art history || renaissance art, education, and history: an art historian's perspective

National Art Education Association

Renaissance Art, Education, and History: An Art Historian's PerspectiveAuthor(s): Brian D. SteeleSource: Art Education, Vol. 46, No. 2, Art History (Mar., 1993), pp. 41-47Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3193375 .

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Madonna and Child with the Infant Baptist. Marco Bello (Venetian) ca. 1525. Panel, 11 -15 16 x 16 3/16". Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum, Canyon, Texas. Photo courtesy of the Museum.

Renaissance Art, Education, and History: An Art Historian's Perspective

Brian D. Steele

Developments in art education through- out the past decade challenge the educator to incorporate both art appreciation and art history with studio-based instruction.' Particularly for secondary teachers in a curriculum system where boundaries between disciplines are strong, the demands may prove daunting: to educate in

'E.g., see Mittier, 1980, p. 18-21; for comments on discipline-based art education, see the September issue of Art Education, 1987, passim. The issue is not specific to discipline-based instruction: most recently, see Eisner, who stresses education that incorporates quantitative and qualitative learning with the develop- ment of mental skills (1991, p. 12-16).

studio production, in criticism of the design elements that order art, and in the aware- ness of historical conditions that affect creation. Available resources also may constrain educators, since even though objects often interest students more than do reproductions, a local museum may display only a few works from a given historical period, and/or the works themselves may lack documentation. In the case of the Renaissance painting that is the featured artwork, the known facts comprise subject matter, size, and a date sometime after 1500; historians debate the

Art Education/March 1993 41



identity of the artist who was not, in any case, one of the major figures likely to be found in textbooks. Despite the scarcity of factual information, such works neverthe- less stimulate historical examination of artistic processes, of the design elements preferred at the time (period style), and of the demands placed upon art by critics during the period. Using the featured artwork as an example, the two projects that follow represent a model that uses existing resources in order to integrate studio practice with the practice of history and historically-based criticism.

Since one project investigates materials and craft while the other examines critics' expectations, separate objectives, back- grounds, and instructional strategies define a lesson plan for each project. Art education can explore materials and techniques effectively, aspects of production that art history often neglects, but the Renaissance interest in craft requires time, and more important, drying time between stages. Thus, despite the apparent isolation provided by lesson plans for individual projects, in practice they run concurrently. The gaps in physical activity allow stylistic and critical analysis, followed again by phases of activity, and so on.

Discussion unites the projects so that students use insights gained from artistic practice to modify or explain prior critical judgments, and vice versa. The aim is to build upon Feldman's (1967) and Mittler's (1980) levels of analysis, interpretation, and judgment, but here adding knowledge gained through studio research and historically-based criticism. As for history, students act in the manner of historians by examining the painting, consulting period texts, and returning to the work in order to check insights against new information. In sum, the student attains a balanced appreciation of the creation, use, and criticism of Renaissance paintings through active engagement with the painting itself, the process of making, and period texts.

LESSON PLAN, PROJECT ONE

Goal: To introduce secondary students to panel painting as it was practiced during the Renaissance and to develop knowledge of historical method, for example the use of textual sources.

Background: Cennino Cennini (pronounced chen NEE noh chen NEE nee) described painting as he practiced it in his Italian workshop ca. 1400. Tracing his own history back through a series of masters and pupils to Giotto himself, Cennino considers art to be a business endeavor and the product, a well- crafted object. He explains such artistic activities as preparing the panel and applying the paint (of the numerous reprints, I use Cennini, 1930, pp. 87-122, 122-127), as well as those that today usually are not considered part of the creative process, such as making brushes and grinding colors (pp. 27-31, 51-54). Cennino would not even begin the de- manding process of planning and painting without a patron's order and promise of payment, so naturally the artist intends to please by providing a durable object that displays its full value in workmanship and material (Cole, 1983, pp. 13-34). Through- out the Renaissance, art is produced on commission for patrons who often appreci- ate fine craftmanship as much as they do art.

