as level psychology the core studies. comparative psychology n the study of animal behaviour n...

AS level Psychology

The Core studies

AS level Psychology

The Core studies

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

THE STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOURTHE STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

CHARLES DARWIN CHARLES DARWIN THE EVOLUTION OF THE SPECIESTHE EVOLUTION OF THE SPECIES

we all evolved from a common we all evolved from a common ancestorancestor

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

THE STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOURTHE STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

Humans share many behaviours with non-Humans share many behaviours with non-human animalshuman animals

But what about language?But what about language?

What is language? What is language?

Language….Language….

How is it that we are able to speak?How is it that we are able to speak?

Do we learn?Do we learn? OrOr Is language innate? Is language innate?

An example of the nature nurture debateAn example of the nature nurture debate

Language theories….Language theories…. The behaviourist theory (Skinner)The behaviourist theory (Skinner)

That children learn by That children learn by Imitation Imitation andand ReinforcementReinforcement

operant conditioning… operant conditioning…

Language theories….Language theories…. The nativist theory (Chomsky)The nativist theory (Chomsky)

That children are born with an That children are born with an Innate Language Acquisition DeviceInnate Language Acquisition Device LADLAD

that the ability to use language is hard that the ability to use language is hard wired into the brainwired into the brain

Language theories….Language theories…. Nurture (Skinner)Nurture (Skinner)

This theory emphasises performanceThis theory emphasises performance

a child imitates what she hears and is a child imitates what she hears and is reinforced when correctreinforced when correct

gradually vocalisations are shaped and words gradually vocalisations are shaped and words are learnedare learned

Language theories….Language theories….

Nurture (Skinner) PROBLEMSNurture (Skinner) PROBLEMS

It would take too longIt would take too long Parents do not reinforce correct speechParents do not reinforce correct speech

Language theories….Language theories….

The nativist theory (Chomsky)The nativist theory (Chomsky) emphasises the difference betweenemphasises the difference between performance vs performance vs competencecompetence usingusing vs vs understandingunderstanding All humans are ‘prepared’ to learn languageAll humans are ‘prepared’ to learn language All normal children acquire language in similar All normal children acquire language in similar

stagesstages Linguistic universals exist in every languageLinguistic universals exist in every language

LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALSLINGUISTIC UNIVERSALS Language not just a mish mash of soundLanguage not just a mish mash of sound THREE COMPONENTS of language THREE COMPONENTS of language

PHONOLOGYPHONOLOGY - SOUND PATTERNS - SOUND PATTERNS

SYNTAX - WORD PATTERNSSYNTAX - WORD PATTERNS

SEMANTICS - MEANING PATTERNSSEMANTICS - MEANING PATTERNS

LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALSLINGUISTIC UNIVERSALS

SEMANTICITYSEMANTICITY - words have meanings - words have meanings

DISPLACEMENT - DISPLACEMENT - the ability to use words to the ability to use words to refer to things that are not present in time and spacerefer to things that are not present in time and space

STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE - STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE - words can words can be ‘chunked together’ and moved around - be ‘chunked together’ and moved around -

the policeman shot the man in the garage the policeman shot the man in the garage

CREATIVITY - CREATIVITY - each sentence that is spoken each sentence that is spoken might be a unique ‘utterance’might be a unique ‘utterance’

GENERALISATIONGENERALISATION - from one situation to another - from one situation to another

Language --- the great debateLanguage --- the great debate

Why teach language to apes?Why teach language to apes?

THE RATIONALETHE RATIONALE If apes can learn language it supports If apes can learn language it supports

Skinner (Nurture)Skinner (Nurture) If notIf not Perhaps Chomsky was right (Nature)Perhaps Chomsky was right (Nature)

Teaching language to apesTeaching language to apes

The earliest experimentThe earliest experiment The Kelloggs and GuaThe Kelloggs and Gua brought up like human babybrought up like human baby continually exposed to speechcontinually exposed to speech ‘‘understood’ 70 words but never spokeunderstood’ 70 words but never spoke Chimps do not have vocal chords that Chimps do not have vocal chords that

can produce speechcan produce speech


Premack taught Sarah (1966)Premack taught Sarah (1966) trained by Operant Conditioningtrained by Operant Conditioning lived in a cagelived in a cage taught to manipulate symbols on a plastic taught to manipulate symbols on a plastic

boardboard e.g. RED SQUARE meant bananae.g. RED SQUARE meant banana could ‘understand’ and follow orderscould ‘understand’ and follow orders never initiated word gamesnever initiated word games


Savage Rumbaugh taught LanaSavage Rumbaugh taught Lana funded by Coca Colafunded by Coca Cola

symbolic keyboard linked to computer which symbolic keyboard linked to computer which is linked to a vending machineis linked to a vending machine

If Lana requested ‘food’ she received itIf Lana requested ‘food’ she received it Lana understood arbitrary symbols like ‘more’Lana understood arbitrary symbols like ‘more’ YES - semanticity YES - displacement,YES - semanticity YES - displacement, NO - structure dependenceNO - structure dependence

Gardner & Gardner (WASHOE)Gardner & Gardner (WASHOE)

Method - a case studyMethod - a case study Participant - a female chimp WASHOEParticipant - a female chimp WASHOE Age - approx I year oldAge - approx I year old Procedure - Washoe lived in a caravan Procedure - Washoe lived in a caravan

in the Gardner’s gardenin the Gardner’s garden Never alone when she was awake Never alone when she was awake team of researchers and psych studentsteam of researchers and psych students


How was Washoe talked to?How was Washoe talked to?

