &paniards

are said to have used these le88in8s as a 8uaranteed

:a( of accuratel( distin8uishin8 Ara:as from

Cari-s*

NOTES

1 These are often erroneousl( referred to as

Taino* an( Ara:a tri-es :ere still to -e found

throu8hout the northern part of &outh America*

2 The Indians of &t* Croi' @ no: part of the &

)ir8in Islands @ :ere pro-a-l( Ara:as rather

than Cari-s, thou8h the( appear to have

demonstrated aspects of -oth cultures* /( 1!1! &t*Croi' had -een entirel( depopulated -( &panish

slavers*

3 The &paniards re8arded the /ahamas as utterl(

:orthless and made no attempt to colonise them,

instead simpl( enslavin8 and removin8 the

population to Hispaniola, Cu-a, and Puerto 5ico*

4 &te:ard =10%? su88ests that the -o:s recorded

in use -( Cu-an Ara:as durin8 a su-sequent sta8e

of the &panish conquest :ere pro-a-l( a later

addition2*

# He :as driven off :hen he attaced ar8aritaisland and CumanL in Dune* &everal attempts -( the

&paniards to esta-lish themselves in .uiana

-et:een 1!+ and 1!7$ all failed, and European

conquest and settlement of the re8ion did not start

in earnest until the -e8innin8 of the 17th centur(*

There :ere several En8lish e'peditions here, of

:hich the most nota-le :ere those of 5alei8h in

1!0! and 1$17, 3aurence Ve(mis in 1!0$, and

Charles 3ei8h in 1$", the last even attemptin8 to

found a colon(*

6 A report of 1$!% records that the Cari-s deemed

rench people delicious and -( far the -est of the

Europeans, and ne't came the En8lish* The 4utch

:ere dull and rather tasteless, :hile the &paniards

:ere so strin8( and full of 8ristle as to -e

practica-l( uneata-le*2

T-E S5&NIS- M&IN

Thou8h it soon came to include the >est Indiesand the Cari--ean &ea itself, the term &panish

ain2 :as initiall( coined -( 1$th centur(

En8lishmen to descri-e that part of &panish#

occupied Central America :hich -ordered on the

Cari--ean -asin, consistin8 of coastal )enezuela

and Colom-ia, Panama, and the eastern parts of

Costa 5ica, Nicara8ua, and Honduras* &panish

discoveries here had -e8un :ith Colum-us2 vo(a8e

alon8 the coast of )enezuela in 10%* urther

e'peditions -( various adventurers -et:een 100

and 1!"0 resulted in the e'ploration of the entire

coast -et:een )enezuela and Honduras, and led in

1!"0 to the 8rantin8 of ro(al patents to 4ie8o de Nicuesa and Alonso de Hoeda to esta-lish the first

settlements on the mainland, then no:n simpl( as

Tierra &irme* In 1!1" Hoeda founded &an

&e-astiLn de ra-L =:here rancisco Pizarro,

future conqueror of Peru, :as placed in command?

on the northern coast of Colom-ia, -ut this :as

-urnt do:n in an Indian attac and :as a-andoned

as untena-le soon after:ards* &anta arWa la

Anti8ua del 4ariBn :as then esta-lished in its

stead, to -ecome capital of the Isthmus re8ion*

Nicuesa, mean:hile, had founded Nom-re de 4iosin Panama at much the same date* The s(stematic

lootin8 of the re8ion2s mineral :ealth, mean:hile,

had alread( -e8un at the turn of the centur(, and

:as sufficientl( profita-le that after 1!1; the

Isthmus of 4ariBn :as customaril( referred to as

Castilla del ro* Pedro Arias de Avila, or Pedrarias

as he :as no:n, :as appointed captain#8eneral of

the ne: province in Dul( 1!1;, and moved the

capital from 4ariBn to Panama, on the Pacific coast,

at the end of 1!10* The other principal to:ns of the

re8ion :ere the Colom-ian ports of &anta arta,founded -( 5odri8o de /astidas in 1!+!, and

Carta8ena, founded -( Pedro de Heredia in 1!;;*

All of these settlements :ere to su-sequentl( serve

as -ases for the e'ploration, conquest, and

e'ploitation of the interior* At the opposite end of

the &panish ain, Honduras and Nicara8ua :ere

conquered durin8 the 1!+"s, thou8h in some places

Indian resistance sputtered on for another t:o

decades*

ost of the coastal tri-es inha-itin8 this re8ion

:ere soon destro(ed, in the maorit( of cases -( the

mid#1!"s, :hen, for instance, /enzoni states that

the "","""#stron8 pre#Conquest population of

Honduras had d:indled to less than %,"""* Amon8

the more si8nificant tri-es :ere the Nicarao,7

Chorote8a, and &u-tia-a of Nicara8ua the .uetar,

)oto, and &uerre of Costa 5ica the Cuna, .ua(mW,

and ChocM of Panama the Cueva, Calamari =or

Caramairi?, and Tairona of coastal Colom-ia and

the mainland Cari-s and Ara:as of )enezuela*

The Calamari, :ho called themselves the ocana,:ere one of the most po:erful* Their territor( la(

-et:een ra-L and the 5Wo a8dalena, :here the(

lived in villa8es surrounded -( stocades consistin8

of livin8 trees or canes* It has -een surmised that

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the( ma( have -een related to the Cari-s, since the(