The Italian word disegno (dee ZA nyoh) encompasses both drawing and design in a single activity that forms the foundation of Cennini's art (Cennini, pp. 7-14; 101 - 102). He advocates painting draperies before beginning areas of flesh, so in one sense the importance of the design as a pattern that guides the application of colors is readily understandable. In addition, the nature of the colors necessitates a fixed design because the artist applies several layers of egg-tempera, a slightly translu- cent medium that renders changes difficult (p. 122). A three-step system governs the color gradations, in which saturated color creates dense shadows, a mixture of half color with half white forms the middle tones, and a compound of half white plus half of the previously-adulterated color forms the lights (pp. 123-124). Subtler variations result when portions of the mixed tones serve as the basis for another series of admixtures with saturated color and with white. The three-step method creates all the color gradations used for draperies, but flesh-painting requires the additional step of green underpainting. When overlaid by pink tones, the green filters through the thin paint layers to shadow the flesh areas (pp. 126-127).

42 Art Education/March 1993



Considering its precision, Cennini's method requires a pre-established design that can be subdivided into parts to be painted area-by-area.

Instructional Strategy 1) Look and discuss: Arrange a visit to

the museum with the curator, who can provide reports if the painting has been examined technically, and who may allow the removal of the panel from its frame. Meet with class members in a study area of the museum, supervise individual students in the use of a magnifying glass for close inspection, and direct attention to visual effects and their implication for production. The following questions and the answers in brackets refer to the featured work, but even if the condition of specific paintings necessitates varying the questions, similar effects characterize many Renaissance panels. The questions are ordered from broad to specific; if discussion lags, inverting the order may facilitate response.

Today, we expect brushwork and paint quality to convey expression. How does brushwork contribute to the emotional effect that the painting conveys? Did the artist stress or erase traces of his presence that would call attention to artistic creation? [The painter obliterates brushstrokes especially in the flesh areas, and although magnification reveals tiny parallel strokes that follow forms, the surface maintains an enamel-like smoothness. The artist thereby suppresses strong emotional effects.]

We often work up all areas of a painting at once in order to adjust relationships between portions of the image. Which factors suggest that this artist did not work this way? How can you tell from the painted surface whether or not the artist worked on all areas at the same time? [Although repaint may confuse this issue, slight overlaps such as the curtain on landscape, veil on curtain, and face on curtain suggest the painting sequence.] If you wanted to work this neatly, what would you do before beginning to paint? [Pre-plan the image or use a pattern.] In this section, scrutiny of the painting and observation of planning as a stage within the creative process are more important than are absolutely correct answers.

During the Renaissance, the creative process included stages of planning and of

painting areas in sequence. Which other stages of process can you detect in the painting? On what support did the artist paint, and how did he prepare it to attain the surface quality? [The edges of the support show a wooden panel, while chipped paint at the lower right margin and the wood grain that has emerged through the landscape provide additional evidence. White specks in damaged areas at the right and left edges indicate that the artist used priming; its smoothness required polishing. The stress on facial contours (see the Christ) suggests that the artist may have painted outlines to establish the design, now barely visible beneath rubbed surfaces (in this case, technical examination eliminates the possibility that the design was drawn with a carbon instru- ment). Visible in raking light, chips in the Baptist's arm indicate both the depth of the paint and repaired damage.] Which features indicate the size of brush that the artist used? [The parallel hatches on faces indicate a tiny brush as does the stippling of trees, although surface rubbing has reduced the contrast of these highlights.] Were you to work in this way, would you rather be paid for your artistry, or by-the- hour?

2) Produce a panel painting: The instructor can summarize Cennini's instructions, but students might read key pas- sages on drawing and painting so that they gain an impression both of the tone of writing and the sketchiness of instruction which characterized manuals of the period. Classroom discussion offers a forum to ascertain students' understanding of concepts, to clarify any ambiguous statements, and to indicate modifications that new materials permit. Modern examina- tions of materials (Cole, pp. 57-104) and diagrams of period paintings (e.g. Art in the Making, 1989, pp. 20,. 23, 25, 29, 30) answer many questions and illustrate steps in the procedure, serving as inexpensive and easily understood reference guides.

