as psycho dynamic approach 09

7/31/2019 As Psycho Dynamic Approach 09

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The Psychodynamic Approach:The importance/influence of the unconscious on

behaviour/personality; the importance of early

childhood experiences on adult personality.


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Psychodynamic Approach:

Key terms & definitions Conscious: mental processes of which we are fully aware, including easily

recalled memories, motivations.

Pre-conscious: mental processes just below the conscious surface. Memories,motivations that can be recalled to consciousness under particular

circumstances. Unconscious: mental processes that can never be recalled to consciousness:

instincts & deeply buried memories; e.g., unacceptable sexual or aggressivethoughts, fears, shameful & painful memories, irrational desires this is thelargest part of personality. 2 very powerful instincts reside in the unconscious:Libido & Thanatos. Libido=life instinct that manifests itself as sexualmotives & Thanatos=death instinct/wish which manifests itself in aggression& destructiveness life instincts. (NB., Iceberg analogy.)

Id: Sometimes referred to as pleasure principle=1st part of personality todevelop, instinctive part of personality. I will eat the whole packet of chocolatebiscuits in one go.


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Key terms & definitions (continued) Ego: Or reality principle, 2nd part of personality to develop, logical & rational

part of personality, balances the demands of the Id & superego, acts as a defacto referee between demands to satisfy I & demands to satisfy superego. Iwill eat only 4 chocolate biscuits in one sitting.

Superego: Or morality principle. Last part of personality to develop (I.e.,last to develop in 1st 5 years of childhood). The conscience or moral part ofpersonality that is heavily influenced bysocietys rules & our parents values.

Psychosexual stages of development (OAPLG): The personality developsthrough psychosexual stages that occur in order: Oral 0-1, Anal 2-3, Phallic 3-

6, Latent 7-11, Genital 12-18. At each stage pleasure (libido) centres aroundspecific parts of the body (the erogenous zones): oral=mouth, anal=anus,phallic=genitals, latent=libido is dormant so no area of fixation,genital=genitals. [See HO on Psychosexual stages.]


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Key terms & definitions (continued) Fixation: This is when instead of moving on to the next psychosexual stage, a

psychosexual stage is not fully resolved; the libido becomes focused orfixated on the object of the previous stage, e.g., if you still suck your thumbor bite your nails you may be fixated on the oral stage. Fixation takes 2 forms:

frustration & overindulgence. Frustration=when needs are not meet;overindulgence=where needs are met too much so the child does not move on:both can cause the libido to become fixated. If fixation occurs then as an adultan individual may gain satisfaction from the stage fixated in. (Seepsychosexual HO.)

Defence mechanisms: These are methods of protecting the ego when there isconflict between the demands of the Id & the superego. We use defence

mechanisms to protect ourselves from painful, frightening or guilty feelings. Ifwe persistently use defence mechanisms we can lose touch with reality. Thereare a variety of defence mechanisms: Displacement, Denial, Projection,Repression or Motivated Forgetting, Sublimation, Regression, Reaction

formation. (See Defence Mechanisms HO.)


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Key terms & definitions (continued) Catharsis: This is the safe release of mental energy, venting mental pressure in a safe

way, e.g., when angry doing lots of exercise to release anger. Catharsis is needed becauseFreud saw human emotions & instincts in terms of a Hydraulic Model. The HydraulicModelrefers to Freuds notion that the mind operates like a hydraulic machine, emotions& instincts, if there are not expressed can become pent up, leading to a build up of

psychic energy or mental pressure/tension, which, if not released or discharged, cancause mental health problems. Catharsis is necessary to release this pent up emotion in asafe way; psychoanalysis provides a safe environment for catharsis to occur.

Oedipus/Electra Complex: This refers to the way gender identity occurs, Oedipuscomplex for boys, Electra complex for girls. For boys awareness of penis - sexualfeelings for mother, competes with father for attention of mother, fears father as a rival(suffers castration anxietyas notices girls have no penis), represses love for mother &

identifies with father to resolve conflict & castration anxiety. The Electra complex forgirls, daughter notices she has no penis (penis envy), attaches feelings to father (whohas penis), blames mother for her castration so fears her, substitutes desire for penis fordesire for baby represses love for father & identifies with mother. (NB., daughter doesnot fear castration as she has already been castrated; as she has no sense of castrationanxiety her identification with mother not so great as boys identification with father.)


