Article 1 a) !Hierarchical model of leisure constraints Deliberate Programming with Logic Models: From Theory to Outcomes (Crawford, Jackson, Godbey) !

- Positive outcomes for youth as a result of participation in recreation and leisure = enhance skills, increase friendships, learn to get along with each other and decrease negative behaviour

- Presenting this to the government, a school district or a foundation would require tools to construct a sound argument for the program

- Today, recreation is not viewed as an arena for dealing with social issues - Over time, recreation and park professionals strayed from philosophy of providing

services to meet the needs of youth and many focused on the fun as the main outcomes o Thus recreation used to be viewed as fun and games

- Today – most successful programmers and managers design programs to produce outcomes to help them position recreation as a necessary service for accomplishing:

o Service goals - Decreased crime, increased safety for children who otherwise might be on the street or return to empty homes during the nonschool hours

o Education goals - better test scores, graduation from high school o Behavioural goals – decreased destructive behaviours, including drug use and

involvement in early and unprotected sex - It is necessary for recreation service providers to find ways to explain in terms that

resonate with stakeholders the business that we are in - Evidence of success must be provided so that recreation services can be considered

beneficial to dealing with youth issues, just as are the police, schools, and the juvenile justice system.

o Important for those providing financial support for the programs; looking at their funding as social investments

o Funders are willing to support programs that provide good investment and thus are increasingly interested in information that demonstrates that programs do indeed achieve their intended outcomes

o There is scientific evidence of the effectiveness of programs to produce valued outcomes

- However, for recreation workers to offer valued programs and to effectively engage in collaborative efforts with other service providers, they need to learn to explain

o (a) What they are trying to accomplish, o (b) How objectives will be achieved, and o (c) What evidence exists that the program outcomes have been accomplished.

The rest of chapter will explore tools for accomplishing these goals !The Role of Theory in Program Development

- programmers must be able to demonstrate that their programs are designed to meet their intended outcomes

- When programmers take the steps necessary to demonstrate that their programs are relevant and effective and they provide theoretical explanations and evaluations of how their programs achieved the targeted goals, a program is considered evidence based.

o Best way to develop evidence or outcome based programs and to evaluate effectiveness is to base programs on theory ▪ It can explain and link what is done in the program with specific outcomes !

- Theory based programming o Uses established social science theories and empirical evidence as the basis for

program decisions and claims about program outcomes. o Theories are used because they provide explanations or forecasts about how

selected program activities and experiences will lead to particular participant outcomes

- Particular ways of structuring and carrying out programs may even be so common that they are generally accepted as best practices

o However, even with acknowledged best practices = difficult to describe expected outcomes, explain processes by which outcomes were expected to be achieved and determine if outcomes were actually achieved

o Ned to develop programs and evaluate effectiveness of them based on KNOWN linkages between elements of the program and desired outcome and AVOID fuzzy thinking about what they expect to happen in program

o Less likely to make unsubstantiated claims about program outcomes AFTER the program is completed

- Ideally, theories: o should guide the development of programs o explain what one expects to occur as a result of participation o serve as the basis for gathering evidence on whether program goals and

expectations are achieved !Theory Based Programming: An Example Using Logic Models

- in theory based programming – theory program components and outcomes ! linked o program = series of successive steps with theory supporting these links o example: the logic model

- ex. after school recreation program helping youth complete their homework - sequence: provision of homework assistance related activities and knowledgeable staff

lead to participants completing homework ➔ children getting their homework done might NOT be the ultimate desired outcome

- homework completion is basically a short term outcome/proximal outcome but it is the first step in achieving other outcomes

- staff hopes over tong term – students will improve their academic abilities enough to raise their grades and pass standardized achievement test! distal outcome; something that happens further out in time

- as a result of completing homework and raising grades ! staff want students to graduate from high school and be able to support themselves via employment! ultimate outcome

- events happen in the time series with a series of casual relationships between each of the events or outcomes

- when constructing theory based model – people begin by identifying the ultimate outcome that they are seeking to achieve

o what is the eventual contribution (ultimate outcome) you want the program to make

o there are number of ways to choose the outcome o working backwards in this model is important because it is the clearest way

to identify what the program is intended to accomplish o sometimes providing evidence for the ultimate outcome is not possible but it is

included in the model to indicate the potential value of the program - good planning is intentional, thoughtful, and purposeful !

Theories of Intervention and Explanation - two levels of theory used to construct a logic model:

o program theory or theory of intervention ▪ how the program components lead to the program outcomes

o theory of explanation ▪ why there are linkages between the distal, proximal, and ultimate

outcomes - homework assistance program:

o program theory: how what happens in the program produces the desired proximal outcome ▪ necessary to have a time for students to complete their homework

(program component) ▪ tutoring or assistance by adults who have ability to motivate students,

answer questions and provide positive rewards for successful homework completion is also provided

▪ by providing the program components of time and assistance, students should be able to complete their homework

o theories of explanation – helps us to link the program, distal, and ultimate outcomes ▪ in the case of homework assistance program: research suggests that

children who complete their homework are likely to get higher grades and test scores

▪ thus they are more likely to graduate from high school and get better paying jobs !

Using Theory and Focusing on Outcomes - theory based programming and program logic models explain exactly how these

programs led to specific outcomes - logical models illustrate the successive steps as logically time ordered: program

components leading to proximal, distal and ultimate outcomes - these successive steps model how the program activities produced new skills which have

in turn led to outcomes that led to achieving the ultimate outcome - theory and research used to justify the linkages across the successive steps !

Constructing a theory-based program: An example - first- determine the ultimate outcome of your youth development program

o selection of outcomes will reflect things associated with healthy youth development

- after, you search for the social science literature to gain as much information as possible about desired ultimate outcome and the theories explaining how it might be achieved

o must have clear idea of what the term we are exploring truly means and how it is defined so that others know what we mean when the program is presented to them

o with science literature you will also be able to find key determinants of the ultimate outcomes ▪ these are factors that explain the ultimate outcome and will be found

within a theory of explanation ▪ literature review is critical as it sometimes leads to conclusions that differ

from common or folk knowledge ▪ it may also include insights about the consequences or importance of a

particular behaviour or attitude ▪ using the literature to understand that is and is not connected to the

ultimate outcome is of utmost importance ▪ the more evidence you have supporting how you program works, the

stronger your argument for your program will be - the value of reading the social science literature is developing a specific definition of the

targeted outcome, understanding a theory that explains what affects the outcome and identifying empirical evidence of a link between one or more determinants and an ultimate outcome !

Developing the Program Theory - connections between proximal, distal and ultimate outcomes = explanatory theory - links between the program components and proximal outcomes = are sometimes less

evident and require an analysis of the processes and elements of the program components - links between the program components and the proximal outcomes are based part on

understanding kinds of activities or programs features that affect the proximal and distal outcomes

- knowing the connection with proximal outcomes is important so that these connections are built into program deliberately

- think of program components as things that can be changed or manipulated !Issues in the Development of Theory Based Programming - program logic model – conceptual thus there is some degree of abstraction between the

model and everything that happens to carry out the program - unlikely that the logic model will provide detail about all that happens in the

program experience - Logic model helps identify the implicit beliefs that program staff have about how the

program works o Reviewing these may reveal that different staff members have different

interpretations of a program’s purpose and benefits as well as how the activities work

o Can strengthen the quality of a program by making sure all stakeholders share a common understanding of the program and its impacts

o Thus constructing a logic model helps one to move from implicit to shared explicit beliefs about the relationship between program design and outcomes

- Weiss – suggested that when constructing a program logic model staff should focus on the most salient and enduring aspects of the program experience

- Focusing on the most important and most enduring benefits should, at the very least, help programmers to scale back long lists of desired outcomes to those deemed most important and most connected to the program activities

- Logic models should be used as a guide to make sure that desired outcomes are achieved but should NOT unduly limit the range of impacts that a program might actually produce !

The role of the program logic model in program evaluation - Necessary to have considerable resources, individuals with research methods expertise,

and a large number of program participants - Programmers should focus on the underlying assumptions and theory linking the program

components and proximal outcomes - Since logic model supplies predictions about what happens in a program, it may be

useful to begin evaluation process by assessing these steps and assumptions - Always can ask to fill out surveys, open ended questions or data collection strategy based

on the program logic model that measures both outcomes and program processes - Evaluation strategy should examine fundamental beliefs about how the program works !

Article 1 b) !EDRD 3500 DE Exam Reading Summary !1. Deliberate Programming with Logic Models: From Theory to Outcomes !

• From participation in recreation and leisure, young people can - enhance their skills - increase friendships - learn to get along with each other - decrease negative behaviors !

• Today, the most successful programmers and managers design programs to produce outcomes to help them position recreation as a necessary service for accomplishing critical goals !

• There’s scientific evidence of effectiveness of programs to produce valued outcomes - Youth development researchers increasingly exploring impact of young people’s involvement in school-based/community-based night and weekend programs. !

• Evidence-based program: When programmers take steps to demonstrate that the programs are relevant and effective and they provide theoretical explanations and evaluations on how the programs achieve the goals !

• Theory-based programming: Uses established social science theories and empirical evidence as basis for program decision and claims about program outcomes - theory, program components and outcomes are all linked - Uses logic model !

• Proximal Outcome: short-term or near-term outcome !• Distal Outcome: Outcome occurring further out in time !• Ultimate Outcome: Long term Result !• 2 Types or levels of theory used to construct a logic model

- Program theory or Theory of intervention (to explain how the program components lead to the program outcomes) - Theory of explanation (why there are linkages between distal, proximal, and ultimate outcomes) !

• Constructing a Theory-based program - Determine the ultimate outcome of the program

- Further Search the social science literature to gain as much info as possible about desired ultimate outcome and theories explaining how it might be achieved - Need very specific definition of the ultimate outcome. !

• Developing Autonomy - one of the important developmental tasks - Autonomy: acting in a self-determined manner, characterized by experiencing what one does as volitional. - Autonomous individual sees his/her actions as motivated by one’s own interests, beliefs, and values - For adolescents, autonomy defined as independence from one’s parents. !

• Autonomy Theory - Autonomy develops with those in authority support self-initiated behaviors and give youth choices in regard to what transpired in the home, school or extracurricular program settings. - Autonomy also reflected in a youth’s decision-making skills, including ability to think ahead, to seek support, to assess outcomes associated with alternatives !

• Autonomy Program Logic Model - Has 3 main distal outcomes thought to influence the ultimate outcome (Youth’s sense of choice, negotiation skills, and decision-making skills) - distal outcomes influenced by proximal outcomes - leadership and planning and managing an activity influence youth’s perceptions of autonomy through how leaders interact with youth !

• Issues in developing theory-based programming - program logic model is conceptual, meaning that there is some degree of abstraction between model and everything that happens to carry out a program !

• Role of program logic model in program evaluation - Serves as basis for systematic program evaluation by specifying types expected outcomes to occur and pathways to those effects - Goal of these large-scale evaluation studies is both to demonstrate that a program produced outcomes and to examine how the program produced those effects - In early stages, programmers should focus on underlying assumptions and theory

linking the program components and proximal outcome !• Future of Theory-based programming

- As youth’s free-time activities grow, need for quality programming increases - Quality of programs depends on a programmers’ ability to effectively construct and manage programs based on theory and evidence of program outcomes !!

Article 2 !Article 3 Found in course pack !Article 4 – also Found in Course pack

Edginton, C., DeGraaf, G., Dieser, R., & Edginton, S. (2006). Leisure: A historical perspective. In C. Edginton, G. DeGraaf, R. Dieser, & S. Edginton (Eds.) Leisure and life

satisfaction (4th

ed.), (pp. 67-84). New York: McGraw Hill. !!Introduction !

• Studying history provides a view of evolving concepts of leisure, changes, what people have done during their leisure, and what institutions have emerged in order to meet needs ◦ can be tied to societal trends

• History is the record of important activities that have occurred in relation to an individual concept, person, institution, or geographical location. ◦ describe what has happened and determine cause and effect

• Historical research can be thought of as an orderly and systematic reconstruction of the past !

Why do we study history? !• Knowledge or history provides reference points from the past that can be used to trace

events and to make comparisons with other eras and cultures. • Provides a knowledge of leisure concepts by which to develop an appreciation for the

foundations of the profession, to understand the roles of people in history, to gain knowledge of historical events and places, and to understand our place in history !

Knowledge of leisure concepts !• Most important reason to study history: to understand the evolution of concepts of leisure

• Forces in society change influencing work, religion, politics, AND leisure • Industrial era: clearly defined work time and free time occurred at regularly scheduled

times • Information era (today): flexible work times and attitudes toward work and leisure are

more fluid ◦ for some, work is so interesting and rewarding that it could be viewed as leisure ◦ generally, however, leisure tends to be found after work hours !

Appreciation for the foundations of the profession !• The study of history imparts knowledge re: the foundations of the leisure service

profession • Reveals social conditions that led to the establishment of agencies and institutions

providing leisure services • The modern park and recreation movement grew out of the need for social reforms that

occurred during the Industrial Revolution in the mid-1800s in the US. ◦ many things created the need for social reform ◦ public baths, parks, play places for kids, etc. were created to improve the human

condition !Understanding people in history !

• History is a story about people and their actions and behaviours • A study of these behaviours can provide a real understanding of how events were shaped • Many of early leaders of the park and rec movement were leading thinkers whose

concepts influenced a variety of fields ◦ i.e. social welfare, city planning, landscaping, and youth serving organizations !

Knowledge of significant historical events and places !1. Studying history enables people to gain knowledge about historical events and places

cause and effect information to trace the impact of events we can determine the factors that caused specific events to occur

2. Knowledge of events coupled with the reasons why they occurred and their impact provides critical insight into the historical evolution of the profession !

Knowledge that can be useful – present and future !• Study of history helps in decision making ◦ provides relevant information for the present and future ◦ can help in current planning efforts

• Many institutions we know today emerged from 1800s as part of social reform movement that grew out of industrial revolution

◦ reformers saw potential of using play and recreation to improve people's quality of life

◦ Boston Sand Gardens (the first playground) met play needs of disadvantaged children and gave them a safe place to play !

Understanding our place in history !• Understanding how one's actions contribute to making history is to understand one's

destiny and direction • History grants a view of the differences and similarities among individuals, organizations,

and movements in various cultures ◦ people in diff parts of the world experience similar social movements !