:ere especiall( noted for their archer(, their eatin8

of slain enemies, and the fact that the :omen :ent

to :ar as :ell as the men one 1%#(ear#old 8irl

captured -( the &paniards in the vicinit( of

Carta8ena in 1!1 claimed to have illed as man(

as ei8ht 4on5uistadores -efore she :as taen*

&ometimes the :omen @ especiall( the (oun8er

8irls @ merel( served as porters, -ut :hen the(fou8ht the( used the same sort of $ ft =1*% m?

lon8-o: as the men, made of -lac palm:ood*

This :as used to shoot poisoned palm:ood or reed

arro:s :ith stone, fish#scale or fire#hardened

:ooden tips* Other Calamari :eapons comprised

palm:ood clu-s, slin8s, spear#thro:ers, and

-lo:pipes firin8 poisoned darts, :hich the

&paniards are said to have particularl( feared* The(

also used t:o varieties of shield, apparentl( round

or rectan8ular* The( differed from the Cari-s in

:earin8 their hair short* 4ress, such as it :as,consisted under most circumstances of no more that

a sheath for the penis =sometimes coverin8 the

testicles too?, thou8h /enzoni mentions that those

livin8 round Carta8ena :ore a decent -anda8e

round the loins2* The penis sheath :as often made

of 8old decorated :ith pearls prior to the &panish

Conquest, -ut havin8 -een o-li8ed to cede these to

the &paniards2 the( made do :ith a simple cala-ash

thereafter* or decoration the( :ore 8old pendants,

rin8s, neclaces, ear#plu8s, nose#plu8s, and so on,

plus red and -lac -od(#paint =also recorded inCosta 5ica, Panama, and else:here in the re8ion?*

Thou8h virtual or a-solute nudit( also prevailed

in Panama and Costa 5ica, the use of clothin8 in

peacetime =usuall( a coloured cotton -reechclout

and tunic? and cotton armour in :artime :as more

usual in Honduras and Nicara8ua* Honduran

Indians, for instance, :ore thic padded cotton

corselets, :hich 8ave adequate protection a8ainst

Indian arro:s and even :ithstood several -lo:s

from our s:ords*2 )arious chroniclers record the

use of cotton armour and quilted cotton helmets in

Nicara8ua* Indeed, the culture of -oth Honduras

and Nicara8ua :as esoamerican rather than &outh

American, Nicara8ua in particular consistin8 of

several distinct cit(#states rather than clusters of

tri-al villa8es @ :hich is hardl( surprisin8 since

several tri-es here :ere of the same Nahuatl ori8in

as the Aztecs* /enzoni sa(s that the peoples2 ha-its

:ere nearl( all lie those of the e'icans2, :hile

Pascual de Anda8o(a =1!1? sa(s that the( :ere

ver( civilised lie those of e'ico, for the(:ere a people :ho had come from that countr(, and

the( had nearl( the same lan8ua8e2* The Nicarao

:ore sleeveless tunics, -reechclouts, and mantles,

the upper classes :earin8 cotton :hile commoners

su-stituted ma8ue( fi-re* &ome at least :ere

tattooed, nota-l( on their arms* The( had an elite of

no-le :arriors called ta'aliue, :ho Oviedo sa(s

shaved their entire head e'cept for a three#cornered

patch on the cro:n, :here the hair :as allo:ed to

8ro: to a-out + ins =! cm? :ith a sin8le lon8 loc

8ro:in8 from the middle =a description :hich

su88ests that their hair :as :orn in much the same

st(le as that of Aztec :ua4hi45ueh or &horn Ones2,for :hom see i8ures ;+F;?* >eaponr( in -oth

Honduras and Nicara8ua comprised spears, spear#

thro:ers, -o:s, macanas, and shields of tree -ar

or li8ht :ood, covered :ith cotton or feathers the

macanas :ere of the esoamerican variet(

depicted in i8ure +% and full( descri-ed in its

accompan(in8 caption* Those seen in Honduras

:ere descri-ed as lon8 :ooden s:ords, :ith

8rooves on each side, :here the ed8e of -lade

should -e, :ith sharp flints :hich cut lie steel,

lashed into them :ith tarred t:ine2* Aztec#st(le -ac#standards :ere also in use =for :hich see

i8ure +7?* Arms :ere customaril( stored in local

temples and onl( distri-uted in :artime, :hen the

:arriors :ere led -( a :ar#chief appointed -( the

rulin8 council, the tri-al chief not usuall( 8oin8

into -attle* =If present he :ould tae command onl(

if the :ar#chief :as illed, or else :ould appoint

another :ar#chief on the spot*?*

Panama straddled the invisi-le frontier -et:een

the furthest limits of esoamerican and &outh

American cultural influences, so that of its principaltri-es the .ua(mW, livin8 in the direction of :hat is

no: Costa 5ica, :ere related to -oth the a(a and

Nahuatl peoples of e'ico, :hile the ChocM at the

opposite end of the Isthmus @ :ho succeeded in

resistin8 the &paniards until the second half of the

17th centur( @ :ere related to the uisca of

Colom-ia* The middle portion of the countr(

consisted of numerous pett(#states of :hich the

most si8nificant -elon8ed to a tri-e no:n as the

Cuna or Cuna#Cueva, &panish sources reportin8

that these had three principal chiefs and !; lesser

chiefs2* &imilar pett(#states e'isted amon8 the

.ua(mW of the Coi-a re8ion, :here more than a

dozen put up a spirited resistance to earl( &panish

attempts to occup( their territor(* The first

conquistador e'pedition here, under .onzalo de

/adaMz in 1!1!, :as -eaten so -adl( -( the forces

of the most po:erful of these states, Paris, or Parita,

that the &paniards a-andoned their loot and fled in

disorder* Antonio )Lzquez de Espinosa led a

second e'pedition in 1!17, :hich mana8ed todefeat the Paris Indians @ :ho fou8ht in