Working procedure: Applied to any type of small wood panel and smoothed by repeated sanding, several layers of gesso replicate the ivory-like surface of a Renais- sance painting (between stages of preparation, complete the "Analysis" and "His- torical Criticism" of Project Two). Discuss appropriate designs (see section 3 below), considering the subjects that a viewer

Art EducationMarch 1993 43



Photo courtesy of The Saint Louis Art Museum

would expect to see or that the painter could expect to sell during the Renais- sance. Plan, draw, and transfer a design for this type of subject. (If local standards of acceptance deem Christian or mytho- logical subjects to be controversial, a contemporary subject such as the movie character ET can capture the basic qualities of miraculous appearance and emotional empathy.) For the actual painting, acrylic paints thinned with medium imitate the translucency of egg tempera and approximate its quick drying time; encour- age thin layers so that underlying colors affect the final appearance. A few layers of paint applied with a moderately small brush recreate the effect of Renaissance practice without duplicating the tedious reality of thirty or more paint layers. Discussion can highlight these shortcuts, reinforce the craft basis of Cennini's instructions, and introduce new topics in the suggested sequence that follows.

3) Discuss Implications of practice for the analysis and criticism of Renais- sance paintings.

Following analysis and criticism (Project Two, Instructional Strategy 1), which are completed during stages of panel preparation: Which features of practice seem to affect period style? [The design stresses clear definition of parts that are completed

sequentially and encourages clarity. Smoothed with polishing and tiny brushstrokes, the surface maintains visual calm.] Name features of style isolated by comparison with other paintings of the period. [See Analysis.] Prepare a drawing for your painting that captures these elements of style (this returns to "Instruc- tional Strategy 2, above).

Following historical criticism (Project Two, Instructional Strategy 2): How would Alberti evaluate/criticize your design? Modify your drawing as necessary to enhance the concepts of miraculous appearance, divinity in human form, and emotional empathy. Is it still Renaissance in style? Transfer the modified design and begin the painting process.

LESSON PLAN, PROJECT TWO

Goal To introduce students to functions of art during the Renaissance and to texts that indicate how Renaissance contemporaries judged works of art. Background When examining the Madonna and Child with the Young Baptist with a high-school audience, design and function present more productive fields for investigation than does authorship. Scholars attribute




this and other paintings of the same design to Marco Bello, to members of Vincenzo Catena's workshop, and to yet other Venetian artists, all of whom looked closely at a more famous master, Giovanni Bellini (Joh VAHN nee Bel LEE nee) (Robertson, 1954, pp. 79-80; Heinemann, 1962, Cat. No. 99, pp. 25-26). Thus Bellini's ideas probably inspired the basic elements of the design, which was so popular that some seventeen paintings repeat the figure group almost identically although they vary in size and detail. The artist was able to sell such a large number of repetitions in part because of a relatively new factor in the art market around 1500 A.D., an increase in the number of items produced for domestic placement (Cole, 1987, pp. 40-49). Patrons could order paintings of a standard subject to suit their budgetary and spatial needs, but they probably never compared different versions since the paintings were kept in private homes rather than at the main altar in a church. The featured painting shares the modest scale, horizontal format, and half-length figures that characterize many of these devotional paintings intended for the home; the re- used design indicates popularity rather than lack of artistic originality.

The Baptist's child-like appeal is very new to Venetian painting of the time and probably it owes not only to private placement but also to changes in the devices that theologians considered appropriate for religious instruction. Published in Venice between 1450 and 1500, the treatise On the Education of Children by Giovanni Dominici (Doh MEEN ee chee) praises art that creates such empathetic relationships and even orders parents to have "pictures of saintly children ... in the home, in which your child ... may be gladdened by acts and signs pleasing to childhood" (1927, p. 34). Dominici initiates a stress on saints represented as children, and recommends that the child "see Jesus and the Baptist ... pictured together," explaining that s/he will "see himself mirrored" in young saints (Ibid.). Dominici justifies painting and reassures parents who may have questioned whether the new imagery was suitable, with the advice that painted creatures are "books of revelation, the understanding ... of which lead to a knowledge of the Supreme Good" (Ibid.). Painting instructs, and since the child was

intended to see himself mirrored in the Baptist, the painted saint teaches the child to pay homage to the Christ child within the painting. Then as now, that which is new to religious tradition risks offending, but Dominici succeeds in justifying the infant Baptist, empathetic relationships, and domestic placement of paintings, all for didactic reasons.