The history of leisure !• history of leisure should be viewed in the context o the history of humankind • History of humankind divided into four distinct eras:

1. Preliterate society (precivilized) – exists prior to written history. Can only assume which types of activities occupied humans before recorded history. Life was a struggle for physical existence. Wherever and whenever humans have existed, they have found some time for recreation

2. Agricultural era – began approx 8,000. Domestication of animals and crops and establishment of civilization in Mesopotamia. Approx 6,000 yrs ago agricultural activity introduced to Central America. Both events gave birth to beginning of today's civilization

3. Industrial era – began in Europe (Great Britain) in 1700s/early 1800s. Spread to USA ~mid-1800s. Positive consequences: improved quality of life available to people, greater access to material goods, better transportation and communication systems. Negative consequences: crowded, child labour, poor sanitation – result in need for social reform

4. Technological era (information era) – mid-1950s. Computers and changing nature of work in developed countries. Many more people work in service- and information-based industries. Greater access to info and increased speed of transportation and communication

• Today: this period of time has been referred to as the postindustrial era • life in information age has accelerated rate of change in our world – creating a common

need to understand change • In each of the above eras, people have conceptualized and engaged in leisure in diff ways !

Leisure in preliterate societies !• Survival was main concern of life • Much of what we know or understand before recorded history comes from two sources:

◦ The work of physical anthropologists who have studied humankind in all periods of history. Try to reconstruct lives of prehistoric groups

◦ Study of primitive groups of people in the world today such as the Tsaddi, a Filipino tribe. They have never come into contact with modern civilization. By analyzing their lives, we can assume what it was like for primitive groups in preliterate society

• Sharp distinction between work time and leisure time did not exist ◦ work and leisure fused together

• difficult to distinguish between the work and play of primitive peoples. • Play often infused with ritual and transmitting culture from generation to generation • Most leisure activities related to acquisition of survival skills (i.e. Fishing, hunting,

combative activities, pottery, weaving, etc.). Most of these skills served as basis for development of later civilizations

• Lived lives primarily by life rhythms (i.e. When they were hungry they hunted, when tired they slept, when joyful they celebrated). People moved at natural pace depending on current state of need and natural conditions of environment

• Much knowledge about these groups (esp. Egyptian culture) come from the remains of their tombs or inscriptions. Had a well-developed class system with lower classes engaging in athletics and physical sport while upper classes more sedentary and enjoyed being entertained

• Egyptians enhanced outdoor spaces – gardens, etc. !Leisure in the agricultural era !

• “The first form of culture was agriculture” • Agriculture provided stable supply of food and an opportunity for a long-term perspective

on life ◦ sense of security ◦ with energy no longer focused on survival, could participate in other activities

• Society established property rights for cultivation and farming. Need for private property on which to produce crops

• For first time in history, humankind produced a surplus of commodities, this forming classes of people who were not involved directly in their production

• Landowners, gov't officials, scribes and artists were all supported by efforts of others. These individuals became the leisure class as contrasted with individuals in the working class

• Time became regulatory dimension of life • leisure time and leisure activities became attached to these events, such as autumn harvest

celebrations – games, dancing, and celebrating end of work season • The Greeks used leisure to advance civilization - “without a leisure class, there can be no

standards of taste, no encouragement of the arts, no civilization. No man in a hurry is quite civilized”

Leisure in Ancient Greece • Greeks believed that civilization advanced through the cultivation of the mind, body, and

spirit. • Greeks (specifically Athenians) were interested in variety of activities linked to the

development of civilization. ◦ Writing, art, athletics

• School activities prepared children for leisure pursuits. Writing, reading, math, music, gymnastics, art all part of curriculum

• Aristotle believed that the end of labour was to gain leisure. Leisure was not “freedom from” but rather “freedom to” pursue the good life which is a state of being well and doing well. ◦ Leisure provides the opportunity for intellectual development, provides relaxation,

enhances enjoyment of life Leisure in Ancient Rome

• Leisure and pursuits tended to be much more utilitarian in Rome then Greek society • Activities for leisure/privileged class provided entertainment, they were primarily

directed toward maintaining the rigor of the young men of this militaristic society. • Rome adopted more luxurious standard of living – leisure and spare time became a

problem • Wealthy romans enjoyed sculpture, painting and other art. Many public baths and pools. ◦ Baths became the social and athletic clubs of Roman citizens.

• Entertainment in Rome was plentiful and inexpensive. • Sports were popular. Divided into three areas: ◦ hunting, riding, competition of arms (boxing, wrestling, etc)

• Circus maximus – one of the most popular activities. Chariot races which also featured exhibitions of exotic animals from around the world

• Roman Coliseum – facility in which gladiators fought • Games began mainly as religious festivals • Greeks and Romans had differing views of leisure as related to the games ◦ Greeks: games were great evens in which every person aspired to compete ◦ Romans: games as spectator entertainment

• Leisure pursuits of Romans seen as hedonistic, vulgar, and corrupt – butchering of animals and humans ◦ downfall of Rome linked with inability of that culture to use its leisure in a positive

and productive manner Leisure and Christianity

• Christian faith has had a strong impact on attitudes and values toward work and leisure of US citizens

• Belief that work was good for humankind and idleness wasn't good. ◦ Work was framed in the context of being productive – provided surplus of

commodities to share with others • Activities focused on producing more in order to help those who had less and who

needed charity • Contrast with early Catholic philosophers who thought they should engage in intellectual

and spiritual activities while others engaged in physical labour. A leisurely lifestyle

allowed for spiritual activities – therefore good for a priest. • Martin Luther: Protestant Reformation changed the way Christians viewed work and play ◦ belief that God calls his people to their work ◦ work of any type was valued whereas idleness was viewed as a sin

• John Calvin: work ethic - purpose of work was to glorify God, not to accumulate wealth ◦ encouraged hard work but also connected material blessings as a sign of God's

approval. ◦ This is deeply embedded into North American culture today

Leisure in the Middle Ages • Middle Ages in Western Europe linked ancient civilization with modern times (from A.D.

400 to A.D. 1500) • Major civilizing force during Middle Ages was Christian church. • Spectacles in the form of religious pageants, political processions, tournaments, and

festivals formed a part of the revelry during the Middle Ages. • “Lord of Misrule” appointed to organize events (the first recreation leader?) • Travel was possible (tourism) • Class distinctions were evident during the Middle Ages in terms of leisure pursuits as

well as other activities • Individuals enjoyed themselves in their leisure. It was a period of merriment marked by

celebration Leisure and the Renaissance

• Began in Italy, A.D. 1300 and lasted approx 300 years. • Renaissance was a period of great intellectual activity and of great creative force • Many changes in style, painting, sculpture, and architecture emerged • During the Renaissance, the arts flourished, with a revitalization of literature,

architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and drama ◦ music concerts became an important leisure pastime available to women and all social

classes • Creative frenzy • The first printing press (mid 1400s in Germany)

Leisure in Colonial America • Europe went through a great period of change in the 1500s and 1600s – produced

religious reformation and economic development • Protestant leaders in England emphasized family life, industriousness, participation in

community activities, and education. Reformers fell into two categories: ◦ the Puritans – sought to change the church of England from within ◦ the Separatists – wanted to separate from the church of England

• The original immigrants to Canada and the US had little time for leisure ◦ life was based on survival

• One view of the Puritans were that they were legalistic and did not permit leisure. They valued frugality, hard work, self-discipline, and strict observance of vicil and religious codes. ◦ Viewed play as the devil's handiwork

• Alternative view of the Puritans: work ethic included in its basic principles that God calls people to work, that all legitimate work has dignity, that work can be stewardship to God and service to self and humanity, work should be pursued in moderation and in deference to spiritual concerns ◦ Advocate balance in living a life to glorify God ◦ work and leisure give meaning to each other

• Despite the harshness of life of early colonists, leisure pursuits did emerge ◦ drinking, meeting friends at local tavern (men) ◦ meet with friends while shopping (women)

• Need for common open areas recognized !Leisure in the industrial era !

• Started in Britain, moved to the rest of Europe throughout the 18th

century • Didn't begin in US until the early to mid 1800s • Factors contributing to the development of the industrial revolution in Europe and US: ◦ population rise in and around cities. Need for labor-intensive factories ◦ land supply began running out. Created climate of innovation as individuals looked

for other ways to move up in society ◦ wilderness more accessible, therefore more natural resources available ◦ innovations in weapons because of competition between nations ◦ advancements in transportation and communication increased ability to move goods

around ◦ advancements in manufacturing techniques allowed for mass production

• Industrial era greatly improved the standard of living for many individuals but greatly disrupted the social order for a period of time

• Industrial era produced boom and bust cycles in the US; also produced mass waves of immigration and urbanization

• Class distinctions between men and women were sharpened. Men worked while women were homebound without pay ◦ middle-class women benefitted from their husband or father's financial success ▪ engaged in entertainment (went to shows, etc)

◦ women from lower classes forced to work in poor conditions • life became clock-driven – time regulated both work and play ◦ there was work time and there was free time ◦ misuse of free time came to be viewed as a social problem and the provision of

wholesome productive leisure activities became an instrument of social reform • As work became more and more specialized it robbed people of their sense of purpose

(i.e. In a factory, not being able to see a product to its completion on assembly line) ◦ leisure became a method for compensating for dissatisfying work experiences

• more and more self-made millionaires – give new meaning to the term “leisure class” ◦ wealthy had plenty of money and free time but little experience on how to use either.

◦ People use leisure as a way to demonstrate their social class • commercialization of leisure made leisure more accessible to the general public !!!

Article 5 – Also found in course pack #5.Edginton, C., DeGraaf, G., Dieser, R., & Edginton, S. (2006). Philosophical and conceptual themes. In C. Edginton, G. DeGraaf, R. Dieser, & S. Edginton (Eds.) Leisure and life satisfaction (4 th ed.), (pp. 112-139). New York: McGraw Hill- Philosophy of leisure provides an understanding of direction, goals and purposes and a framework for action - Example Boys and Girls Club of America - Philosophy = a collection of systematically defined values, beliefs and preferences. Its primary tool is reason - Philosophies help determine priorities - Philosophical beliefs derive from our society as well as from individual belief structures - Divine ends = suggests that play, leisure or recreation is apart of God or a means of spiritual values of a religious life - Happiness = creative work, personal happiness, spiritual balance, intellectual activity, spiritual freedom, harmonious living and cultivation of the mind as ends of leisure, recreation and play - Combination of work, play, love and worship = union. It perceives recreation as a means of revitalizing the individual - Self actualization = self fulfillment through leisure - Play = play related to play instincts or becomes a component of the ideal - Utopia- No final end = no grand end to play, leisure or creation, only personal ends or goals - Other philosophical approaches include life or knowledge, balance, character development, aesthetic appreciation, abundant living, joy, growth, personal freedom, well being and purposelessness - Values - Preservation of natural resources, conservation of natural resources, wise use of leisure, democracy, citizenship and freedom of choice, human happiness, protection and promotion of human dignity, personal growth, leisure awareness, leadership and moral character development, quality of life - A value free environment does not exist - Values shape individual lives - A need for value clarity - "The good life" - Underlying values guide individuals in making choices - Ethic of care - When ones personal philosophy is consistent with the philosophy of the organization, harmony and congruence will likely exist which results in increased productivity and satisfaction

- Develop a personal philosophy of leisure - Know yourself and your organization, clarify relationships with consumers and clients, clarify organizational relationships, clarify relationships with other individuals - Mission and vision - Sensory, expressive, intellectual - What a person beliefs affects their behavior - 7 philosophical constructs 1) Perrennialism and leisure = leisure as an opportunity to being individuals closer to God and to promote spiritual values 2) Idealism and leisure = adhere to fine ideals regardless of what people think or their consequences. They value consistency of ideas 3) Realism and leisure = use leisure to learn about and define reality 4) Pragmatism and leisure = leisure should promote specific ends or specific observable measureable results 5) Experimentalism and leisure = emphasizing experiences 6) Existentialism and leisure = purse unregimented experiences and plays by their own rules 7) Humanism and leisure = humanistic ethic as the central value system of the movement Steps to building a philosophy of leisure 1) Examine the historical philosophical foundations of the profession 2) Examine ones own personal values 3) Discuss with professionals their philosophy and values 4) Examine the values of organizations delivering leisure services 5) Examine the values of local community 6) Examine the values of society as a whole as they relate to leisure Being a professional !Article 6 !Article 7 7. Recreation for Special Populations: An Overview By Laura J. McLachlin and Tracy M. Claflin !Introduction:

- Anyone can experience an accident, emotional stress, or an addiction - These conditions can occur at any point in life !

Special populations defined: - The term “special populations” encompasses a broad range of groups

o People with disabilities (arthritis, visual impairment, deafness, emotional disturbance, paraplegia)

o People who abuse drugs o People who have eating disorders o People who are social offenders

o Elderly o Minority populations o Refugees and immigrants o Homeless

- Recreation therapists work hard at attempting to dispel myths and reduce negative stereotypes !

People with Disabilities: - Approx. 20% of non institutionalized Americans have a disability - 75% of them have an activity limitation - Approx 10% of the population has a severe disability - Small fraction live in institutions - Acute and chronic conditions can be either emotional, social, physical, intellectual, or a

combination - Ex: a developmental disability may cause one child to have difficulty only with motor

skills, whereas another may be totally dependent on other for all daily living needs - Another factor in understand disability conditions is the time the disability occurred - Ex: someone who is deaf may not have been deaf their whole life !

Developmental disabilities: - Means a severe, chronic disability of an individual that is attributable to a mental or

physical impairment or combination of mental and physical impairments - If it happens before the age of 22, likely to continue indefinitely - Results in substantial functional limitations in three or more of the following:

o Self-care o Receptive and expressive language o Learning o Mobility o Self-direction o Capacity for independent living o And economic self-sufficiency

- Down’s syndrome is a commonly known developmental disability - Varying from mildly disabled to profoundly disabled - It is important to note that many physical disabilities do not affect mental functioning at

all - People with developmental disabilities may have short attention spans, impaired memory

and limited motor skills - Speaking in simple sentences, changing the activity frequently, and demonstrating as

much as possible can assist them toward successful recreational experiences !Physical disabilities:

- Refers to the degeneration or loss to an individual that has been caused by congenital (prior to or during birth) or adventitious (traumatic or after birth) factor

- Many different sources: diabetes, asthma, cystic fibrosis, heart defects, spina bifida, muscular dystrophy, arthritis, scoliosis, cerebral palsy, stroke, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury and epilepsy

- Symptoms of these disabilities may include weakness of limbs, paralysis, and uncontrollable muscles; symptoms differ

- Recreational activities may require minimal modification in the rules or equipment o Ex: in a wheelchair tennis two bounces are allowed and may use lighter balls !