-attalions2 @ onl( after a da(#lon8 -attle* The most

po:erful chief north of the Azuero peninsula,

rraca, remained unconquered at his death in


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that En8lish pirac( came of a8e* There :ere ten

documented En8lish raids durin8 the period 1!7"F7, the

most famous of :hich :ere 4rae2s attacs of 1!7+F7; on

Nom-re de 4ios, Carta8ena, and the Camino ,eal =ro(l

road2? -et:een Panama and Nom-re de 4ios, alon8 :hich

treasure shipments from Peru :ere transported -( mule#

train for shipment -ac to &pain*11 Thou8h Thou8h it

netted little in terms of profit, 4rae2s e'pedition of ust

t:o ships and 7; men succeeded in puttin8 the fear of .od

into the &paniards, not least -( its alliance :ith the dreadedCimaroons =escaped Ne8ro slaves @ see the chapter on

&panish America?* Other allies, :ho participated in

4rae2s attac on a mule#train outside Nom-re de 4ios,

comprised a part( of rench corsairs under the noted

navi8ator .uillaume le Testu, :ho :as mortall( :ounded

durin8 the fi8htin8* The 1!%"s sa: surprisin8l( fe:

e'peditions in the Cari--ean, thou8h En8lish raiders

turned up in some of the Ne: >orld2s more une'pected

quarters* In 1!%$F%%, for instance, Thomas Cavendish had

emulated 4rae -( circumnavi8atin8 the 8lo-e and in 1!%7

had raided PunL island off the coast of Peru and follo:in8

the amal8amation of the Portu8uese and &panish thrones in1!%" there :ere several raids on /razilian ports and

coastal shippin8 durin8 the late#1!%"s and 1!0"s* The most

si8nificant of these e'peditions :as the capture of

Pernam-uco for a month in 1!0! -( the allied squadrons of

Dames 3ancaster and t:o rench corsairs, )enner and Dean

3enoir, musterin8 -et:een the three of them some seven or

11 ships*

Nevertheless, the principal e'pedition of the decade :as

4rae2s re#appearance in force in 1!%!F%$ :ith as man( as

+1 ships, nine pinnaces, +,;"" men, and a plan to esta-lish

a permanent En8lish presence in the Cari--ean* His

intention :as to sac -oth &anto 4omin8o in Hispaniola

and the coastal to:ns of the &panish ain, and to put

ashore landin8#parties :hich, actin8 in concert :ith the

Cimaroons, :ould seize Nom-re de 4ios and Panama to

secure control of the Camino ,eal * .arrisons :ould then

-e left in Carta8ena, Nom-re de 4ios, Panama, and

Havana, :hich, it :as proposed, :ould also -e seized as

the fleet headed -ac to:ards En8land*12 It :as a -old plan

that :as, nevertheless, doomed to failure*

4rae2s fleet descended on &anto 4omin8o on Ne:

6ears2 4a( 1!%$, landin8 a-out 1,""" men =&panish

sources report -et:een !!" and 1,+""? :ho s:iftl(over:helmed the &panish defences*13 After sittin8 amidst

the ru--le of their victor( for a month ne8otiatin8 ransom

terms for the release of the cit(, in e-ruar( the En8lish

moved on to Carta8ena, destro(in8 the minor port of 5Wo

de la Hacha en route* Ho:ever, thin8s had started to 8o

:ron8< alread( onl( 1,+"" of 4rae2s ori8inal +,;"" men

remained fit for dut(, the rest havin8 either succum-ed to

disease or fallen to enem( action* In addition 4rae :as

runnin8 -ehind :hatever schedule he mi8ht have set

himself, :hich had 8iven the &paniards time to reinforce

Carta8ena2s defenders to a stren8th of a-out a thousand

men @ comprisin8 !!"F$"" &paniards =includin8 !horsemen?, "" Indians, and +! Ne8ro freemen @ plus the

&panish element of the cre:s of t:o 8alle(s moored

-eneath the to:n :alls, comprisin8 a-out another +""

men* As man( as !""F$"" men =said -( a &panish e(e#

:itness to have comprised ;"" arque-usiers, 1"" piemen,

and +"" Indian archers? had -een assi8ned to defend a

rampart thro:n up across a nec of land adacent to the

har-our, supported -( -et:een four and si' 8uns*

The En8lish landin8#part( of a-out a thousand men

drove the &paniards from the rampart -( push of pie and

rushed on into the to:n itself, :here the( found ever(

street -loced -( -arricades* Thou8h the &paniards made

little effort to defend these the lo8 of one of 4rae2s ships

records that the En8lish suffered 8reat anno(ance -( the

Indian arro:s comin8 ver( thic out of the houses a-outtheir ears, :ith :hich man( of us :ere hurt, and the arro:s