In paintings intended for didactic use, naturalistic appearance often cloaks symbolic meaning. Although Christ and John are cousins, the Bible does not record a childhood meeting, so their appearance together here may foreshadow their reunion as adults when John baptizes Christ. Bowing the crossed arms, John's humility probably refers to his declaration "It is fitting that He increase and I de- crease." In this fashion, the didactic explanation would clarify the symbolism suggested by the figures' presence and attitudes. As for conventions of representa- tion, the half-length format suggests secular portraiture and the cloth of honor behind the Madonna marks the public appearance of royalty in contemporary ceremonial; however, half-length figures can also symbolize miraculous appearance in religious painting (Goffen, 1975, pp. 494- 499). Thus the image mixes sacred elements with secular ones to suggest a "portrait" that shows the miraculous appearance of the Queen of Heaven (a common title for the Virgin). Even the space can be explained in symbolic terms. The figures occupy a narrow stage that is separated from the viewer by the ledge and from the landscape by the cloth of honor. The separation implies that the figures do not appear within the secular world but rather suggests that they are miraculously revealed to it. For Dominici, this type of symbolic reading justifies religious paintings in the home.

In addition to religious merit, artistic values began to attract attention. Leon Battista Alberti (Ahl BEAR tee) was a critic who derived principles from art, explained them to well-educated patrons by means of literary parallels, and in so doing formu- lated the major devices in humanist painting with his treatise On Painting (many reprints; Alberti, 1966). Since his book reached humanists and artists in both Latin (1435) and Italian (1436) editions, Alberti showed patrons how to evaluate




contemporary art and provided artists with a guide to the features that patrons might expect in the future.

Alberti discussed perspective and proportion, but he especially praised clarity, decorum, and composition in art. Circumscription (contour-lines) and varied colors placed adjacent to one another clarify individual forms, while composition fits parts together to create visual meaning, like words in a sentence (1966, Book I, pp. 68-72). Although he concedes that visual variety affords pleasure, for Alberti the provision of intellectual content is the primary purpose of art. Therefore, he stresses the decorum (appropnateness) that disciplines variety and harmonizes the compositional elements (pp. 72-75), because it bridles fantasy and allows rational order to convey meaning to the viewer's mind. In addition to rational appeal, Alberti's painter can stir the emo- tions if the painted figures reveal interior life of "the movement of the soul," which can be "made known by movements of the body" (p. 77). In turn, this body language clarifies the meaning: for example,

someone who admonishes and points out... what is happening ...; or beck- ons ...; or invites us to weep or to laugh together with them. Thus whatever the

painted persons do among themselves or with the beholder, all is pointed toward... teaching the [story]. (p. 78)

Disciplined in its parts and clear in its statement, the logically-ordered composition may arouse emotional empathy in order to convince the beholder.

Instructional Strategy 1) Analysis: Define the painting's style.

What is the focus of the painting, and how is it balanced? (Locate the central vertical axis; see Fig. 1.) Compare other paintings in subject (Gardner's Art Through the Ages, fiq. 17-15), format (fiqs. 16-37, 17- 55), and style (figs. 17-55, -56, -57; 16-32). Name features of style that all paintings share. [Geometric structure and a central focus stabilize the image; asymmetrical balance may introduce variety. Layers parallel to the picture plane measure and control the space; naturalistically propor- tioned bodies stand in profile or frontal position. Geometricized forms idealize appearance. These qualities create balance, stability, and calm.] Which formal effects might materials and techniques enhance? Formulate your critical evaluation of the Madonna and Child with the Infant Baptist, based on comparison with the other images.

2) Historical criticism: Evaluate the painting using Alberti's standards. What would he like or dislike? (Refer to "Back- ground.") Would he agree with your origina critical evaluation? Why or why not?