Hearing Impairments: - The most common physical disability in the US - 22 million – 28 million deaf and hard-of-hearing children and adults - Many individuals choose not to identify themselves as having a hearing loss, thus causing

statistics to be difficult to collect - Range from mild to profound

o Mild = hearing that is defective but functional with/without hearing aid o Profound = the sense of hearing in the best ear is non-functional for

communication - Because of language deficits, a person with a hearing impairment falls behind in many

fundamental cultural skills - Methods for communication: hearing aids, sign language, lip reading, and teletypewriters

(a device that connect a telephone to a keyboard and screen) - Recreational activities for people with hearing impairments require minimal modification,

leaders should position themselves to be seen clearly by participants, demonstration as much as possible !

Visual Impairments: - Partially sighted, low vision, legally blind, and totally blind are all considered visual

impairments - Partially sighted:

o Indicates some type of visual problem has resulted in a need for special services - Low vision:

o Refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to distance vision - Legally blind:

o Indicates a person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye or a very limited field of vision

- Totally blind: o Indicates very little or no vision at all

- Visual impairment ! functional loss of vision - Eye disorder ! include retinal degeneration, albinism, cataracts, glaucoma, muscular

problems, corneal disorders, diabetic retinopathy, congenital disorders and infection; can lead to vision impairment

- Most people are not completely blind, usually able to make use of residual vision or light perception

- Require assistance in transportation, reading: guide dogs, white canes, tape-recorded books, large print books, and voice controlled calculators and computers are available

- Recreational considerations include using a partner, allowing the person to feel the leader’s movements !

Emotional disabilities: - Means a condition in which the person exhibits one or more:

o Inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers

o Inappropriate types of behaviour or feelings under normal circumstances o A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression o A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal,

school, or work problems - Includes neuroses, psychoses (i.e. schizophrenia), and personality disorders - All human beings attempt to function in their society to maximize satisfaction and

minimize stress - Individuals may experience difficulty in dealing with day-to-day stresses of life; may

manifest - Anxiety, phobias, hysterical displacements and unrealistic compulsions are examples - These types of disabilities can occur at any time in a person’s life and may be either acute

or chronic - People with emotional disabilities usually do not require modification in recreational

activities; leader should be sensitive to not make the individual feel uncomfortable/intimidated !

Substance Abuse: - Nearly half of all Americans ages 12 and older reported being current drinkers of alcohol - 62% of young adults aged 18-22 enrolled full time in college reported any use, binge use,

or heavy use of alcohol, while 50.8% of their peers not enrolled full-time reported using alcohol

- 14 million Americans (6.3% of the population age 12 and older) use illicit drugs - Substance abuse affects not only the life of the abuser but also the lives of family and

friends and those in the workplace and school - Services: alcoholics anonymous, adult children of alcoholics, al-anon, alateen, alatot,

narcotics anonymous, private physicians, counselors, clergy and others - Proper use of free time needs to be encouraged !

Elders: - The fastest-growing portion of the population - Among the older population, the fastest growing segment is the 85+ age group - Recent research shows that the best prescription for a long and happy life is physical

exercise and plenty of social opportunities

- Can enjoy a wide variety of recreation, but those in residential facilities may need assistance in order to participate

- Only 3.4% of the nation’s older population live in nursing homes !Eating Disorders:

- Becoming increasingly prevalent - Approx. 5-10% of girls and women and 1% of boys and men suffer from eating disorders - Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating - Interfere with the person’s physical or mental health, disorganize the person’s life to a

marked degree, or distort the person’s self-image - Anorexia and bulimia are viewed as psychiatric or emotional disorders, while obesity

involves a self-destructive impulse control problem - Tend to misuse their leisure time: chronic thoughts of food, excessive exercising, starving,

purging (self-induced vomiting), and/or gorging are examples - Treatment: developing healthy leisure activity skills, counseling, stress management,

behaviour modification, biofeedback, or medication !Social Disabilities:

- Social behaviours that have been identified as delinquent or unacceptable to society o Vandalism, theft, obsessive gambling, gang affiliation, and truancy

- Occurs during freetime - Usually detrimental to society - Juvenile violence peaks in after-school hours on school days/evenings ! highest risk of

being victims of violence - Favoured programs that provide youth with structured, supervised activities during

nonschool hours, such as tutoring, mentoring, job and vocational training, organized sports, and art programs

- Recreation programs are being used not only with juvenile offenders but also with youth who are labeled “at risk” of becoming delinquent !

The Value of Recreation for Special Populations: - They may encounter limitations in experiencing full participation in the normal social

structure of society - Ex: people with disabilities seem to face greater financial constraints in selecting leisure

activities - People with disabilities are more likely to be unemployed or to receive lower than

average wages - Work in comparatively poor conditions with less access to senior and managerial posts - Another barrier is provision of community recreation programs: transportation, budget

allocations, identification of members of special population groups, insufficient numbers of program personnel, and architectural barriers were the primary obstacles in providing recreation to people with special needs

- This group of people have more free time than any other and often experience “forced leisure”

- They were expected to gain acceptance from “normal people” acquire a job, and attain functional levels of behaviour

- Minimal effort was mad toward assisting this group to achieve the social and leisure skills considered so essential to the rest of society

- More recreational services and programs are provided for individuals with special needs ! these create leisure activities that are essential for human development

- Risk recreation, such as camping, skiing, and kayaking, has the same intrigue, stimulates the same level of interest and is as beneficial for special populations as it is for the rest of the population

- Sports are beneficial - Adolescents in a wheelchair tennis program experienced increased self-perception of

physical competence as a result of participation - Several studies have shown that creative arts such as music, movement, and drama have a

positive effect on individuals with development disabilities - Recreational experiences can meet the same needs and provide the same benefits for both

special populations and the general public !Therapeutic Recreation:

- An individual who experiences a traumatic disability or any type of loss (e.g. loss of a limb) progresses through 5 stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance

- Can be difficult to motivate that individual toward participation in leisure activities - The fact that the individual has a physical, mental, or social limitation does not imply an

inability to partake in leisure activities - Therapeutic recreation is the professional field that provides leisure services

o offers outdoor activities (camping, rafting, skiing), dance, music, art, drama, competitive sports, and community outings

- Assist individuals in leading a healthy leisure lifestyle - Recreation therapists conduct leisure assessments and evaluations, select and modify

activities, and design and implement recreation programs for special populations - Recreation therapists are also employed in correctional facilities, substance-abuse,

treatment centers, community programs for special populations, adult day-care programs, community mental health centers and residential facilities

- Recreation offers opportunities to overcome negative attitudes for both special populations and the general public

- Participation shows increasing confidence and self-esteem !The Americans with Disabilities Act:

- Passed in 1990, guarantees opportunity for individuals with disabilities in public and private-sector services and employment

- Bands discrimination on the basis of disability - It provides basic civil rights protection to persons with disabilities

- It is about assuring the inclusion of people with disabilities into the social, political, and economic mainstream of society !

Article 8 !Nepal S: Indigenous Ecotourism in Central British Columbia: The Potential for Building Capacity in the Ti’azt’en Nations Territories

INTRO

• Indigenous tourism is characterized as any tourism product or service that is owned or operated by native peoples.

• In the context of indigenous ecotourism, tourism products and services refer to activities that focus on natural and cultural attractions within indigenous territories, and are planned, developed and managed by indigenous peoples.

• Ecotourism: a sustainable activity that is primarily focused on experiencing and learning about nature… ethically managed to be low-impact, non-consumptive, and locally oriented. o Ecotourism as a concept in ambiguous, and has been interpreted to mean different

things to different people. • Indigenous Ecotourism: is an activity and enterprise focused on maintaining the natural

and cultural integrity of the land and people where is it developed. • Those in favour of indigenous involvement in tourism argue that, through the provision

of economic stability and the reinstatement of traditional cultural practices, indigenous people can achieve self-determination and self-reliance.

• Development of indigenous controlled tourism is expected to bring positive social and economic changes too.

• Critics have argued that indigenous tourism is yet another form of cultural imperialism. Furthermore, tourism has proved to be disastrous to the indigenous communities.

• In the Canadian context, given that indigenous peoples have lagged behind in economic development and face many social challenges, ecotourism appears to be a viable alternative.

• Proved to be a good alternative in north and central British Columbia and there are several notable examples of first nations-owned and operated tourism businesses.

• This study is important for two man reasons: 1. The alarming scale and speed at which tourism is spreading into remote and peripheral

areas, driven by the search for new destinations and marketing of things natural and unspoiled.

2. Problems of indigenous peoples, including those related to tourism development, have been recognized at several international for a.

Study Area

• Tl’azt’en Nation: a sub-tribe of the Carrier linguistic group of the Dene family inhabits 47 registered Indian Reserve Lands, spread over approximately 6560 square kilometer in a relatively pristine natural environment in central BC.

• Carrier: European explorers gave the name to these people, after observing the widows carried the ashes of their deceased husbands during the period of mourning.

• The Tl’azt’en Nation territory is situated on the Interior Plateau, bounded on the west by the Cost Mountains, on the north by the Omineca Mountains and on the east by the Rocky Mountains.

• Dominated by the Sub-boreal Spruce biogeoclimatic zone • The climate is continental, with long, cold winters; summers are short with relatively

long, warm days. • The forests in the region provide a rich habitat fro ungulates, fur-bearing animals as well

as rodents. • Bird life and streams and lakes are abundant. • The majority of Tl’azt’en people (people by the edge of the bay) reside in 4 reserves: • Relatively younger population compared with other similar communities in the region.

1. Tache ▪ Is the largest community with 501 residents.

2. Binche (Pinche) 3. K’uzche (Grand Rapids) 4. Dzitl’aninli (Middle River)

• The traditional way of like of the Carrier people have been described elsewhere, while contemporary overview of the traditional livelihood of the carrier is found in Furness.

• Wildlife was, and still is, an important aspect of the Tl’azt’en livelihood (woodland caribou, deer, elk and black bear were hunted extensively throughout the territory for their meat and hides and salmon were fished in the Skeena and Fraser rivers).

• The contacts with the colonial settlers have had disastrous consequences for the Tl’azt’en people because of residential schools, civilization and diseases such as small pox.

• After the arrival of colonial settlers, the Tl’azt’en incorporated the fur trade into their existing fishing and hunting economy.

• Keyoh: Tl’azt’en traditional territories are based on this concept • Which means the resource area (tapelines) that belongs to a particular settlement or clan,

and that serves as the material, cultural and spiritual basis for sustaining human life. • The four clans are:

1. Beaver 2. Bear 3. Frog 4. Caribou

• The Potlatch System: was declared illegal by the Potlatch law of 1885; it was repealed in 1951.

• The Indian Act of 1876: placed the Tl’azt’en people on reserve lands, thus explicitly disavowing their ownership of their traditional territory, and with the passing of Bill 13

by the Government of Canada, the British Columbia Indian Lands Settlement Act further reduced the size of reserve lands.

• With changing national government policies toward indigenous peoples in Canada, which after the 1960s began to be more reconciliatory, recognition of indigenous rights took a major step forward with the Comprehensive Land Claims Agreement (CLACs) in Quebec and Northwest Territories, and in BC the Supreme Court of Canada’s judgments in the case of Nisga’a nation.

• In BC, the first native group to establish a tribal council was the Nisga’s in 1955, and they soon resumed the campaign for their land rights that had begun in the 1880s.

• In 1979, the Carrier Sekani Tribal Council (CSTC) was formed, which represents eight central and northern Carrier bands including the Tl’azt’en, and has one of its bands with some Sekani members.

• One of the outcomes of native activism during the 1970s that is relevant to the Tl’azt’en was the granting of a Tree Farm License (TFL) in 1982.

• The TFL is the most secure form of tenure in the Province, and the only major license, which grants exclusive harvesting rights to a specific area.

• The TFL granted the Tl’azt’en Nation a 25-year renewable license with exclusive right to harvest timber on 54,000 hectares of Provincial land. -> This was the first and up to this point the only, TFL in British Columbia operated by a First Nation, and as such represents a positive outcome of the decades of native struggles against the government.

• Today while traditional economic activities such as trapping, hunting and fishing continue to be carried out by a number of band members; the Tl’azt’en predominant industry is forestry.

• Tl’azt’en active in the labour force are primarily seasonally employed in the forest industry with a much smaller portion spread out across the government, public and private service sector.

• The unemployment rate for Tl’azt’en is 60%, significantly higher for the provincial average.

• Erosion of confidence among community members because they lack experience in training, education.

• Need to diversify their economic base, through ecotourism. • This background indicates that all four essential elements of indigenous tourism – habitat,

history, heritage and handicrafts – are present in the Tl’azt’en territory, and have the potential to be developed as resources for indigenous tourism development.

Methods

• The level of community support for the research project was very strong. • Particular attention was paid to the sensitivity to cultural differences, which is why three

Tl’azt’en research assistants were hired to help with the interview process, and only those willing to be involved in the project were interviewed.

• Comprehensive literature search on indigenous tourism was conducted.

• Two half-day workshops were held at the Band Office in Tache, the administrative centre of the Tl’azt’en Nation, in May and July 2001. These workshops formed the basis for developing a research protocol, and identifying research assistants and key informants.

• A check list consisting of 31 questions on various aspects of tourism development opportunities and constrains in the region was developed, and was use to interview all guide-outfitters between January and February 2002.

• A household survey of Tl’azt’en in Tache was conducted during January and February 2003.

• A total 135 individuals were interviewed, out of which 128 survey forms were used for analysis, and are the focus of this paper.

Household Survey questionnaire

• The survey questionnaire was six pages long, and contained 21 questions on various aspects of ecotourism.