-ein8 poisoned, some died2* Another contemporar( report

records other men -ein8 mischieved to death :ith certain

prics or small stics sharpl( pointed, of a foot and a half

lon8, the one end put into the 8round, the other

empoisoned, sticin8 fast up2* These too :ere the :or of

the Indians* 4espite their defences and preparations,

ho:ever, the &paniards :ere driven out, and 4rae spent

another si' :ees ne8otiatin8 the cit(2s ransom* /( this

time onl( %"" of his men remained fit* Even thou8h his

losses :ere made 8ood to some e'tent -( the freed slaves

=renchmen, Ne8roes, oors, .rees, &paniards, and +""Turs? from the t:o &panish 8alle(s destro(ed in

Carta8ena har-our, it :as clear that at this rate of attrition

his forces :ere in serious dan8er of -ein8 decimated

-e(ond recover(* Plans to capture Nom-re de 4ios and

Panama, and to leave permanent 8arrisons in the

Cari--ean, :ere therefore a-andoned, and 4rae sailed for

home, destro(in8 the &panish fort at &an A8ustWn in lorida

en route* He had lost a total of 7!" men*

4urin8 the 1!0"s there :ere an avera8e of 1 En8lish

e'peditions to the Cari--ean ever( (ear, :ith as man( as

+! in 1!0%* That led -( 4rae and Dohn Ha:ins in 1!0!F

0$, aimed at &an Duan de Puerto 5ico and Panama, :as the

lar8est, comprisin8 +7 ships, 1,!"" seamen, and +,!""F

;,""" soldiers, -ut it met :ith even less 8ood fortune than

4rae2s solo fora( a decade earlier* Ha:ins died on the

out:ard passa8e, and the &paniards, lon8 since fore:arned

of the impendin8 En8lish attac, had time to reinforce

Puerto 5ico :ith 1,!"" fresh troops from &pain* >hen his

attac :as consequentl( driven off :ith considera-le loss

4rae sailed for Nom-re de 4ios, raidin8 alon8 the coast

of the mainland as he :ent* Nom-re de 4ios :as found

lar8el( deserted, and he seized the fort and -urned the

to:n* He then despatched 0"" men, or8anised into five orseven companies under his lieutenant, Thomas /aserville,

to traverse the Isthmus and tae Panama, -ut after

marchin8 throu8h torrential rain for three da(s these

encountered stiff &panish opposition on the fourth and,

:ith their provisions and po:der ruined -( the do:npour,

the( :ere o-li8ed to :ithdra:* 5e#em-arin8 its landin8#

part(, the fleet then sailed alon8 the coast of Honduras and

Nicara8ua, its cre:s contractin8 d(senter( en route after

landin8 to find :ater* >hen 4rae himself died of the

-lood( flu'2 in Danuar( 1!0$ command devolved on

/aserville, :ho called an end to the disastrous e'pedition

and sailed for home :ith the remainin8 1 or 1! ships=several havin8 either -een lost to the enem( or scuttled in

consequence of havin8 insufficient men left to cre: them?*

It :as left to another cele-rated En8lish corsair, .eor8e

Clifford, Earl of Cum-erland @ author of a dozen raids

-et:een 1!%$ and 1!0% @ to succeed :here 4rae had


23/176

not in capturin8 &an Duan de Puerto 5ico, :hich he did in

1!0% :ith a fleet of 1% ships and 1,""" men* He had

intended to hold the port permanentl(, -ut once a8ain

unsustaina-le losses to tropical disease o-li8ed the En8lish

to :ithdra: :ithout installin8 a 8arrison* The frequenc( of

such semi#official En8lish ventures su-sequentl( declined,

there -ein8 onl( ten alto8ether -et:een 1$"" and 1$";,

:hen the lon8#runnin8 An8loF&panish conflict effectivel(

came to an end*

&R&RE The maorit( of pirate flotillas operatin8 in American

:aters initiall( consisted of no more than a sin8le ship

equipped for -oth fi8htin8 and tradin8, accompanied -( a

smaller vessel of a t(pe called a pinnace or 'ata4he, :hich,

havin8 a shallo: draft and -ein8 provided :ith up to 1%

oars a side as :ell as sails, :as -etter suited to the inshore

:or called for in coastal operations* The pinnace mi8ht

displace as little as +" tons and could have a cre: of as fe:

as +" men or as man( as 7", -ut carried little or no

armament -e(ond a num-er of small 7ersos =1F11+ pdr

-reech#loadin8 s:ivels?* No raidin8 force recorded in the

first half of the centur( ever comprised more than %""F 1,""" men and si' vessels, of :hich t:o at the ver( least