American Sign Language (ASL)American Sign Language (ASL) Signs stand for wordsSigns stand for words Washoe continually surrounded by ‘signing Washoe continually surrounded by ‘signing

humans’humans’ No rigorous training methodsNo rigorous training methods No other ‘language’ usedNo other ‘language’ used


Training methodsTraining methods ImitationImitation BabblingBabbling Instrumental conditioningInstrumental conditioning


Imitation.Imitation. As with chimpanzees in general, Washoe As with chimpanzees in general, Washoe

naturally imitated. Washoe signed the sign naturally imitated. Washoe signed the sign for 'toothbrush' spontaneously upon entering for 'toothbrush' spontaneously upon entering the Gardener's bathroom and noticing the Gardener's bathroom and noticing toothbrushes. There seems to have been no toothbrushes. There seems to have been no obvious motive, except to communicate.obvious motive, except to communicate.


Babbling.Babbling. 'Babbling' here does not mean vocal 'Babbling' here does not mean vocal

babbling, rather the untaught signs babbling, rather the untaught signs used by Washoe to communicate a used by Washoe to communicate a desire. Washoe used a begging desire. Washoe used a begging gesture, which was not too different gesture, which was not too different from the ASL signs for 'give me' and from the ASL signs for 'give me' and 'come'.'come'.


Instrumental conditioning. Instrumental conditioning. Humans could not learn a language, purely Humans could not learn a language, purely

by instrumental conditioning, although it by instrumental conditioning, although it seems likely that the 'trick vocabulary' of seems likely that the 'trick vocabulary' of early childhood could be acquired in this early childhood could be acquired in this way. Instrumental conditioning was one way. Instrumental conditioning was one strategy used with Washoe. Tickling was strategy used with Washoe. Tickling was used as a reward. The sign for 'more' was used as a reward. The sign for 'more' was learnt by instrumental conditioning. This learnt by instrumental conditioning. This sign was later applied to a variety of relevant sign was later applied to a variety of relevant situations.situations.


How did they measure what Washoe How did they measure what Washoe had learned (the DV)had learned (the DV)

A sign was assumed to be learned A sign was assumed to be learned IFIF Washoe spontaneously used a new Washoe spontaneously used a new

sign, seen by THREE observers and sign, seen by THREE observers and used over 15 daysused over 15 days

WASHOE’s progressWASHOE’s progress

First SINGLE WORDSFirst SINGLE WORDS come, gimme, hurry, sweet, ticklecome, gimme, hurry, sweet, tickle 34 after 21 months34 after 21 months by 4 years over 100 signsby 4 years over 100 signs YES - SEMANTICITYYES - SEMANTICITY signed TOOTHBRUSH in bathroom signed TOOTHBRUSH in bathroom signed FLOWER in garden and when signed FLOWER in garden and when

shown picture of flowershown picture of flower


YES – GENERALISATION (or YES – GENERALISATION (or Transfer)Transfer)

MORE - first used with TICKLEMORE - first used with TICKLE then - generalised to MOREthen - generalised to MORE e.g. food, drink, e.g. food, drink, pushing in laundry basketpushing in laundry basket


DISPLACEMENTDISPLACEMENT

YESYES WASHOE could refer to absent objects WASHOE could refer to absent objects

and peopleand people


Differentiation. Differentiation. The sign 'more' used in many different The sign 'more' used in many different

situations until a more specific sign had situations until a more specific sign had been learnt. The sign for 'flower' used been learnt. The sign for 'flower' used inappropriately for the idea of 'smell'. inappropriately for the idea of 'smell'. After additional training eventually After additional training eventually Washoe was able to differentiate Washoe was able to differentiate between 'smell' and 'flower'.between 'smell' and 'flower'.


CREATIVITY (combinations) - YESCREATIVITY (combinations) - YES Washoe spontaneously used Washoe spontaneously used

combinations of signscombinations of signs GIMME TICKLE - come and tickle meGIMME TICKLE - come and tickle me OPEN FOOD DRINK - open the fridgeOPEN FOOD DRINK - open the fridge LISTEN EAT - listen to the dinner gongLISTEN EAT - listen to the dinner gong GO SWEET - take me to the raspberry GO SWEET - take me to the raspberry

bushes bushes


NO - STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE?NO - STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE? English children usually put the English children usually put the SUBJECT before the ACTIONSUBJECT before the ACTION

• Mummy comeMummy come• Eve readEve read• Car goneCar gone


NO - STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE?NO - STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE?