• The second part contained 20 questions: questions 1-3 were related to respondent’s knowledge of potential ecotourism sites; questions 4-6 solicited respondents interpretation of ecotourism and attitude towards tourism… ECT

• Questions were both closed and open ended. • The questionnaire was initially designed as a male-survey; however, it was assumed that

the return rates were low, and that a face-to-face would be better. • House-to-house interviews, which were typically between 45 and 60 min per interview. • The proportion of male and female respondents was equal.

Survey Results: Tl’azt’en perspectives of ecotourism development

• Their responses indicate that the majority of respondents view it as a form of tourism that involves wildlife and nature, respects local culture and traditions, and creases job opportunities for local communities.

• 74% of the respondents also indicated that ecotourism may also involve traditional wildlife hunting, as it was argued that wildlife hunting and living off wildlife (food, medicine, construction materials) couldn’t be separated from First Nations livelihood strategies.

• Ecotourism should allow sustainable extraction of wildlife resources. • Responses to negative environmental and social impacts were relatively low, which could

imply that many respondents acknowledge that with the development of ecotourism negative impacts are bound to occur.

• Ecotourism was also seen as a community initiative in which community members are consulted, and involved, however; fewer saw ecotourism as having a community-based management structure.

• Highly significant proportion of respondents was in favour of ecotourism development. • Held the opinion that there are significant natural and cultural resources appropriate for

ecotourism development. • Overwhelming majority answered positively to all nine questions about general attitude

towards ecotourism.

• 48% of respondents felt that ecotourism development would have a negative impact. • 95% of the respondents indicated that ecotourism would be good for the community.

Potential sites for Ecotourism activities

• Discussion during two work shops focused on identifying potential ecotourism sites and activities

• Indications of preferred placed were areas around Piche and Stuart Lakes, Middle River and Shass mountains

• Questions regarding recreation activities, almost all respondents reffered to a combination of water-based and land-based recreation activities o Canoeing, hiking, camping, fishing, spelunking, guided hunting, wildlife watching,

bird watching and boating was mentioned most often o Possibility of developing tour focused on First Nations cultural activities

• Said that organized trips could happen that would take advantage of the propular recreation areas

• Overall Tl’azt’en people were highly enthusiastic when talking about local attractions and activities

Perceived opportunities and constraints

• Job and skill development, building partnerships, increased appreciation of Tl’azt’en Nations culture, outlets to showcase art and crafts and cultural promotion- were the most cited opportunities o Attachments to wildlife, stewardship of natural heritage, youth leadership, cultural

exchanges, self respect, craft promotion and alterative economic opportunities frequently mentioned

• Unexpected results for constraints- total number of responses to questions related about ecotourism restraints much lower than the opportunities o Did not consider the constraints to be very important o Most frequent was that most income from ecotourism might go to outsiders o Seasonal and low paying jobs o Erosion of first nation values only came from 32 % of respondents ▪ Some about impact on youth

o 54 % to water pollution but only 28 % to wild life disturbance o 76 % said certain areas had to be closed off and restrictions on certain types of

activities Preferred ecotourism projects

• Access improvement and facility development were high priority o Much of the land does not have adequate network of roads etc.

• Maintenance of historical trails • Facility related projects- portage, marina development, bed and breakfast, visitor info

center, native heritage center, boats/canoe rentals • Site development-campsites, shelters, rest stops, viewpoints, signage, maps

• Despite age differences between the people thoughts on income and employment opportunities, community members had common perspective on ecotourism

• Majority said they would prefer a community managed ecotourism to prevent individuals from taking advantage o Management based on shared responsibilities o Equal representation of elders and youth and adult members, ensuring balance

• 80 % said they would offer their labor while 40 % said they would offer business and training skills

Discussion

• One of the most important findings is the reference to the continuation of traditional wildlife hunting as part of their ecotourism strategy o Sharply contrasts existing norms of ecotourism in current literatures o But this makes sense, with indigenous societies ties with nature and the sustainable

way to extract wildlife resources o This finding implies that the meaning of ecotourism greatly varies between

indigenous communities around the world and needs to be considered • Ecotourism principles that allow continuation of a traditional livelihood could offer a

sense of economic, social, and cultural security o Not only secures them if ecotourism fails but competition from out outsiders will be

limited too • High proportion of positive attitudes is unusual with this group- research shows that

attitude with indigenous people vary a lot • Problems with outside markets overstepping in indigenous lands (hotels, golf courses

etc.) and also trying to protect indigenous cultures with our education or telling visitors about them

• Dangers that indigenous people may become increasingly dependent on global tourism • Remoteness and lack of information and economic development strategies place first

nations as a competitive disadvantage with other destinations • Study showed that Tl’azt’en could attract people from interested in wildlife, canoeing,

and hiking and camping, story telling, guided hunting etc. • Limits could be that with the existence of 45 tourism operators already that these areas of

ecotourism are already filled • To many ecotourism niches sprouting- disadvantage to pricing and marketing • And will indigenous cultures be able to sustain and keep up with other rural areas • Economic reality of most indigenous cultures in BC is that most are unemployed, lack

education, trade skills, have low self esteem and limited knowledge on out side world o Frideres calls this “culture of poverty” o Needs appropriate education through social, economic, psychological, and political

empowerment Conclusion

• International conventions like United Nations convention or Biologicl Diversity recognize the need to protect and promote indigenous knowledge systems

• Most indigenous people believe they have the right to stop damaging tourism on their lands and have tourism alternatives

• More recently talks of a referendum have started to take a definite direction, it should be recognised that resolution of complex issues takes time.

• strong need for skill development among the Tl’azt’en, which is crucial for their effective participation in planning, management and owner- ship issues

• Similarly, the private sector can facilitate the networking, marketing and promotion of indigenous tourism products o essential step in strengthening Tl’azt’en’s decision-making, innovation and

management capacity is to remove the barriers for funding and technical support from outside sources

o Barriers such as lack of training, education, operating funds and control can hinder the potential for successful tourism ventures by First Nations !

Article 9 a) !Article 9. Sibthorp, J., Paisley, K., & Gookin, J. (2007)

“Exploring participant development through adventure-based programming: A model from the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS)”.

• Question that seems to always come forth is “How do recreation programs in general, and adventure-based programs more specifically foster participant development?”

• “Black box” programming: simple participation is assumed to lead to participant development without any ability to describe the specific mechanisms through which change may occur.

• Investigations into the relationships/interactions between participant characteristics, program characteristics, and developmental outcomes are necessary for recreation programs to be intentionally designed and implemented

• program-specific theories of change: highlights the need for well-established programs to examine, hypothesize, and test the agents of change within their program design and implementation

o “best practices” approach (Witt and Crompton, 2002): most promising for unlocking the mechanisms specific and unique to recreation programming

NOLS - 1965 • This study began the examination of one of the largest and most well-established

adventure-based recreation programs in the United States, the National Outdoor Leadership School

• a viable program model of the relationships between participant and program characteristics and their impact on participant development

• strives to be the leader in wilderness education by combining the development of leadership and technical outdoor skills with education

• specific target populations include: youth, college-age students, individuals 25 years of age and older, ind. interested in outdoor ed, or ind. wanting to become an NOLS instructor

• design and implement courses for specific groups, (ie. NASA) !NOLS Courses

• course offerings range from eight days to a full academic semester in length • can earn college credits at the undergraduate or graduate level • offer a combination of generic outdoor leadership training as well as activity- and

context-specific course objectives • general objectives include safety and judgment (wilderness hazard knowledge, etc)

leadership, expedition behavior (group support and teamwork), outdoor skills (how to dress, cook, travel) and environmental awareness (land management, flora, etc) !

Examination • first step: clearly delineating distinct targeted outcomes from NOLS courses to be used as

developmental indicators o semi-formal content analysis of NOLS’ existing course objectives and interviews

with staff • second step: creating a list of potentially important variables thought to play a role in the

development of the targeted outcomes o accomplished primarily through interviews with senior NOLS staff and field

instructors as well as consulting existing literature addressing adventure program processes

• Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine relationships between the eight hypothesized predictors and the six targeted outcomes through multilevel modeling !

Review of Literature !Outcomes of Adventure-Based Recreation Programs

• over the last decade articles have examined adventure program impacts on: o self-efficacy (Propst & Koesler, 1998; Sibthorp, 2003) o self-concept (Garst, Schneider, & Baker, 2001) o perceived competence (McIntyre & Roggenbuck, 1998)

o resiliency (Green, Kleiber, &Tarrant, 2000) • most researchers agreed that evaluated program outcomes should be specifically related

to a program’s goals and objectives (Allen, Stevens, Hurtes, & Harwell, 1998; Hattie et al., 1997). !

Predictors of Growth • Numerous variables are considered potentially important to participant development

through adventure programs o these include age, sex, previous similar experiences, perceptions of

empowerment, challenge level, group cohesion, instructor rapport, and course duration

• Participant-level predictors o age, sex, previous expedition experience, and sense of personal empowerment o Age: has long been considered instrumental in developmental processes with the

highest potential for change associated with youth ▪ Ewert and McAvoy (2000) reported that younger participants often

showed the greatest development in adventure-based programs o Role of Sex: male and female participants respond differently to adventure

program participation (Ewert, 1988; Kelley et al., 1997; Propst & Koesler, 1998) ▪ Other research however has failed to find or agree with this notion ▪ However, in their state-of-knowledge paper, Ewert and McAvoy (2000)

stated that females have generally shown larger developmental gains than males in adventure programs

o There is general support for empowering student-driven educational processes in adventure based programs

• Course-level predictors o the group’s perception of the group’s level of functioning, the group’s perception

of the level of challenge presented by the course terrain, the group’s perception of the instructors’ rapport with the group, and the length of the course in days

o Group Dynamics: Adventure-based small group expeditions seems to heighten the role that group dynamics play in individual development and learning ▪ Ewert and Heywood (1991): “achieving personal goals is optimized when

members operate within a supportive and well-functioning social group” ▪ Group functioning appears to be central to participant development

o Providing challenges: widely considered critical and necessary for human growth and development especially through recreation and adventure (e.g., Caldwell, 2000; Garst et al., 2001; McKenzie, 2003)

o Relationships: between participants and leaders are often cited as critical

components of both general and adventure-based recreation program success. (e.g. Bocarro & Witt, 2003; Raiola, 2003).

Methods

Measures • To measure the targeted NOLS outcomes, the objectives were operationalized and

converted to a measurement instrument • Communication was defined by NOLS as communicating effectively in a small group

setting including discussion leading, feedback provision, and expressing ideas, and was measured by a four-item subscale

• Leadership at NOLS was defined as taking initiative, responsibility, and decision-making roles and was measured by a five-item subscale.

• The National Outdoor Leadership School defined judgment in the outdoors as the ability to recognize potential hazards and make good decisions in the backcountry. It was measured by a four-item subscale !

Procedures • The sample was drawn from the 120 NOLS courses operating at four of the North

American branches • Upon course completion and as part of the standard course debrief, the study participants

were asked to complete the questionnaire containing the six NOI subscales !Data Analysis

• After the data were cleaned and screened, difference scores were calculated by subtracting the retrospective pretest from the posttest scores

• Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) version 6.0 was used to analyze the data (Raudenbush, Bryk, Cheong, Congdon, & du Toit, 2004)

o Level 1 was the participant level and included all participant-level predictors (i.e., age, sex, previous expedition experience, and personal empowerment)

o Level 2 was the course level and included all course-level predictors (i.e., the group’s aggregate reports of challenge level of course terrain, group functioning, and instructor rapport; and course duration)

Results (* this section used a LOT of numbers/stats, which the prof said we don’t need to know for the final)

• Six hundred and sixty three participants from 66 of the 120 targeted NOLS courses completed the questionnaires.

• The sample was 63% male. Ages ranged from 14 to 62 • Analyzed 22 different types of courses

• Participants reported substantial and significant perceived gains overall in the targeted course outcomes

Although significant changes in levels of the targeted outcomes were observed, the purpose of this study was to examine the impact of individual and course characteristics on these changes in efforts to suggest broader mechanisms of participant development for adventure based programming

• Previous expedition experience and sense of personal empowerment on the course were universally related to perceived gains in the NOLS course objectives

• Finding greater developmental gains by younger participants was generally consistent with the literature

• The sex differences were not straightforward to interpret • Of the course-level variables, course length was a significant predictor for gains in five of

the six targeted outcomes • Higher levels of group functioning was more related to program gains !

Limitations • Most participants were familiar with completing surveys and questionnaires, but many

had not previously completed a retrospective pretest • This format necessitated additional explanation not consistently available in this field-

based data collection !Conclusion

• Based on this study what should be occurring inside the “black box?” o Instructors should be empowering students to make decisions and take

responsibility. They should also be attending to the group and any fractious group issues

o They should be working to establish personal relationships and strong connections with their students. These factors should help to make adventure-based programs more worthwhile for participants

• Evaluation and testing of viable program models continues to offer one of the best options for understanding the complex and multivariate nature of recreation programming !!!

Article 9 b) Article 9 - Exploring participant development through adventure-based programming:

A model from the National Outdoor Leadership School

Sibthorp, J., Paisley, K., & Gookin, J. (2007). Exploring participant development through adventure-based programming: A model from the National Outdoor Leadership School. Leisure Sciences, 2, 1–18.

Notes from online course:

-Unit 3: Planning for Evaluation -Aside from being an interesting program to read about, the authors very diligently describe the individual steps that have been taken while evaluating this particular recreation program.

Summary Notes:

-Authors are examining one of the largest and most well-established adventure-based recreation programs in the United States, the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS)

-The NOLS was established in 1965 and strives to be the leader in wilderness education by combining the development of leadership and technical outdoor skills with education regarding biology and natural history in naturally occurring environments

- The authors examine NOLS by building and testing a viable program model of the relationships between participant and program characteristics and their impact on participant development.

-They do this by using the instruments of interviews and questionnaire/survey type models in order to gather information from previous senior staff, teachers and students.

-The timing of when they used these instruments were before the course started and after the course concluded and therefore had two types of questionnaires/surveys to ask. They called these time periods retrospective pretest and a posttest.

- The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of individual and course characteristics on these changes in efforts to suggest broader mechanisms of participant development for adventure-based programming.

- The aim of this study was to better understand the mechanisms through which adventure-based recreation programs foster participant development.

!Preliminary program model

- The first step of the examination involved clearly delineating distinct targeted outcomes from NOLS courses to be used as developmental indicators

-- This process included a semi-formal content analysis of NOLS’ existing course objectives and interviews with senior staff (i.e., director-level), field instructors, and students.