:ere pinnaces* 4urin8 the 1!!"s, ho:ever, the rench

despatched lar8er fleets :hich included ro(al :arships as

:ell as privateers, and carried sizea-le contin8ents of

troops for deplo(ment ashore* The ten ships :hich sailed

under ranUois le Clerc in 1!!;F! constituted the first of

these more su-stantial ventures, and included t:o ro(al

:arships and three or four pinnaces* ost En8lish

e'peditions of the period 1!7+F1$"; :ere of three ships or

less* Onl( those :hich received ro(al -acin8 :ere an(

lar8er, -ein8 sometimes accompanied -( ro(al :arships

=t:o served under 4rae in 1!%!F%$, and five in 1!0!F0$?*

4rae2s e'pedition of 1!7+F7; appears to have -een

unique in carr(in8 three prefa-ricated pinnaces a-oard one

of its t:o ships, :hich :ere unloaded and re#assem-led

:hen he arrived at his destination in the .ulf of 4ariBn*

Pinnaces :ere sufficientl( important to the success of a

privateerin8 enterprise that e'peditions :ere 8enerall(

a-andoned if the lar8er ships lost touch :ith them for an(

reason, :hile the pinnace commander sometimes decided

to utilise the advanta8es of his vessel for his o:n profit,

a-andonin8 the accompan(in8 ship to 8o a#rovin8 on his

o:n* In the a-sence of their o:n navi8ational charts, earl(

rench raiders depended heavil( on the no:led8e and

e'perience of disaffected &panish pilots, /enzoni

recordin8 in the 1!"s that it :as some &paniards,

practised in that navi8ation, :ho led the enem( so that

the rench also -ecame as familiar :ith those :aters as the

&paniards themselves2* It :as, for instance, a &paniard :ho

8uided five rench ships into Carta8ena har-our in 1!,

:here the( landed 1"" men and saced and -urnt the to:n*

/efore lon8, ho:ever, rench corsairs ne: as much a-out

navi8atin8 in the Cari--ean and the Atlantic sea#lanes as

their &panish counterparts, and had accumulated sufficientintelli8ence of &panish stren8th in the re8ion to ena-le

them to launch their attacs :ith impunit(* /enzoni noted

that althou8h in the -e8innin8 the( restricted themselves

to the vicinit( of Hispaniola and &an Duan de Puerto 5ico,

(et :hen those districts ceased to (ield rich prizes the(

frequented more of the islands, and even some of the

provinces on the mainland2, pilla8in8 to:ns and capturin8

ships :herever the( :ent* The audien4ia of &anto

4omin8o reported in 1!1 that rench corsairs no:in8

the :eaness of these ports landed in man( of them in

full da(li8ht, QandR -urned and ro--ed some :ithout

meetin8 an( resistance2* )er( fe: &panish attempts to

repel pirate landin8#parties :ere ever successful, and at

least some of those that :ere o:ed their success more to

-ri-er( than force of arms* Indeed, /lasco NXSez )ela=1!;0? considered that ;"" corsairs could seize an( coastal

to:n on the &panish ain that the( cared to, re8ardless of

its size or stren8th, and it is readil( apparent from the

sources that the &paniards2 poor leadership and lac of

adequate arms virtuall( 8uaranteed the pirates success on

land* &o lon8 as the( mana8ed to avoid the lar8er and more

heavil(#armed &panish :arships sometimes despatched

a8ainst them there :as also ver( little that the( needed to

fear at sea*

Normal rench raidin8 practice, as recorded -( a

&panish e(e#:itness in 1!71, :as for the cre: of the

pinnace to mae the attac :hile the lar8er ship stoodoffshore, the -oot( -ein8 su-sequentl( transferred to the

ship, :hich :ould periodicall( return to Normand( to sell

it* This is e'actl( ho: &ores :ent a-out attacin8 Havana

in 1!!!, :hen he landed the -ul of his men -( means of

his pinnaces and ships2 -oats to outflan the to:n2s

defences and launch an overland attac from the rear* On

this particular occasion the rench set fire to the fort2s

8ates to smoe out its 8arrison after several hours of

fi8htin8* The &panish 8overnor had mean:hile rallied the

population =:hich, as :as customar( under such

circumstances, had fled inland :ith the 8reater part of its

porta-le valua-les at first site of the corsairs? and returned

:ith such armed men as he could muster, -ut :as -eaten

off* 4rae emplo(ed much the same tactics in his attac on

&anto 4omin8o in 1!%$, puttin8 his landin8#part( ashore

several miles a:a( to launch a surprise attac from the rear

:hile his main fleet ept the to:n2s defences occupied

from the sea:ard side* This -ecame the characteristic

modus o'erandi of En8lish privateers thereafter*

The S(anish res(nse

5eco8nisin8 the increasin8 pro-lems presented -(

pirac( as earl( as Dul( 1!++, the &panish Cro:n stipulated

that ships main8 the transatlantic vo(a8e should -e of atleast %" tons =increased to 1"" tons in 1!;?, and issued

re8ulations 8overnin8 the minimum armament that each

vessel :as required to carr(, consistin8 of at least t:o

-rass 8uns, si' iron ones, and several smaller pieces*

Ho:ever, it seems that these :ere rarel( complied :ith,

since /enzoni states that the principal cause of &panish

ship losses :as the avarice of the o:ners for on quittin8

&pain, such :as their avidit( to fill up :ith merchandise

and passen8ers that the( did not put the due num-er of

8uns on -oard nor even the num-er ordered -( the

Council of the Indies2* Commissioners sent to e'amine that

ships :ere armed in accordance :ith these re8ulations:ere simpl( -ri-ed to loo the other :a(* Consequentl(,

continues /enzoni, if a :ell#armed little rench

alleonette happened to meet a ship of even 1,!""