Washoe did not seem to do thisWashoe did not seem to do this GO SWEET or SWEET GOGO SWEET or SWEET GO meaning take me to the raspberry bushesmeaning take me to the raspberry bushes

Why might this be?Why might this be?


WHY NO STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE?WHY NO STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE? Perhaps the researchers were Perhaps the researchers were

overeager and gratified her every whim overeager and gratified her every whim thus she did not need to learn about thus she did not need to learn about word order - word order -

perhaps if she had had difficulty perhaps if she had had difficulty making herself understood she might making herself understood she might have learned structurehave learned structure


WHY NO STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE?WHY NO STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE?

It may be harder to maintain a fixed It may be harder to maintain a fixed sequence with signs, some research sequence with signs, some research suggests that deaf adults are not suggests that deaf adults are not always consistent in ordering sign always consistent in ordering sign languagelanguage



Perhaps she would have learned Perhaps she would have learned eventuallyeventually

BUT - perhaps she did not and could BUT - perhaps she did not and could not understand the patterned nature of not understand the patterned nature of languagelanguage



Also perhaps the ‘researchers’ were Also perhaps the ‘researchers’ were not very good signers!not very good signers!


WHAT else HAPPENED TO WASHOEWHAT else HAPPENED TO WASHOE She was allowed to adopt a young She was allowed to adopt a young

chimp - LOULISchimp - LOULIS She ‘signed’ to LOULISShe ‘signed’ to LOULIS CHAIR SIT - sit on the chairCHAIR SIT - sit on the chair FOUTS 1983 reportedFOUTS 1983 reported ““through imitating Washoe, Loulis now through imitating Washoe, Loulis now

has his own repertoire of signs”has his own repertoire of signs”


SUMMARY - can WASHOE use language?SUMMARY - can WASHOE use language? SEMANTICITY- YESSEMANTICITY- YES DISPLACEMENT - YES DISPLACEMENT - YES STRUCTURE DEPENDENCE - NOSTRUCTURE DEPENDENCE - NO CREATIVITY - Some but limitedCREATIVITY - Some but limited GENERALISATIONGENERALISATION - YES - YES

The GARDNERS said YESThe GARDNERS said YES

WASHOE - CRITICISMWASHOE - CRITICISM

BY TERRACE (Nim Chimpsky)BY TERRACE (Nim Chimpsky)

Difference between children and NIM Difference between children and NIM (and WASHOE)(and WASHOE)

No increase in length of sentencesNo increase in length of sentences Increase in imitation which decreases Increase in imitation which decreases

in childrenin children

Training techniquesTraining techniques

Imitation (e.g. toothbrush)Imitation (e.g. toothbrush) Babbling (e.g. bits of natural actions Babbling (e.g. bits of natural actions

moulded into signs – like gimmemoulded into signs – like gimme Instrumental conditioning (e.g. more)Instrumental conditioning (e.g. more)

WASHOE’s CRITICISMWASHOE’s CRITICISM

BY TERRACE (Nim Chimpsky)BY TERRACE (Nim Chimpsky) Only 12% of NIMs utterances were Only 12% of NIMs utterances were

spontaneous BUT children do not only spontaneous BUT children do not only talk when promptedtalk when prompted

Nim (& Washoe) never learned to ‘take Nim (& Washoe) never learned to ‘take turns’ when talking - never learned the turns’ when talking - never learned the rules of the ‘language game’rules of the ‘language game’

WASHOE - CRITICISMWASHOE - CRITICISM

NOAM CHOMSKYNOAM CHOMSKY ““It is about as likely that an ape will It is about as likely that an ape will

prove to have language ability, as that prove to have language ability, as that there is an island somewhere with a there is an island somewhere with a species of flightless birds waiting for species of flightless birds waiting for humans to teach them how to fly”humans to teach them how to fly”


Ethics Ethics - how might you criticise this - how might you criticise this case study?case study?

Generalisation - can the findings of this Generalisation - can the findings of this study be generalised to all chimps?study be generalised to all chimps?

Why or why not?Why or why not?


Questions Questions Describe some examples of animal Describe some examples of animal

communicationcommunication

Describe some forms of human Describe some forms of human communication that do not use communication that do not use languagelanguage


Questions Questions Describe the strengths & weaknesses Describe the strengths & weaknesses

of the case study method?of the case study method?

What do you think might be the main What do you think might be the main difficulty in recording sign language in difficulty in recording sign language in a chimp? a chimp?


Questions Questions How do people KNOW when it is their How do people KNOW when it is their

turn to speak in a conversation?turn to speak in a conversation?

IMPLICATION:IMPLICATION: If Washoe can be shown to have If Washoe can be shown to have

learned language which theory learned language which theory SKINNER or CHOMSKY is supported? SKINNER or CHOMSKY is supported?


Application - how is this study Application - how is this study useful?useful?

THE ENDTHE END

as level psychology the core studies. comparative psychology n the study of animal behaviour n...

Documents