- The second step involved creating a list of potentially important variables thought to play a role in the development of the targeted outcomes. -- interviews with senior NOLS staff and field instructors as well as consulting existing literature addressing adventure program processes - focused on a subset of potential predictors and outcomes that were able to be operationalized in this initial program model (see Figure 1).

" FIGURE 1 Program model for NOLS courses. (Zoom in to view Picture better or enlarge it)

- The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between the eight hypothesized predictors and the six targeted outcomes through multilevel modeling (as shown in above in FIGURE 1).

-Review of LiteratureOutcomes of the Adventure-Based Recreation Programs -six major categories:

1. Leadership 2. Self-concept 3. Academic 4. Personality 5. Interpersonal 6. Adventuresomeness (yes this is a word they used) !

The eight predictors divided into two categories. Also shown in Figure1. - Participant-level predictors and course-level predictors. -The participant-level predictors were:

1. Age 2. Sex 3. previous expedition experience 4. Sense of personal empowerment

-The course-level predictors included 5. The group’s perception of the group’s level of functioning, 6. The group’s perception of the level of challenge presented by the course terrain 7. The group’s perception of the instructors’ rapport with the group 8. The length of the course in days -The author goes into more details on each and every one of the eight predictors and on why they are used for examining the program !Methods Participants and Setting -All study participants were enrolled in NOLS courses between July and October of 2004. Measures -The process used:

• classical test theory • congeneric measurement theory

- All questions were scored on a ten point Likert-type scale anchored by 0 (not like me) and 9 (like me). - The instruments used in this study had 29 items and was designed to measure six distinct constructs:

1. Communication - discussion leading, feedback provision, and expressing ideas (4-item subscale)

2. Leadership Roles - as taking initiative, responsibility, and decision making (5-item subscale)

3. Small group behavior - being a positive and productive group member (5-item subscale) 4. Judgment in the outdoors - as the ability to recognize potential hazards and make good

decisions in the backcountry (4-item subscale) 5. Outdoor skills - as competencies for backcountry travel and living (5-item subscale) 6. Environmental awareness - combined perceived knowledge of environmental stewardship

practices and regulations, and an appreciation for the environment (4-item subscale)

!- A “lie scale” was also imbedded in the NOI in an effort to detect artificially elevated change scores. The lie scale consisted of two items that addressed outdoor skills that were mutually exclusive on most NOLS courses: assessing avalanche slope stability and prediction of tides and currents. !-They also had open-ended question for opinion type questions - The quantitative analyses had 29 participants interviewed by the researchers !!!Procedures -sample: 120 NOLS courses at 4 North American branches (i.e., Rocky Mountain, Pacific Northwest, Southwest, Vernal) between July and October of 2004. !Data Analysis - Data was cleaned and screened - Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) version 6.0 was used to analyze the data

• In each model, level 1 was the participant level and included all participant-level predictors (i.e., age, sex, previous expedition experience, and personal empowerment).

• Level 2 was the course level and included all course-level predictors (i.e., the group’s aggregate reports of challenge level of course terrain, group functioning, and instructor rapport; and course duration). !

Results (Not that important statistical info) - Six hundred and sixty three participants from 66 of the 120 targeted NOLS courses completed the questionnaires. The sample was 63% male. Ages ranged from 14 to 62 - Do not need to learn or memorize statistical data so I didn't include it. !Discussion - Two of the remaining participant-level variables, age and sex, were important predictors in two or more of the targeted outcomes. !Conclusion - Building and testing program models of developmental mechanisms in recreation programs, like the one tested in this study, seems like a promising and viable beginning to building program theory - Evaluation and testing of viable program models continues to offer one of the best options for understanding the complex and multivariate nature of recreation programming. - Mechanistic models offer insight into programs employing similar design principles or targeting similar outcomes, and provide comparisons and contrasts for less similar programs. - On building, testing, and revising program specific models and theories will allow researchers to better understand how participant development occurs

!!Article 10

The role of leisure pursuits in adaptation processes among Afghan refugees who have immigrated to Winnipeg, Canada.

• This study explored the role of leisure among Afghan refugees who have recently immigrated to a western Canadian city in adapting to their immigration processes

• This study examined how or in what ways leisure engagements may help them adapt to their new life environment

• Afghan immigrants who are considered minor and less established (thus tending to be marginalized) because those groups do not seem to have established a strong and well organized community support and network of their own within the community in which they have settled. They do not benefit from established communities such as the Chinese, Koreans, and Filipinos

• Not only does the literature demonstrate that leisure provides people with opportunities to effectively cope with stress and heal from, but research is also beginning to show that leisure seems to play a key role in new immigrants’ adaptation to stressors and challenges in a new environment

• Globally, Afghan immigrants/refugees are a marginalized minority group who encounter substantial hardships and stress in the processes of adaptation to a new environment !

Participants !• Eleven Afghan immigrants living in an urban Canadian city, Winnipeg, who have come to

Canada as refugees within the last five years participated in this study • The participants consisted of both women and men ranging in age from 19 to 60 years

Data Collection !• Data were collected using semi-structured one-on-one interviews with Afghan

immigrants. A semi-structured interview technique helped not only to maintain an overall structure of the interview sessions, but also allowed for some flexibility in probing answers given by respondents

• Respondents were asked open-ended questions. Data Analysis

• A phenomenological approach was used to analyze the interview data in order to gain insights into the meanings of life and lived experiences of Afghan immigrants with a specific focus on the role of leisure pursuits in their lives

Major Themes • Socially constructed forms of leisure: connections to family, friends and community

“Visiting friends and family was limited, and a sense of loneliness prevailed”.

• It became evident that leisure activities provided immigrants with opportunities to socialize with others and connect with their new community.

• Benefits of leisure: contribution to education, learning and development • Adapting to immigration and new environment • Afghan participants expressed the lack of familiarity with their new environment as a

main barrier. This unfamiliarity aspect included not knowing the city/environment, language, people and the new culture, beyond the need to adjust to a harsh winter climate.

• Afghan newcomers were beginning to become aware of various recreation programs, which they could participate in

• Besides the benefit of becoming more aware of and familiar with the host community, this method seemed to ease a feeling of intimidation about calling or contacting agency staff

Cultural Needs 1. (1) the collective nature of Afghan culture that values interconnectedness and networks

with family, friends and the community (including their desire for social inclusion and integration to a new host community);

2. (2) the holistic nature of Afghan’s lifestyles in which work, family and leisure are often intertwined and integrated with each other (without clear and separate life-domain boundaries) and a diffusive sense of time;

3. (3) Afghan immigrants’ desire for continued education, learning and development as a means for future success and prosperity; and

4. (4) the acknowledgement of various benefits of leisure including social, cultural, educational, developmental, and mental and physical health benefits. !

Therefore, Afghan immigrants’ narratives and life stories constructed during a series of interviews suggested that leisure appears to be a very important aspect of their lives because it can be purposeful, instrumental and meaningful to enable them to meet a variety of culturally based needs described above (1) to (4) during the process of immigrating to their new ‘home’, Canada. !!Article 11 !

Economics of Leisure

!Economists were among the first to analyse leisure, foremost among them being Thorstein Veblen

!The economics of Leisure

- Verblen set out to explain the historical development of societies to the state where they were able to produce a surplus of material goods over and above requirements for subsistence and then to examine how this surplus was controlled, distributed, and used

- Peasants, slaves and workers have at times been forced into starvation to deliver a surplus to serve the material and leisure demands of elites- the “leisure class”

- Such ideas reflect the Marxian notion of ‘surplus value’. The idea of ‘leisure’ being linked to ‘surplus’ is clearly relevant in current political and social discourse but is absent from contemporary economics

- How have economists addressed the issue of leisure? o At the core of any economic analysis for any product are the micro-economic’

phenomena of demand, supply and price, how they are determined and how they interact

▪ It is the ‘non-standard’ characteristics of many leisure products which has attracted much of the attention of leisure economists

o Economics is also concerned with the macro-economics of whole economies: the economic significance of leisure and particular leisure sectors and the economic impact of leisure projects on local and national economies has also therefore been a feature of the economics of leisure

- Three broad areas can be identified: o Work-leisure tradeoff

▪ The question of how workers balance work-time and leisure-time is one of the most long-standing preoccupations of leisure economists

▪ In the 1960s Clawson and Knetsch set out some of the relevant issues regarding the work-leisure tradeoff: that leisure and work are clearly competitors for a fixed amount of time

▪ Increasing wages resulting from productivity gains could result in workers wishing to work either more hours or less hours.

▪ John D Owen examined the topic in more detail: working hours were posited to be affected by a change in the wage rate in 2 opposing ways

• The substitution effect o Workers work more hours in response to an increase in the

wage rate • The income effect

o With a higher wage rate, the worker can secure the same level of income by working fewer hours

▪ Owen concluded that the income effect had been dominant in American in that period

• the offer of more leisure goods and services in the marketplace led workers to seek more ‘consumption time’

▪ Clawson and Knetsch had observed the income effect was not totally dominant

▪ Owen suggested that there was evidence that the 60 hour working week and lack of paid holidays had resulted in levels of fatigue which did not produce optimum levels of productivity

▪ Gratton & Taylor addressed he topic in 1985. They took data from Britain from 1950-1980 and obtained similar results

▪ By 2000, however, the situation had changed. ▪ There had been a dominant income effect up to the mid 80s but a dominant

substitution effect thereafter ▪ Juliet Schor 1992- the decline in the working week in the US halted in the

1940s but that increasing leisure time had nevertheless been a mantra of commentators in the intervening years

▪ Schor shows hat working hours per worker increased between 1969 and 1987

▪ The US was out of step with other western countries, where working hours continued to decline into the 19890s

▪ Because the subsituttion effect has become dominant, neoclassical economic theory if deficient

▪ Workers do have a reference for shorter working hours but tha the system does not allow them to exercise that choice

▪ Vogel 2000- provides a plausible explanation of the conflicting views on income effect vs. substitution effect

▪ He suggests tat the labour-supply curve may be ‘forward sloping (hours worked increase with wages) at some points and backward sloping (hours worked fall with increased wages) at other points. A change in direction may occur when a certain number of working hours is reached or when a certain level of income is reached.

▪ The issue of work-leisure tradeoff is arguably the most important in leisure studies in the current era.

o Market sector peculiarities ▪ In predominantly market economies the key challenge in the development

of an economics of leisure is that the core theory and analytical methods of mainstream economics are concerned with the workings of market processes.

▪ The substantial proportion of the economics of leisure seems to be concerned with adapting the standard model to take account of ‘odd’ situations which do not conform to the standard market format with ‘non-market’ situations which involve the intervention of governments in the marketplace

▪ The market peculiarities discussed relate to; • Competition and the economics of sport

o Sport appears to violate some of the major assumptions of mainstream economics

o At the extreme, for one team or club to become a monopoly, would not make sense: there would be no on to play

o Sporting clubs therefore collaborate through leagues and federations to ensure the survival of a number of teams/clubs to make up viable leagues

o The anti-competitive measures seek not just to ensure the survival of a number of clubs but also to ensure that all clubs are competitive in a sporting sense, since it is believed that, for a league competition to be attractive to spectators, all clubs must have a reasonable change of success

• Composite products o Composite product is a product or service made up of a

number of elements offered by a number of suppliers. o Examples in non-leisure sectors include retailing: shoppers

are drawn to oxford street because of the range of competing products on offer

o Tourism is a quintessential composite product o Commonly the tourism ‘product’ involves a large number of

commercial public and not-for-profit organizations • Inflation in the arts

o In the conditions of increasing economic prosperity based on technology-based increases in labour productivity, the performing arts are inevitably at a chronic disadvantage since opportunities for increases in labour productivity in the arts are extremely limited.

o Public sector issues ▪ The branch of economics known as ‘welfare economics’ has long

developed criteria for government intervention in markets in situations where market processes are considered ineffective at delivering certain goods or services in an efficient or equitable manner

▪ 3 essential duties of government: • Duty of protecting the society form the violence and invasion of

other independent societies • The duty of protecting every member of he society form the

unjustice or oppression of every other member of it • The duty of erecting and maintaining certain public works and

certain public institutions, which it can never be for the interest of ay individual, or small number of individuals, to erect an maintain because the profit could never repay the expense to any individual or small number of individuals,

▪ The most common argument deployed in the leisure area are the market failure arguments which point out circumstances where the market is not efficient in allocating services

▪ But this presents 2 problems: determination of the quantum of state intervention and problems of the efficiency and scale of the state itself

▪ The quantum issue concerns assessment of the value to the user and/or the community at large of the services provided against the cost of providing them

▪ Arts economist David Throsby (2001) has recently argues that ‘cultural value’ cannot be in any way aligned with ‘economic value’ which would imply that there is no way of ever assessing what an appropriate level of government expenditure should be in the cultural field

▪ Economic impact is a related but different technique: it is concerned primarily with economic outcomes of projects in terms of jobs and incomes and less with costs, or indeed other types of impact

▪ Typically, the aim is to estimate the increase in personal and business income and the corresponding increase in job creation from a development

▪ Broader issues than estimation of costs, benefits and impact of individual projects arise in considering the role of government: namely aggregate government expenditure and government failure

▪ Government failure is the belief that government is intrinsically inefficient so the more of an economy which is in the public sector the greater the drag on overall efficiency

Alternatives to neoclassical theory

- Economic contributions to the study of leisure adhere to neoclassical economic theory, as developed in the early twentieth century, as their guiding framework

- The obvious alternative economics is Marxian economics - The economics of recreation and leisure tourism by John Tribe (2005) considers not only

Marxism but also other critical economic perspectives from environmental and anti-free trade groups

o The structure conduct and performance paradigm o The Chicago school/contestable markets o The Austrian school o Transactions theory o Behavioural models of the firm o Game theory

- There is no established body of tourism-related research which uses these approaches - Economic theory had generally neglected the dimension of time in its consideration of

consumption of goods and services - Gratton & Taylor (200) express serious reservations as to whether the neo-classical

approach can ever completely explain the consumer’s decision to take part in sport

- Critiques of the limitations of neoclassical demand theory are not confined to leisure economists

- Public choice theory links economic theory with political science in drawing a parallel between market processes and political processes in analysing the public sector

- Hirschi’s (1977) social limitations to growth thesis, posits that certain types of consumption are status-related and are limited by restrictions on supply !