or +,""" salme Qc*;""F"" tonsR the( attaced her

:ithout the least fear, no:in8 ho: ill &panish ships


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esoamerica c*1!"F1$""

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T-E &TECS

Thou8h modern -oos tend to treat the so#called

Aztec Empire2 as if all of its people Y especiall( those

of the )alle( of e'ico Y shared the same ori8ins, the

Aztecs1# :ere, in fact, ust one of up to " Nahuatl#

speain8 Chichimec tri-es :hich had mi8rated into

Central e'ico in the 1;th centur(, pro-a-l( from thenorth#:est, and su-sequentl( overran the Toltec Empire*

Other tri-es involved in this mi8ration included the

follo:in8<

Acolhua Hue'otzinca Otomi

Chalca alinalca Tepaneca

Cholulteca atlatzinca Tlahuica

Coui'ca ichoaca Tla'calteca

Cuitlahuaca i'tec Totonaca

Culhua Nonoalca Gochimilca

ost settled in the re8ion :here the principal to:n

su-sequentl( -ore their name =the Cholulteca in Cholula,

the Culhua in Culhuacan, the Gochimilca in Gochimilco,

and so on?* The most important of them Y i*e* those

:hich mana8ed to retain their independence until the

1$th centur( Y are dealt :ith individuall( further on in

this chapter*

Earl( in the 1th centur( the Aztecs esta-lished the

cities of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco on islands in 3ae

Te'coco in the )alle( of e'ico, Tenochtitlan achievin8

ascendanc( in 1+% -( formin8 an alliance :ith the

nei8h-ourin8 cit(#state of Te'coco to overthro: the

rulin8 Tepaneca people* &oon after:ards =1;1? the cit(

of Tlacopan =Tacu-a? oined :ith Tenochtitlan and

Te'coco to create the Triple Alliance2, round :hich theso#called Aztec Empire 8re:* E'pansion proceeded

rapidl( from the 1"s, :ith to:n after to:n -ein8

coerced or -eaten into su-mission* Each su-u8ated

communit( :as permitted to retain its o:n ruler and

8ods, -ut :as thereafter o-li8ed to mae re8ular

pa(ments of tri-ute to the storehouses of Tenochtitlan in

order to maintain the empire2s administration,

priesthood, and militar( potential failure to do so

-rou8ht s:ift and merciless retri-ution* /( the time the

&paniards arrived in 1!10 the ruler of Tenochtitlan,

al:a(s the pre#eminent leader of the Alliance, had

-ecome undisputed master of its empire, :hile the rulersof Te'coco and Tlacopan had -ecome his o:n carefull(

selected appointees*

3eader of the Aztec nation :as the Tlatoani

=&peaer2?, also called the Tlato5ue, ;ueytlatoani

=5evered &peaer2? or Tla4ate4uhtli =Chief of men2?*

Effectivel( he :as the in8 or paramount chief, -ut his

office :as technicall( elective and theoreticall( he could

-e deposed* In realit(, ho:ever, the in8ship :as

hereditar(, each Tlatoani -ein8 elected from amon8 the

indred of the same rulin8 line -( a council of chief men

and priests the onl( variation from European practice

:as that -rothers and nephe:s :ere usuall( selected in

preference to sons @ for instance, A'a(acatl, Tizoc, and

Ahuitzotl, :ho ruled successivel( in the period 1$0F

1!";, :ere all -rothers, :hile Ahuitzotl2s successors

octezuma II =1!";F+"? and Cuitlahuac =1!+"? :ere his

nephe:s, -ein8 sons of A'a(acatl* Cuitlahuac :as

succeeded in turn -( Ahuitzotl2s son Cuauhtemoc =1!+"F

+!?, the ver( last Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan*

The &peaer :as assisted -( a man called the

Cihua4oatl =&erpent#>oman2? @ :ho :as his chief

minister and deput( in all thin8s @ and -( four other

senior officials :ho :ere pro-a-l( the same as theelected leaders of the four quarters into :hich

Tenochtitlan :as divided, :hose responsi-ilities

com-ined -oth civil and militar( functions* These :ere

the Tla4ate4atl =Cutter of en2?, the Tla4o4h4al4atl

=aster of the House of 4arts2?, the Ezhuahua4atl

=/lood#&hedder2?, and the Tlilan4al5ui =aster of the

House of 4arness2? or :uauhno4htli =Chief of the

Ea8le and Pricl( Pear2, an allusion to the em-lem of

Tenochtitlan that can still -e found on e'ico2s national

fla8 toda(?* One of these officials :as usuall( the heir#

apparent and all :ere commonl( the Tlatoani2s -rothers,

cousins, or insmen of the ro(al -loodline* Provincial8overnors or commanders :ere also no:n as

tla4ate4atl or tla4o4h4al4atl *

The structure of Aztec societ( had -ecome distinctl(

stratified -( the 1$th centur(* /eneath the &peaer of

Tenochtitlan came the rulers of tri-utar( or su-ordinate


29/176

to:ns =some havin8 more than one?, these -ein8

lie:ise called tlatoani, other:ise teu4tlato5ueh =usuall(

translated as ud8es2?* Ne't came the senior no-ilit( or

chieftains =teteu4tin?, :ho :ere heads of the no-le

houses and :ere equivalent in ran to the chieftains of

10th centur( North American tri-es* /eneath them :ere

the no-les -( -irth2, the 'i'iltin, :ho :ere variousl( the

issue or descendants of rulers =tlato4a'i'iltin? or of

chieftains =te4'i'iltin?, called tlazo'i'iltin if -( le8al

:ives or 4al'an'i'iltin if -( concu-ines* These 'i'iltin16or lesser no-ilit( actuall( constituted a sizea-le

proportion of the population of Central e'ico @ 1

in Hue'otzin8o, for instance, and perhaps +" in

Tenochtitlan @ and provided the nucleus of most

armies* Ne't came the upper#classes of the common

people, comprisin8 the ea8le no-les2 =5uauh'i'iltin?