3) Interpretation: Using the illustrations from Gardner's text as well as the painting (see "Analysis," above), form two groups that you would describe as formal and informal in appearance; explain why, considering such factors as format, setting, and expression. Note the dimensions of the images. What do size and degree of formality suggest about the use of the two groups? (Check response against information in "Background.") Explain the subject matter of the actual painting while considering both the stylistic focal points and Dominici's interest in didactic art: why is each important element included and/or how would a viewer justify its presence? Evaluate the painting using Dominici's standards as criteria. (Refer to "Back- ground.") Do you think that the original owners used Dominici's or Alberti's stan-


Fig. 1 Compositional diagram, Madon,a and Child with the Infant Baptist, by Marco Bello.



dards of criticism? Does the number of paintings based upon this design affect your response? (These are open-ended questions, although artistic quality may suggest that concern for meaning was paramount.)

4) Discuss Implications for aesthet- Ics: Compare evaluations based on Dominici's and Alberti's ideas. What factors in the painting does each isolate for criticism, in other words, meaning or artistry? Which of the two evaluations is closer to your original critical judgment of the painting?

Conclusion Although student needs are the primary focus for education, the integrated projects also benefit the instructor, who can in effect, learn along with students by focus- sing examination on a single period and a few basic texts. Subsequent presentations can expand the model using any of several variations, for example by examining other aspects of production such as goldwork. Or, a comprehensive project might require students both to translate the subject into modern terms that preserve such basic concepts as miraculous appearance and to revise the painting techniques to suit modern materials. A hypothetical situation can easily introduce the project: if the Renaissance painter lived today, what and how would he paint? For a major expan- sion, the same model can guide the exploration of another period such as nineteenth-century techniques and criticism (e. g., Impressionism, Neo-lmpres- sionism). Mittler's method of analysis- interpretation-judgment should be used to introduce other periods, since familiarity with the method facilitates the more complex project sequence and class time imposes practical limits. Ultimately, con- centration and focus aid preparation by creating a special emphasis for the instructor.

Focused examination benefits the student not only because the integration of practice, criticism, and history creates variety in learning procedures but also because it offers greater potential for learning. Integrated projects provide depth as well as breadth in the curriculum and therefore create conditions conducive to productive diversity (Eisner, 1991, 18-19). Students with varying talents and capabili-

ties can learn from studio application, from texts, or from both. Integrating studio practice with historical criticism also requires transfer of concepts and re- evaluation of judgments, so that students can hone skills for application to other areas of study. As for education in art, students may notice and question differing cultures' definitions of art during the process of examining others' standards and re-evaluating their own statements. Finally, the integrated model encourages effective use of available resources by examining works that might otherwise be considered marginal or vernacular. Stu- dents can view an actual object, derive information from it, and study its relation to period texts, so that they learn not simply the results (facts) but also the methods used in historical investigation. Just as students in their studio projects produce art, so do they here practice art history and historical criticism, all under the aegis of art education.

Brian D. Steele is on the faculty of the Depart- ment of Art, Texas Tech University, Lubbock.

References

Alberti, L.B. (1966). On painting, rev. ed. (J. R. Spencer, trans.), New Haven & London: Yale University Press.

Art Education, (1987). 40(5), September. Art in the making: Italian painting before 1400, (1989).

London: The National Gallery. Cennini, C. (1930). The book of the art (C.J.

Herringham, trans.), London: Allen & Unwin. Cole, B. (1983). The Renaissance artist at work: From

Pisano to Titian, New York: Harper & Row. Cole, B. (1987). Italian art 1250-1550: The relation of

Renaissance art to life and society, New York, et al.: Harper & Row.

Dominici, G. (1927). On the education of children (A.B. Cote, trans.), Washington, DC: Catholic University of America.

Eisner, E. W., (1991). What the arts taught me about education, Art Education, 44 (5), 10-19.

Feldman, E. B., (1967). Art as image and idea, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 138-304.

Gardner, H. Art through the ages, ninth ed., (1991). San Diego, et al.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Goffen, R. (1975). Icon and vision: Giovanni Bellini's half-length Madonnas, Art Bulletin, 57, 487-518.

Heinemann, F. (1962). Giovanni Bellini e i belliniani, Venice: Neri Pozza.

Mittler, G. A., (1980). Learning to look/learning to learn: A proposed approach to art appreciation at the secondary school level, Art Education, 33 (3), 17-21.

Robertson, G. (1954). Vincenzo Catena, Edinburgh: University Press.




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