Course Pack !EDRD CoursePack Notes

!CH.3 Leisure: A historical perspective

!Why study history?

- present understanding stems from past knowledge - understand the evolution of concepts of leisure - provides an appreciation for the driving forces that improve human condition

through creation of areas, facilities and other services - provides cause and effect info - new wave of immigrants entering America now, by studying the beginning of the

recreation movement, may gain insight into delivering services today - cross- cultural comparisons to detect patterns in the development of people,

institutions and nations !• Leisure tends to be found only after work hours • very organization has evolved because it met some social need at some time and place in

history, and it survives because it continues to change to meet present nee • people should have access to natural environments to enable them to stay in touch with

their rural pastoral roots • Chicago was on the cutting edge of the developing recreation in 1900’s • Social reformers say play and recreation to improve people quality of life • Understating how one’s action contribute to making history is to understand ones destiny

and direction Time periods of history

1. Preliterate society: before written history - survival the main concern - work and leisure activities fused together

- childrens play essential - developed class system

o lower class engaged in athletics o upper class more sedentary

- moved at natural pace depending on state of need and environment !2. Agricultural era: domestication of animals and crops and the establishment of

civilization in Mesopotamia (Greece) - established property rights for cultivation and farming - complex form of social organization - time became regulatory dimension of life and leisure time and activities attached

ie. Autums harvest celebrations - leisure to advance civilization in Greece

o school prepared children for future leisure pursuits o sports activities served as military preparation

- leisure in Rome o entertainment was plentiful and inexpensive ie. Baths o sports popular o leisure pursuits seen as hedonistic, vulgar and corrupt

- Leisure in Christianity o Produce more to help those who had less o Idleness was viewed as a sin o Purpose of work was to glorify got not accumulate wealth o Leisure-work guilt phenomenon o Sunday became day of prayer and leisure

- Leisure in middle ages o Travel was possible o Class distinctions

- Leisure in renaissance o Advancement in the sciences and arts: first printing press o Changes in style in painting, sculpture and architecture: “creative frenzy”

- Leisure in Colonial America o Emphasized family life, industriousness, participation in community

activites and education ▪ Puritans: change church from within, viewed play as the devil’s

handiwork, work should be pursued in moderation ▪ Separatists: wanted to separate from church

o discovery of the New Word: Canada and US ▪ harsh at beginning, little time to engage in leisure, just needed to

survive

▪ recognized need for common open areas – established commons in Boston and all bodies of water over 10 acres were open to the public for !

3. Industrial era: invention and greater access to material goods o Population began to build up around cities o Improved standard of living but disrupted social order o Transition from agriculture-based society to an industrial-based society o Boom-bust economic cycles o Clock-driven life o Leisure became a method of compensating for dissatisfying work

experience (division of labour robed pride in work) o Self-made millionaires ! leisure class o Commercialization of leisure = more accessible by public !

4. Technological or information era: work in service and information based industries rather than manufacturing or agriculture !

!!CH. 2 The world of leisure, recreation and play

- Meanings of leisure and recreation differ from individual to individual United States: leisure associated with free time, a commodity that is consumed

India: leisure is reserved for special occasions

Soviet Union: leisure is heavenly controlled

- leisure often reviewed as opposite of physical labot - a desired state of being - comes from latin word “licere” meaning to be free - way of counterbalancing stress - different nations have differenct conceptions of thing

o Indians viewed having their kids taught in English school useless cause when the came back they couldn’t hunt, build cabins, speak their language properly

4 factors to define the leisure experience: (elements of control)

1. Freedom: absence of external constraints

2. Perceived Competence: perception of having skills and abilities necessary to successful participation

3. Intrinsic Motivation: moved from within as motivation by external factors reduces perceived freedom

4. Positive Affect: feelings individuals experience when they have some control or influence within the leisure process !

8 Ways of looking at or defining leisure:

1. Leisure as time Can be dividied into three segments

a. Existence (work) b. Subsistence (addressing physical needs) c. Discretionary (free or unobligated)

Can be viewed from two perspective

a. Residual Time: time left over from other obligation b. Discretionary Time: free from work and life-maintenance activities

2. Leisure as a State of mind - is subjective attitude based on one’s own perspective, feeling, values and past - highly personal experience - may not results in leisure unless person is open to potential fullness of the

experience 3. Leisure as an Activity

- leisure and work/life maintence activities very different - symbol of social status - time deepening: more flexible work hours, more concentrated, focused leisure

experiences 4. Leisure as a Social Instrument

- leisure can be viewed as a way of enhancing individual or community life in ways that promote instrumental(useful) ends.

- Drawbacks is leisure can become work-like in nature !5. Leisure as an Anti-Utilitarian Concept

- leisure need not serve any purpose and needs no justification 6. Leisure as a Holistic Concept

- element of leisure are to be expressed in all aspects of human behavior 7. Leisure as Quality of Action

- doing something that is rooted in real choice and meaningfulness - self taking action

8. Leisure as Social Construction and Political

- political act where the priviliages that accompany dominant culture are challenged and negotiated !

Contemporary theories of leisure

( pg. 29 of coursepack TABLE 2.1)

Work Related thoeories of leisure: explained leisure as relating to work

- spillover effect: participate in leisure activities that have similar characteristics to their work-related tasks

- compensation theory: deprication experienced at work are made up for during leisure

Psychological and Social theories:

- Neulinger’s Paradigm: freedom and intrinsic motivation are the 2 core element of leisure (see page 31 for paridigm)

- Flow theory: a person becomes so involved in an activity or experience that nothing else seems to matter (state of being)

8 characteristic dimensions to the Flow experience:

1. activity is challenging and requires skill 2. must be clear goals 3. action and awareness merge 4. intense concentraion on the task at hand 5. loss of self-consciousness 6. there is sense of control 7. altered since of time 8. autotelic experience, worth doing for its own sake not for external

benefit or reward - self-as-entertainment theory: characterize way people differ in their ability to fill

free time or entertain themselves o people who are high in entertaining themselves are less likely to be bored

during leisure and tend to have leisure that is more fulfilling Sociological Thoeries of Leisure

- Veblen’s Theory of Leisure and the Leisure Class: leisure is a symbol of social status, as wealth accumulates, the leisure class develops further in function and structure

- Kelly’s sociological theory of leisure: freedom was considered fom a high or low continuum and meaning was considered from an intrinsic and social continuum

o Four types of states (grid on pg. 34) 1. unconditional leisure

2. recuperative 3. relational 4. role-determined

- Serious Leisure/Casual Leisure: serious ! systematic pursuit of an amateu, hobby-ist, or volunteer activity that particapnad find so substantial and interesting, they launch themselves on a career centered on its special skills and knowledge

o Serious leisure defined by six distinctive qualities pg. 35 Casual ! intrinsically rewarding and pleasurable requires no training to enjoy it

- Post Modern Leisure: can be used as a mechanism for social control and order, leisure is skilled and pleasurable, orientated toward the “care of self” and “care for the other” !

Femininst Thoeries of Leisure

- Wearing’s feminist theory of Leisure: leisure should be heterotopias, a freedom or personal space for both men and women to be or become !

Anthropological theories of Leisure

- Thoery of Anti-structure: are the rituals that set people outside their norm or anti-structure parts of life

Philosphical theories of Leisure:

- skol in Greece meant quiet or peace and to rest and to think without distractions, a life place for contemplation and freedom from work

- Classic Leisure: contemplation toward truth, virtue and the goodlife - Nash’s Leisure Pyramid: inner search for understanding that is connected to daily

life, use of ones leisure can have positive and negative effects, like “the force” in star wars and can be used for good or evil. (page 39)

Recreation: an activity that is engaged in during one’s free time, is pleasurable and which has socially redeeming qualities, results in constructive, positive, socially acceptable behaviours

- recreatio means to refresh in Latin - recreare means to restore - can be used a social instrument and control certain classes of people to support

their productivity and keep them prepared for work Play: way for children to learn about the world around them and their place in it, transmit values, custom, tradition and societal norms.

- derived from the old English word plegan meaning to dance, leap for joy, rejoice and to be glad and plega meaing to excersice or occupy oneself, to busy oneself

- ! (Tons of theories as to why play occurs starting on page 59)

!!CH.4 Philosophical and conceptual themes

- philosophy has a direct relationship to perceived quality of life - philosophy of leisure allow professionals to understand the “why of their actions” - Philosophy: a collection of systematically defined values, beliefs and preferences - Influence how one conceptualizes leisure, recreation and play, determines

priorities Philosophical Apporaches: (pg. 53)

1. divine ends 2. happiness 3. combination of work,play,love and worship 4. self-actualization 5. play 6. utopia 7. no final end 8. others

- early play movement in America followed a reform patter - Americans were consuming rather than creating their amusement - Availability of free time is debated today - Society challenges leisure service professionals to live responsibly in caring for

future generations !Values of Philosophy: pg. 56

- values are underlying structure that shape and influence a person’s ethics, value free environment does not exist

1. Preservation of natural resources 2. Conservation of natural resources 3. Wise use of leisure 4. Democracy, citizenship and freedom of choice 5. Human happiness 6. Protection and promotion of human dignity 7. Personal growth 8. Leisure awareness

9. Leadership and moral charcter development 10.Quality of life !

- good life = life satisfaction !Value in Ethic Types

- Rights and justice approach: cut-and-dried pronouncment through policies, regulations and rules

- Ethic of Care: considers values an ethics from case to case Why build a philosophy of leisure

- to know yourself as well as your organization o personal philosophy of leisure helps to clarify important personal values

regarding leisure o a higher correlation between one’s peronsal beliefs and the organizations

beliefs contribute to a higher productivity !- to clarify relationships with consumers/ clients - to clarify relationships withing the organization - to clarify relationship with other institutions

Pleasure from leisure pursuits

1. sensory: hearing, seeing, touching etc 2. expressive: literary, art, music or dance 3. intellectual: cognitive abilities !

Major Philosophies

- Perennialism: life is constant and uncahing and that eternal truths exist o An opportunity to bring individuals closer to god and to promote spiritual

values - Idealism: promoting understating and harmony among people of the world,

promoting the ideal in nature, and other similar global themes - Realism: natural order of the world and of the universe - Pragmatism: leisure should promote specific ends or specific observable

measurable results - Experimentalism: world is ever changins, emphasizing experiences - Existentialism: reality consists of living, unregimented experience, creating ones

own rules

- Humanism: uniquieness, self, realization and shared experience, leisure serves as a wellspring for personal liberation and in this way can enable individuals to be personally autonomous !

Steps to building a philosophy:

1. Examine the historical philosophical foundations of the profession 2. Examin ones own personal balues 3. Discuss with professionals their philosophy and values 4. Examine the value of organizations delivering leisure services 5. Examine the values of the local community !

Philosophy of a leisure service organizations addresses three primary areas

1. the goals and objectives of the organizations 2. the methods and procedures used within the organization to produce leisure services 3. the relationship that the organization develops with its constituents, the physical

environment and the community it operates in

Unit 1 Unit 1 Courselink Summary

!- Leisure, including recreation and tourism, play an important role in most peoples’ lives.

- Leisure may consist of casual activities such as going for a walk, taking a drive, or going to a movie.

- Or more formal leisure activities such as playing on a hockey team, taking swimming lessons, or volunteering

- Leisure has the potential to promote positive impacts on the quality of life of individuals and communities.

- For individuals, leisure presents an opportunity for social interaction and for developing friendships, improving physical and mental health, and for learning new skills and gaining knowledge.

- At the community level, recreation and tourism may lead to positive social, cultural and economic impacts.

- Ex. festivals have become a popular way for promoting the unique cultural heritage of an area. These festivals are often supported by volunteers from within the community they bring money into the community.

- UN declaration: Leisure is a right of all citizens, not a privilege

!- The activities that we participate in and the benefits we receive often shape the value we

place on the leisure services in our communities

- Ex. if you enjoy outdoor activities, you will likely value large open green spaces, clean and safe parks.

- Ex. if you prefer to stay indoors, you will probably look for recreation or community centers and other indoor facilities

Case Study 1

“Dog Park Poisonings Take Bizarre New Twist” 2008/06/24 | CityNews.ca Staff. High Park is a dog park in the city of Toronto.

- The park has a history of disputes among different user groups which has unfortunately led to violence.

- In this news report you likely noted that two groups are competing for the use of the Park:

1. Dog owners and their dogs

2. Adults and children from the neighborhood wanting to use the park.

- Dog Owners Concerns

o Safety of pets

o Dog no longer able to play carelessly and enjoy the full benefits of a leash free zone

- Other park users concerns

o Personal safety (dog bites)

o Dogs intimidate some users

o Park cleanliness

!Here are some of the more general issues underlying this dispute

- People differed in their visions of how the park should be used. There was some conflict between supporters of the leash-free dog park zoning and those who did not

- Some people connect the way a park is used to the overall health and safety of the community.

- Ex. some claim a park is important to families and it is important to keep a park a safe place where parents can come and watch their children play without worrying about dog feces or being bit by a loose animal.

Larger issues that contributed to the dispute:

1. Different visions of leisure and how local park spaces should be used

2. The relationship between how High Park is used and the overall health of the community

3. The importance of public consultation.

You’ve been asked to step in and help to resolve the issue at High Park. How would you proceed? (Just examples below)

- Let the police investigate the incident and leave the park zoning as is, figuring that the members of the public would come around.

- Or hold a public meeting that would allow all interested members of the community to voice their concerns.

- Then ask members of the different groups to create a task force to determine how the park space can be shared

Keys to success in the planning of recreation and leisure services means we must:

3. Develop skills and techniques that help avoid conflict between groups with different leisure-related needs, or be able to help resolve conflicts

4. Develop listening and observational skills to understand the views of different groups, and the environment which groups operate.

5. Broaden our perceptions of planning and leisure

!- Many recreation and tourism activities are not compatible, these activities cannot be

scheduled in the same facility or for the same site.

- Another source of much debate in communities is the topic of user fees for recreation services and facilities provided by municipalities

o In the past many services and facilities were provided free of charge

o Communities are now faced with decreased budgets that do not allow them to meet all the needs of the community through the delivery of free services.

Case Study 2

“Number of Snowmobilers Expected to Drop”. This article provides an example of a dispute over rising insurance premiums.