:ho had -een raised to no-le status -( their martial

achievements, and the headmen =4a'oleh5ueh? of each

to:n :ard or 4al'ulli =literall( -i8 house2?* /eneath

these came the commoners =ma4ehualtin?, :ho :ere a

mi'ture of su-ects of the teteu4tin -ondsmen or farm#

hands =mayeh5ueh or tlalmaitin? and slaves=tlatla4ohtin?*

Technicall( militar( service :as required :hen

necessar( from most elements of Aztec societ(, an

o-vious e'ception -ein8 the slaves, -ut in realit( the

onus of responsi-ilit( la( :ith the upper classes @ :ho

:ere e'pected to perform militar( service as an

o-li8ation of their social status and :ere shamed if the(

did not @ and those commoners specificall( trained for

a militar( career*

TR&ININ &ND &D&NCEMENT

Aztec parents decided on their children2s careers,

most sons -ein8 e'pected to follo: in their father2s

footsteps* Those :ho :ere 8oin8 to -e :arriors had their

hair 8ro:n in a distinctive st(le from the a8e of ten, :ith

a lon8 tuft called a 'iltontli at the -ac* Their trainin8too place throu8h t:o t(pes of school, no:n as the

tel'o4h4alli =(ouths2 house2? and the 4alme4a4 =ro: of

houses2?* &ray /ernardino de &aha8Xn, author of the

Code/ &lorentino, records that a tel'o4h4alli :as to -e

found in each cit( :ard =thou8h he sa(s else:here that

each :ard of Tenochtitlan had 1" or 1! such

tel'o4h4alli2, :hich is more liel(? and that it :as

attended mostl( -( commoners, :hile a 4alme4a4 :as to

-e found attached to each of certain important temples

and :as attended onl( -( the no-ilit( and such

commoners as had -een dedicated to the priesthood*

Thou8h &aha8Xn implies entr( at an earlier a8e, thetel'o4h4alli :as attended from the a8e of 1! @ after

the child had -een reared -( his parents2 @ accordin8 to

the Code/ $endoza =c*1!0?, and concentrated on

educatin8 its students in the art of :ar, the teachers -ein8

veteran soldiers =te5uihuah5ueh?, teachers of (ouths2

=tia4h4a4auhtin?, and no-le :arriors = 'i'iltin?* The

4alme4a4, -( contrast, principall( tau8ht reli8ious

su-ects, and its students :ere admitted at a much earlier

a8e, some:here -et:een five and 1; =sources differ?*

>hen the( reached 1! those 4alme4a4 students :ho

needed to learn militar( sills :ere sent for their lessons

to the -arracs of the elite Ea8le and Da8uar :arriors in

the palace precinct, a factor :hich helped to perpetuate

the superior militar( standards Aztec societ( e'pected ofits no-ilit(*

suall( no student :as e'pected to actuall( fi8ht

until he :as +" (ears old, -ut at least some @ once the(

had proved the( :ere stron8 enou8h @ -e8an to -e

taen on campai8n at an earlier a8e, carr(in8 the arms

and equipment of individual te5uihuah5ueh, to :hom

the( effectivel( served as apprentices* In e'ceptional

circumstances the( mi8ht even fi8ht :hile still onl( in

their teens, such as :hen an arm( of 1$F1% (ear olds

:as deli-eratel( fielded as an insult to an enem(2s

fi8htin8 a-ilities* Tlatoani octezuma I =1"F$%? even

sent out -o(s up:ards of 1+ (ears of a8e2 a8ainst theChalca, armin8 them :ith -o:s, shields, and macanas,

:ith orders to follo: close -ehind the main arm( to

mae the Chalca thin that t:o armies had -een raised

a8ainst them*

Once the( reached maturit( at the a8e of +" the

(oun8 men left their schools and :ere considered to -e

novice :arriors, -ut an( further advancement could onl(

-e achieved -( the tain8 of captives in -attle* A :arrior

:ho succeeded in tain8 his first captive, even :ith the

help of up to si' other :arriors,17 :as thencefor:ard

considered a leadin8 (outh2 =tel'o4hyah5ui

? and a

captor =tlamani?, and his tuft of hair :as cut off 1' -ut a

:arrior :ho proved una-le to tae a captive after three

or four campai8ns :as deemed a dis8race* He :as

contemp#tuousl( referred to as a 4ue/'al4hi4a4'o, a

(outh :ith a -a-(2s tuft2, and accordin8 to &aha8Xn

:ould thro: himself into the ne't -attle in a :ild frenz(,

to tae a prisoner at an( cost* If even then he still needed

the help of others to tae his captive his head :as

plastered :ith feathers, -ut if he failed completel( the

top of his head :as shorn, cut lie a rin8#shaped

carr(in8 pad2* Presuma-l( he had to eep this

humiliatin8 hair#st(le until he finall( too a prisoner,died in the attempt, or :as in effect cashiered*