- As stated in the news report, the cost of snowmobiling is becoming increasingly expensive and less accessible to the average user and family.

- Snowmobiling is expected to decline because

o Increased insurance rates/premiums

o Increased cost of trail permits

o Additional cost (gas, vehicle maintenance, etc)

o Short season (10 weeks) but mandatory 12-month insurance policy

o Increase in the number of injuries

o No longer affordable for families owning more than 1 vehicle

!

Case Study 3

!“TDSB plan to close school pools met with protest; 'Grave Mistake'”.This article provides an overview of the events that took place in the spring of 2008 when the Toronto District School Board announced to close 39 pools due to lack of funding.

- This is an excellent example of how public/community leisure facilities are influenced by short-term public funding priorities.

- Similar to the example of the snowmobilers above, if such trends continue, leisure participation may be reserved for the elite.

- Examples of how the closure could have been avoided o Mismanagement of funds should have been identified before closing the pools

was the only alternative left o Diversifying the ‘use’ of the pools may have generated extra funds o Branching out i to involve citizens in the planning of community pool events or

revenue generation events !Case Study 4

!- When trying to resolve any problem, it is important to generate multiple strategies before

selecting the “best” solution.

- Often the best solution requires planners to be creative and “think outside the box”

Homeless World Cup soccer (football) where you can read about the organization's mandate, its ambassadors.

Homeless soccer league. Specific volunteer in Vancouver.

!Case Study 5

“Little wheels change lives in a war zone”. It is a story about a project called ‘Skateistan’ in Kabul.

- Skateistan is showcasing how a leisure activity like skateboarding is being used as a means to get children, both females and males, living in a war zone, to enjoy their free

time despite difficult circumstances and to receive health education and other personal and social benefits from safe play in their neighborhoods.

Case Study 6

Kite fighters protest for their piece of the sky”.

- Argument erupted in a popular neighbourhood park between kite flying enthusiasts and people who claim they got cut and entangled in the strings of flying kites.

- Recreation and leisure may take place in virtually any place, at any time, engaging people from all walks of life.

- What makes community recreation successful are the people involved in the planning and delivery of programs

- Often how we implement change is just as important as the change itself

The Economic Context of Leisure

- Leisure, recreation or tourism are prized for their perceived economic impact on the local communities.

- Recreation and tourism destinations (e.g., festivals, parks, historic sites, or neighborhoods) are used to create jobs for the people in the community and to draw in visitors from other areas

- As people are drawn into these areas, the local economy is stimulated as purchase souvenirs and gas, stay in hotels, etc.

- When money is spent in a region by non-residents (tourists), economists often refer to these expenditures as injections.

- The impact of these injections is furthered when the individuals or businesses receiving the dollars spend the money to purchase other goods and services within the community. This is often referred to as the multiplier effect.

!“The Hypocritical Olympics”. In this article, Blennerhassett addresses important economic, social, and ethical issues of leisure, recreation, and sport and how we as members of a ‘modern society’ are torn between what ‘needs to be’ and what ‘ought to be’ in terms of community development.

!“Slum visits: Tourism or voyeurism”. Maier writes about a new, and to some, a rather disturbing trend in the tourism industry to offer people a ‘unique” vacation experiences. Although hailed as an innovative means to both educate the tourists about poverty and support local development, ‘poorism’ has been scrutinized by scholars, professionals and locals alike.

!Challenges for Service Providers

- Within the planning and delivery of leisure services, two main problems have resulted in diminished access to leisure.

1. Planners tend to have a narrow view of what leisure is, and what it means to the people. This has resulted in communities that focus solely on the delivery of traditional services such as swimming pools and hockey arenas, etc.

2. Planning for leisure in communities has, in the past, predominately been done without the consultation of community members. This has resulted in recreation services and facilities that meet the needs of only some or none. There is a need to look at alternatives to traditional planning methods.

Unit 2 !UNIT 2 ONLINE SUMMARY

!Connect leisure, including recreation and tourism, to the notion of the good life and freedom

• Leisure is usually considered to be in the social, psychological and phenomenological realm while recreation is thought of as an activity, or a physical manifestation of leisure. Tourism is a phenomenon that has developed more recently, and is a unique aspect of both leisure and recreation.

• the notions of freedom, choice and autonomy arise. These concepts signify the ability of the individual to initiate personal actions and are the foundation for a positive leisure experience.

Understand your personal philosophy of leisure in greater depth • this is mostly personal, take into consideration all of the different benefits from leisure

i.e. self-actualization, self-expression, self-conception, self-gratification, self-enrichment, and re-creation (regeneration), monetary returns, social attraction, and group accomplishment.

Identify the different ways leisure is defined • Leisure can be viewed in many different combinations of ways – i.e. time, an activity, a

state of mind, quality of action, social construction, social instrument, anti-utilitarian concept, as part of a holistic process, or of ethical care.

Identify different ways recreation is defined • notion of ‘restoration’, restoration of the wholeness of the body, mind and spirit.

Recreation is equated with an activity and often asserts a social purpose. Recreation can be considered as a 20th century work concept. It is often associated with work and in fact is thought of as the antithesis of work and may not always lead to a positive benefit.

Understand the connection between work and leisure in modern society • Parker (1971) observed three distinct patterns that led him to propose a general theory of

work and leisure. o For some, leisure is an extension of their work life. Many of the activities are the

same. An accountant, for example, might be the book keeper for the local little theatre club.

o The second is the neutrality pattern. For people in this category, Parker (1971) describes leisure as generally different from work although not deliberately.

o The third pattern is the opposition pattern. People in this category generally participate in activities that are far removed from their work. Often the tourism experience sought by travelers can be found in this category.

• According to Stebbins, leisure may o occasionally necessitates the need to persevere at it o ill the role of a career o sometimes demand a significant personal effort based on special knowledge o provide durable benefits to the individual or society o possess a unique ethos where participants operate in their own social worlds o allow participants to identify strongly with their chosen pursuit

!Describe the various roles that professionals may take to deliver recreation and tourism services

• Tourism is considered: the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes

• Research shows that level of involvement and specialization in an activity is directly correlated to destination choices

• Think of all the jobs involved in tourism i.e. resorts, travel, accommodations, food, leisure activities targeted to tourists

Identify both the benefits and constraints to leisure participation

benefit • Can look at both benefits associated with the activity or pursuit and benefits associated

with the process of service delivery • Intuitively we know that leisure experiences provide us with feelings of pleasure,

satisfaction and enjoyment A “benefit” can mean an advantage, a profit, or a gain. A quick review of the literature shows that there are many different types of leisure benefits

• Benefits achieved through leisure permeate practically all domains of human behavior and performances, health being a big recent concern.

• interaction between psychological, social, cultural, physiological and economic aspects of health and the role that leisure may play in an individual’s or community’s overall well-being Constraint

• the focus is on the aspects that constrain both action or participation and preference and the disability or therapeutic recreation literature the for various groups of individuals.

• Many constraints, i.e. lack of time, money, don’t want to look silly, identified three categories of constraints: social-personal, social-cultural, and physical Social-personal constraints are those aspects within an individual that limit participation. Better classified as structural, intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints.

!Understand that issues such as race, class and gender offer very different perspectives through which we can assess leisure participation and services

!!Unit 3 !

Unit 03: Planning Theory and Practice: Moving Beyond Present Approaches to Leisure Service Planning

What is Planning? !It has been argued that ‘plan-making’ and ‘planning’ are two distinct but interrelated concepts (Hoch, 2007). • Plan-making is a social cognitive activity. In general, we make plans to identify and

describe relationships. Plans offer strategies to assimilate the future to the past which in return is making the future less uncertain. (Think about assignment 1 when you identified your past leisure habits and how you foresee these habits to influence your life in the future).

• Planning is a process, often a political process that brings together (sometimes under pressure) different interests groups and stakeholder groups to work for a common goal/s. Planning turns complex goals into practical judgments that inform decisions for future action. !

The practice of planning is an endeavor that has been built upon the concepts and traditions of a variety of disciplines. Consequently, there are many definitions of planning. However, underlying most of these definitions are three core ideas: • the mobilization of resources • an attempt to achieve goals or a desired state • a process (for moving the goals forward) !While planning appears to be straight forward, and some planners support that plans are based on rationality, planning analysts might disagree. The case studies we looked at in Units 1 and 2 pointed to some of the underlying complexities and conflicting issues as a result of recreation planning – or the lack thereof. In their paper “plan your work to work your plan” Barnes and Sharp (2008) note that recreation plans are more likely to succeed in a community development context when the following conditions are present: a. Public awareness: A high level of public participation and public support in the planning

process leads to increased acceptance of the plan and is more likely to result in positive goal achievement.

b. Acceptance of the political nature of planning: If planners recognize that planning is political in nature it enhances the willingness of stakeholders’ cooperation in municipal government.

c. Long-term investment of resources: There needs to be a full commitment to long-term investment for the various resources needed in support of the plan.

d. Clear articulation of benefits: Planner have to provide transparent communication of the benefits (social, personal, economic, environmental) of the plan‘s goals to the community in order to achieve long-term support for the plan. !

Four Components of Planning

1. Resources !Part of the planner’s role is to facilitate groups and communities to identify the resources they possess. As Kretzmann and McKnight (1993) write, only by knowing what we have, will we know what we need. While an inventory of resources is often taken for granted and considered a straightforward process, it has proven to be more difficult than first assumed. For instance: What

constitutes a resource? Buildings? Money? Green spaces? Lakes? Diversity of flora and fauna? Do we include people in our inventory of resources? In addition, different groups have different ideas about the value of certain resources. Examples of such differences in opinion were demonstrated in some of the news clips in Unit 1 and the case studies addressed in Unit 2. !2. Goals Goals, sometimes called objectives, are an important part of the planning process. Goals can be personal or organizational in nature and aspire to a desired end-point/s. The development of goals is an attempt to address specific questions. There are different types of goals such as short term, long-term and ultimate goals. The same applies for business or organizational planning and goal setting. In terms of recreation or tourism planning the questions may be: What are we trying to accomplish? Why do we need to plan? Who will be involved? At the community level, there are two principal reasons why a need for planning may arise: 1. a community may wish to achieve some ideal form of development that is different, and

presumed better, than it currently has, or o for example, communities may take reference from research reports such as

the Canadian Index of Wellbeing or the report by the National Institute on Out-of-School Time, or Canada’s Report Card on Physical Activity for Children & Youth, to mention just a few.

2. a community may wish to solve some problems associated with its development that the community assumes will prevent undesired future conditions (e.g., as was the intention for the mid-night basketball league introduced in Unit 2). o an example would be the mid-night basketball league introduced in Unit 2 or the idea

for planning for a child-friendly city as described in the article by Hume (2009) in the previous paragraph).

o Many interesting examples are described on the website of “Project for Public Spaces” (PPS). PPS is involved in many community events and exciting rejuvenation projects in city neighbourhoods around the world. !

3. Process An essential component of planning is the process. Process is concerned with how we as individuals or groups move from ideas to action - from our stated goals to achieving these goals. As we identified in Units 1 and 2, how we implement change (process) is just as important, and sometimes more important than, what we are implementing (goal). For that reason, a successful planning process depends to a large extent on the planner’s skills in managing interpersonal relations. Some would argue that a successful planner should additionally have:

• a heightened knowledge of self • an increased capacity for learning • special skills in the use of symbolic materials particularly in relating symbols to reality • a heightened capacity for empathy • an ability to live with conflict • and an understanding of the dynamics of power and the art of getting things done

(Friedmann, 1992). Possessing all of these skills, you may argue, is a tall order but what makes achieving the goals of planning possible is the development of a planning theory that functions as a ‘skeleton’ or a scaffold that holds the pieces together. !4. Planning Theory !Have a look at the paper by Law-Yone (2007) titled “Another planning theory? Rewriting the meta- narrative”. After reading through this short paper you will likely come to the conclusion that there is no one specific definition of a planning theory. Planning, like recreation and leisure, is grounded within different disciplines and depending on situation and personal interpretation a conceptualization of planning theory varies. What you need to focus on however is the word theory (or we can call it a speculation if you want) which, never right or wrong, is an abstract, analytical and to the point explanation of a particular phenomenon and the relationship of its individual parts (hence the analogy of a skeleton). !Planning Leisure Services in Canada

In its simplest form, the delivery of recreation and tourism services may be divided into two categories: 1. direct service delivery, and 2. community development. The community development category includes the three approaches of information and referral, the enabling role, and advocacy. Most recreation and tourism systems, whether in the private or public domain, generally rely on a single category, either direct service delivery or community development. While the two approaches are not mutually exclusive, any given recreation or tourism service should be clearly identifiable according to the strategy or theoretical perspective on which it depends. Each approach is appropriate, given different contexts and the goals of the service. !The Direct Service Approach

The government involves itself in the direct supply of recreation and tourism services either because of market failure or because they serve the public good. Market failure refers to instances when it is not profitable for the private sector to supply the service, or where the entry points cannot be controlled and therefore services do not pay for themselves. Public good refers to services deemed too important to the functioning of society to be left to the vagaries of the marketplace. This approach is based on the notion that certain recreation and tourism activities and programs are beneficial to the public good and, therefore, must be supplied by government. In this approach to service delivery, decisions of what is defined as a public good, and the designation of certain programs as beneficial, are decided by professionals and politicians. In addition to the tourism services provided by the public sector (e.g., national and provincial parks, and large multi-service complexes such as arenas or music halls), many tourism services are provided by the private and not-for-profit agencies. Many of the tourism services in the community are operated by the private sector for profit (e.g., amusement parks, hotels etc.,). In addition, the not-for-profit sector maintains many cultural attractions (e.g., various festivals) that stimulate tourism, often in conjunction with private and profit-oriented businesses. Examples of these include Oktoberfest in Kitchener, and Caribana or the Gay Pride parade in Toronto. If either of these conditions exist, government supplies the service directly to the public for minimal cost. Theoretically these services are available to all members of society. Examples of recreation and tourism services provided by direct service delivery include national and provincial parks, community swimming pools, municipal parks and playgrounds and arenas. !The Community Development Approach

Another approach to service delivery is the community development approach. This approach represents service delivery that differs from direct service delivery in both its underlying philosophy and the strategies used in implementation. While there are a number of definitions of community development they, to some degree or another, all focus on the process of empowerment and transformation of the community because community development stresses “process over product”. The main objectives of community development are to (1) develop the capacity of citizens to first identify the problems and take actions toward solutions, and (2) to change the social and political structure to support these changes. To meet these objectives, many strategies of community development have been developed. These include the approaches described by Murphy, Niepoth, Jamieson, and Williams (1991) such as information and referral, enabling approaches and advocacy. Stakeholder and Citizen Participation in Planning

As we noted in Units 1 and 2, how we implement change is often as important as what we implement. Incidentally, large amounts of the conflict that planners have to deal with actually evolve as a result of participation of different players in the process rather than lack thereof. The articles by Baxamusa (2008,) and Harshaw, Kozak & Sheppard (2006) describe different case studies of community participation in planning.