>hen a :arrior had taen three captives he -ecame a

tia4h4auh or teacher of (ouths2 himself* our captives

made him a tel'o4htlatoh =ruler of (ouths2, the 8overnor

of a tel'o4h4alli school? and a te5uihuah or valiant

:arrior2,19 entitlin8 him to a distinctive hair#st(le =see

i8ures F$?* >arriors :ho too five or si' prisoners

-ecame tontin =Otomis2? and qualified for another

distinctive hair#st(le =i8ure ;!?, and if the( too even

more the( -ecame :ua4hi45ueh or &horn Ones2

=i8ures ;+F; the literal translation of their name is

scraped heads2?* Thou8h -oth these rans are sometimesthou8ht to have -een attaina-le onl( -( no-lemen,

&aha8Xn alludes to &horn Ones2 :ho came from the

tel'o4h4alli, :hich :ould impl( that at least some came

from a non#no-le -ac8round* Alvarado Tezozomoc,

:ritin8 -efore 1!$+, sa(s that each tomitl or :ua4hi4


30/176

too command of 1"" men on campai8n, -ut other

sources put them in the front ran or rear8uard, or

intersperse them :ith the ran and file to -olster the

resolve of the latter, :hich is perhaps Tezozomoc2s

meanin8 =he also refers to one tomitl or :ua4hi4

-et:een ever( three or four :arriors2, pro-a-l(

meanin8 rans? 4ie8o 4urLn20 pro-a-l( had this

arran8ement in mind :hen he :rote of a (outh :ho had

never -een to :ar -efore2 -ein8 placed ne't to each

seasoned :arrior2, in order that the latter could taecare of the (oun8er men and 8ive them protection*2

If, in octezuma II2s time, a fifth captive :as taen

from Atli'co, Hue'otzin8o, or Tliliuhquitepec, then his

captor received especiall( 8reat honour and :as called a

5uauhyah4atl =8reat captain2?, :hile a si'th captive

from these places qualified a :arrior for the ran of

tla4o4h4al4atl or tla4ate4atl *

Thou8h unpaid, :arriors received re:ards and

preferments commensurate :ith their -attlefield

performance, includin8 clothes, e:eller(, slaves, land,

and appointment to or promotion in administrative

office* ost Aztec officials :ere chosen from the:arrior class, thou8h &aha8Xn reports that, despite their

-attlefield sill, tontin and &horn Ones2 :ere e'cluded

from holdin8 office -ecause of their :ild nature*

Tezozomoc, ho:ever, contradicts him -( claimin8 that

eminent :ua4hi45ueh sometimes held ver( hi8h posts

indeed, includin8 even those of Tla4ate4atl ,

Tla4o4h4al4atl and :uauhno4htli* Certainl( at the ver(

least &horn Ones2 :ould seem to have sat in the :ar#

councils the &peaer held :ith the Da8uar and Ea8le

societies*

an( of the distinctions of each of these various

classes of :arrior actuall( too the form of rich clothin8

or e:eller(, and from octezuma I2s time on:ards it

:as ordained that -rave men2 :ere no lon8er to -u(

their o:n lip#plu8s, ear#plu8s, 8old neclaces, -racelets,

shields, :eapons, insi8nia2 =standards?, man(#coloured

feathers2, mantles, or -reechclouts, all of these items

henceforth -ein8 amon8 those 8iven out -( the &peaer

as pa(ment for memora-le deeds2* The distri-ution of

such insi8nia, man( elements of :hich :ere associated

:ith civilian attire rather than :ar#dress, too place at a

special ceremon( cele-rated each (ear in the eleventh of

the Aztecs2 1% months, 4h'aniztli* As some indicationof the value of such 8ifts, an ornate feather mantle :as

considered to -e equivalent to the price of 1"" canoes =a

cotton mantle :as :orth one canoe?*

>arriors :ho performed poorl( on campai8n mi8ht

actuall( -e stripped of their re:ards* tontin and

:ua4hi45ueh, for instance, are said in one source to have

fou8ht in pairs on the -attlefield, and if one :as illed

and the other ran a:a( the survivor :as dishonoured and

relieved of his ran until such time as the &peaer mi8ht

decide to restore it, perhaps after the miscreant had

e'perienced a (ear or t:o of dis8race, or had re#

qualified for his status -( the capture of additional prisoners* The punishment for :earin8 items of dress or

e:eller( to :hich one had no ri8ht :as death*

E8ITE &RRIORS

rom &aha8Xn2s Code/ &lorentino it is apparent that

te5uihuah5ueh, tontin, and &horn Ones2 alie :ere

armed, equipped and fed at the e'pense of the state, and

other sources indicate that the( lived in :arrior houses2=te5uihua4a4alli? @ communal lod8in8s equivalent to

-arracs @ in the palace precinct* The same is also true

of the reli8ious :arrior#societies no:n as the Ea8le

>arriors =:ua5uauhtin? and Da8uar >arrior

armies of mesoamerica

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