Fundamental Policies on Which Service is Developed

Municipal services primarily take shape from the policy directions of the elected officials. Mommaas and Van der Poel (in Beckers, 1989) describe six different roles that leisure has played in government policy, which applies to this day. These include: 1. The minimalist model: Leisure can be considered as primarily the responsibility of the

private or voluntary sector. The minimalist view is, as we have seen, the result of either economic policy objectives to minimize public sector expenditure and to market public provision, or a more explicit view that leisure is not something with which the state should interfere.

2. The welfare model: Leisure can form part of a conventional welfare-oriented public service delivery policy, with specialized departments and professionals. Leisure policy then tries to correct market relations that are thought of either as producing the wrong kind of leisure provision or excluding disadvantaged groups.

3. The entrepreneurial model: Leisure can form part of a more entrepreneurial style of urban policy where it is considered primarily as a trading service, conducted to produce profits that can be used to cross-subsidize unprofitable but socially desirable forms of provision.

4. The therapeutic model: Leisure can be seen as an important tool for community development for special populations and in urban areas with a deterioration of conventional forms of legitimate social integration.

5. The economic model: Within a more economic perspective, leisure can be seen as an important tool in attracting new sources of income to the city, for example in the process of revitalization.

6. The cultural model: Leisure can become part of an autonomous cultural policy trying to politicize cultural forms. Within this approach, the boundaries between leisure and culture are blurred. Cultural expressions become the object of leisure experiences, while at the same time leisure goods and services can become the object of forms of aesthetization.

Different styles can exist within the same political context or bureaucracy. While no municipal council, or recreation board, would adhere strictly to the implementation of a single model, each council will demonstrate a primary orientation. It is usually possible to judge on which of Mommaas and Van der Poel’s models the council relies. From their philosophical stance, recreation departments will take their cue and develop an implementation strategy which corresponds with the philosophical intent of their political masters. !Leisure is Political

It is obvious from the readings in Unit 3 and the previous units that ‘planning’ and ‘leisure’ are political. In fact, Freysinger and Kelly (2004) would argue that ‘everything’ is political. In chapter 12 the authors explain why they come to the conclusion that leisure is highly political. This idea, of course, is not new. Historically, experiencing “the good life” was not equally achievable for all members of society; neither is this achievable in modern times. Social, political, economic and cultural changes on the demands for leisure and the responses from politicians, professionals, and service providers impact leisure on all levels, across all contexts.

Contemporary Planning Programs

As you have learned so far, planning happens on many different levels and in various contexts and capacities. In this section we will be looking at two different processes of planning for leisure services. The first model is a linear approach model called a logic model and an example of how a specific leisure program may be planned. The second model is a cyclical model and an example of how a specific leisure service in the community may be planned. • The Logic Model (Figure 2 model by Enhancing Program Performance with Logic Models,

2003) is a planning model for a specific program (i.e., leisure or otherwise) where the planning process follows according to clearly outlined consecutive steps with measurable outcomes.

• The Cyclical Model (Figure 3 model by Reid, Fuller, Haywood and Bryden, 1993) is a model often used to guide the planning process for community development (whether this includes recreation services or not) having different stakeholder groups involved in the planning process. !

The Logic Model of Planning !The Logic Model is a ubiquitously used and well-established tool in community planning that “is a simplified picture of a program, initiative, or intervention that is a response to a given situation. It shows the logical relationships among the resources that are invested, the activities that take place and the benefits or changes that result” (Enhancing Program Performance with Logic Models, 2003, p.11). The picture below shows the core elements used in build a logic model for a community recreation program.

" !

The Cyclical Model of Planning

Figure 3 below presents a community planning process which can be implemented by the planner as s/he attempts to plan with a community. This process may be implemented in either a community recreation or tourism planning application. !Underlying the planning process depicted is the need to engage the community in the planning and decision making process from the very beginning. Often, planners wait to involve the public substantially until there is some tangible product or program to which the community can react. This procedure eliminates the citizens from some very important aspects of the process. Unless the public is involved early on in the process, the planner runs the risk of not incorporating the aspirations and needs of the citizens in the product being planned. Citizens must be involved at the Visioning, Goals and Objectives Phase of the process. This is particularly critical in community tourism planning. Often residents are part of the tourism product whether they wish to be or not simply by virtue of where they live. Therefore, citizens of these communities must have some say in the level of tourism that is acceptable and its form. This is a necessary step if conflict between entrepreneurs, who may depend on tourism for their livelihood, and the public is to be avoided. In most instances of community tourism planning, a person, or group of people, in the community identify tourism as a potential economic development tool. This person or group is identified in the model as the catalyst for carrying the idea of tourism development forward. Often, the propensity of the catalyst is to start in on development with like-minded persons immediately. The model put forward in Figure 3, however, suggests that the catalyst for development needs to engage in pre-development activity before actual plans for development are embarked upon. The catalyst should develop support for the general idea of tourism by bringing together people of like minds who could form a task force to explore the ideas of tourism development and secure answers to critical questions which will undoubtedly be raised by the general public before any concrete plans are laid. The task force should also develop a program to engage the community in awareness-raising about the community values that need to be protected if tourism development is to take place (e.g., BC case study presented by Nepal [2004]). In addition, the group should engage the whole community in organizing itself to move forward as a community activity and not just a project of a selected few. Awareness rising would also include establishing a vision for the community and the goals and objectives which the plan is designed to achieve. From this solid foundation, attractions can be constructed and marketing strategies formed to bring the project to reality. This process should not be seen as linear but rather cyclical. That is, the process should be continually monitored and evaluated and

adjustments made to overcome problems that inevitably develop in any scheme after its initial implementation. The key of this process is clearly a focus on citizen participation and the control of development and change. The basic philosophy on which this process is constructed is the idea that those who will be affected by the plan need to be involved in its development. Figure 3: Planning Process for Tourism and Recreation Development

" !Planning for Evaluation !As mentioned previously, when we talk about planning and plan-making we also have to address the evaluation of our plan ie the anticipated outcomes. Planning without the benefit of evaluating the outcomes or assessing the impacts lacks credibility and support (eg human, financial or material) would be difficult to achieve (government, private or combination of both) for such endeavors. When thinking of evaluation consider it to be “the systematic collection of information to make judgments, improve program effectiveness and/or generate knowledge to inform decisions about future programs”. (Patton as cited in “Enhancing Program Performance with Logic Models” (2003, p.161) !

Unit 4 !Unit 04

Recreation and Tourism Impacts: Knowing the Consequences of our Activity !

• The focus of an evaluation of a program is not primarily the end results but also the process of the service delivery

• Where the focus of an impact assessment is mostly on the outcome • Assessment is a term used when negative impacts are expected and decisions rely on the

findings of the assessment • Impact assessment can help a community to take steps to minimize these impacts,

influence the decision making process or the implementation of the service, help to minimize public misconception about the future of these services !

The Nature of Impacts • Classified into two groups

1. Benefits to the individual user of these services due to participation in the activity as well as involvement in the planning process

2. Benefits to the community at large !Economic Impacts

• the Benefits Catalogue (CPRA) lists seven economic factors as a result of leisure 1. pay now or more later 2. fit work force is a productive work force 3. small investments in recreation yield economic returns 4. parks and recreation services motivate business and expansion in community 5. meaningful leisure services reduce high cost of vandalism and crime 6. recreation and park services are often for tourism 7. investments in environmental protection through provision parks and open space

• Example: Niagara Escarpment provides nature for many recreation and tourism activities – from economic perspective, small businesses would not exist without the revenue that outside visitors provide to the local economy

• Bed and Breakfasts, for example, exist because of the revenue that visitors provide (special events – festivals or sports events provide revenue to local business)

• Negative consequences: natural resources (local environment and diversity resources) and impact on socioeconomic and cultural resources (tourism leads to influx of people and related social degradation)

• Due to inappropriate planning, irresponsible behaviour by tourists and operators and lack of education and awareness of the impacts by tourist resorts or local government agencies

• Members of the community spend their money at the local swimming pools, hockey arena, or municipality run programs such as day camps, sports programs, art and culture

!Spending on Recreation

• regional governments account for recreation spending individually different (not non-profit organizations)

• and many small municipalities don’t account for recreation and culture • individual households spending habits on recreation and culture, the average spending on

recreation and culture per household: • Canada: 2005-2008 increasing, decrease in 2009 • Ontario: 2005-2006 increasing, then decrease from 2007-2009 • an example of dwindling funds when municipal governments or any government decide

to invest large sums of money for recreation expenditures • as a result, other projects such as new sewage treatment plants, schools, roads or other

facilities may be delayed or not development at all because of the recreation project !Economic Impact Assessment

• focus not only on determining the size of the change the development will have on the product but also how that economic impact is distributed: who will benefit and who will not

• recreation and tourism can benefit the environment: 1. recreation can contribute to the environmental health of our communities 2. public is often prepared to pay for environmental protection in their communities 3. investing in the environment leads to increase in neighbourhood property values

through friendly green spaces and recreation opportunities 4. natural environment is insurance for a new and improved future

• however, can also have a damaging effect on environment • example: hotel construction in a Caribbean community may have positive impacts,

however negative: hotels discharge of sewage is directly into the ocean • negative impacts aren’t just a result of tourism activities but may also occur from

municipal recreation projects (ex. Hiking trail – through an environmentally sensitive area

• vandalism along the trail • but could provide educational purposes • Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is concerned with estimating the environmental

damage inflicted on an area attributable to the development • not only concerned about effects in the immediate area but also occurs downstream in

other communities !Social Impact Assessment

• benefits Catalogue (CPRA) following principles: 1. leisure provides leadership opportunities 2. recreation reduces alienation, loneliness and anti-social behaviour 3. recreation promotes ethnic and cultural harmony

4. recreation builds strong families, and societies 5. leisure provides opportunity for community involvement 6. accessible leisure services are critical to the quality of life 7. leisure opportunities, facilities and quality of local environment are foundation of

community pride 8. leisure provides protective services for after-school and recreational services for

children !• negative impacts to the community with having leash-free dog parks include: traffic,

noise and pollution • tourism in municipalities cause social disruption through congestion of local shopping

areas, noise and vandalism • community recreation areas (soccer fields) can be potentially damaged by fairs, special

events • this can result and detract from the desirability of the area as a tourism and recreational

destination • Social Impact Assessments (SIA) are concerned with potential disruptions to the social

fabric of the community or culture of the project • deal with such issues as demographic shifts including changes to the labour force,

changes to the demands made on local services like housing, criminal justice, etc, and psychological and community impacts such as social integration, sense of place and community cohesion !

Power and Impacts • social, economic, environmental or a mix of all three – result of who has the ability (or

power) to determine what kinds of development takes place in a community • not a top-down approach to local tourism development • individuals and groups of various age and socio-economic backgrounds have been very

successful in advocating for and providing of recreation services and opportunities in the community

• Youth Friendly Communities - skateboard parks, dance halls, outdoor programs, cultural programs - implemented in the community !

Locating Impact Assessment in the Planning Process • Important to think about impacts early in the process of planning • Thinking about impacts begin in the needs assessment stage – developing the tourism or

recreation service to provide some benefit to the people who use the service or deal with the problem

• Could be related to both positive benefits and potentially negative impacts • Social Impact Assessment Process

1. Community forces indicate needs to plan for general deficiency in community 2. Decision authority accepts need for plan

3. Area of concern is identified by decision authority 4. Decision authority creates and mandates “study management committee” 5. Study committee develops terms of reference and engages planning agency 6. Needs assessment is undertaken 7. Plans and strategies are developed to satisfy needs 8. Economic impact SIA and EIA is undertaken 9. Needs and feasibility assessments are compared -- if assessment is negative

return to stage 7 -- is assessment is positive proceed to stage 10 10. Implement plan of strategies 11. Monitor and evaluate

• Three main approaches 1. Surveys/questionnaires

▪ Survey Research is a popular way of gathering information ▪ If interested in social impacts, researchers may ask questions about the use

of recreation or tourism services ▪ Survey then distributed to many respondents who answer the questions

2. Face-to-face interviews ▪ Face-to-face interviews allow the researcher to ask a series of questions

that are often more complex that can be handled in a questionnaire ▪ Also observe surrounding and nonverbal communication of the individual

3. Focus groups ▪ Involve gathering together of various members of the community ▪ The researcher gathers approximately 6-12 individuals, group will meet

and discuss for 1-2 hours ▪ A moderator introduces issue, keep people on topic and ensure no one

person dominates the conversation The Future

• It is through planning that we have control of what materializes in the future !Planning Leisure for the Future

• Simply not enough to analyze the present and think about the future • To put emphasis on individual and community involvement • Leisure, recreation and tourism are also about creating a better future • Can be transformative • People can gain a better understanding of themselves and their environmental through

participation in recreational activity at home or through travel • Recreation and tourism can provide vital ingredients to individual and personal growth

and development • The most pressing issue will involve addressing our daily need to construct a personally

satisfying lifestyle while reducing stress on the environment • Look to work to gain self-identity

• in a recent CBC program on leisure and work, the broadcaster pointed out that a leisure society has always been considered utopian and not within reach even if its desirable

• suggested that a future society based on the premise of meaningful paid work for everybody might turn out to be the utopian view !

From Past to Future • social and economic changes that influences and shifted people’s perception and

expectation of work-time and leisure-time • in the 1800’s recreation was seen as a way of dealing with the social problems

particularly those of disadvantaged children and youth and new immigrants • in the 1980’s leisure became a means to improving social relationships among people and

the way these relationships contributes to people’s abilities to realize their full potential • during the 1990’s many communities valued and made use of leisure services as a tool to

economic development, through tourism services !!!