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In depth area of study: Freuds theory of

personality & gender development Psychosexual stages of

development: oral, anal,phallic, latent, genital.

Conscious, pre-conscious,unconscious

Defence mechanisms:Repression/motivatedforgetting, Displacement,

Denial, Projection,Regression, Sublimation,Reaction formation.

Gender development:

The Oedipus Complex

The Electra Complex.


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Psychosexual development Oral stage: the mouth is the focus of pleasure: fixation = orally sadistic or orally erotic.

Anal stage: toilet training brings focus of pleasure on the anus: fixation= anally expulsive if parents are too lenient & child gets pleasure from making a mess; anally retentivechild gains pleasure from holding back.

Phallic stage: the erogenous zone or focus of pleasure is centred on the genitals:fixation=overly careful or reckless, vain, self-obsessed, arrogant.

Latency stage: a resting period, libido is not fixated on any centre of pleasure, no strongerogenous zone, no repression of desire, children form same-sex friendships & focus onschool & sport.

Genital stage: starts with puberty, libido focuses again on genitals, pleasure again

centred around genitals. Formation of heterosexual relationships & friendships; if thereis little libido energy being taken up by unresolved unconscious conflicts from previousstages, then there is enough mental energy for normal/healthy relationships to beformed in this stage. If an individual is fixated in the phallic stage in particular,difficulties with relationships due to repression & other defence mechanisms may ensue.


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Freuds explanation of gender development

The Oedipus Complex: See earlier. The Oedipus complex stems from a boysnatural love for his mother, but as the libido is focused on the genitals this lovebecomes sexual. Freud argued that the father presents a barrier to the boys feelingstowards his mother. As the father is getting in the way the son feels resentmenttowards his father; n.b., all this happens at an unconscious level! Castration anxietyoccurs at this stage because boys notice that women dont have a penis; this thentranslates to a fear that the father may castrate the son if the father finds out that he

wants his mother all to himself. Castration anxiety is greater than the desire topossess the mother, so this desire is repressed.

This conflict has to be resolved. It is the role of the ego to do this. The egosatisfies the demands of the Id (to possess the mother) & resolves castration anxietyby strongly identifying with the father. The son identifies with the father byadopting the fathers values, attitudes & beliefs & mirroring the fathers approach tosocial rules & norms. This process of identification with the father leads to the

development of the superego (morality principle); the sons moral outlook/codereflects that of the father. The son learns to become male by identifying with thefather & in some ways becoming a younger version of him. This also satisfies thedemands of the Id, as by becoming like the father the son can also possess themother, metaphorically, in some ways, without fear of castration, due to theidentification & bonding with the father. NB., much of the evidence & support forthe Oedipus complex theory comes from the case study of Little Hans (1909).


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Freuds explanation of gender development The Electra Complex: Girls learn their gender roles/behaviour through identification with

their mothers; however, Freud was far more vague about how this occurs in females. Girls,when they discover that women do not have a penis (in the phallic stage), they blame theirmothers for the castration & so fear their mothers, but they also developpenis envy. Penisenvy leads to the desire for apenis substitute a child which the father can provide, butshe sees her mother as a rival for her fathers affections. The daughter identifies with hermother & learns her gender role because this will enable her to possess her father & gain apenis substitute (nb., babies & penises are symbols of social power). However, Freud

believed that this process is never fully resolved for girls, their identification with theirmothers is not as strong as that of boys with their fathers (due to strong sense of castrationanxiety for boys, girls have already been castrated). Eventually girls learn to repress theirlove for their fathers & identify more closely with their mothers & sublimate or redirect theirsexual desire in a more socially acceptable way.

The Resolution of the Oedipus & Electra complex: Sexual desire directed towards theopposite sex parent causes a great deal of unconscious conflict; to deal with this the ego

employs sublimation (a defence mechanism): it re-directs this sexual desire in a moresocially acceptable way. In the Latency stage these feelings are dormant & sexual energy issublimated via school activities etc. This sexual energy reappears in the Genital stage& thefeelings the child once felt towards the opposite sex parents are directed towards a moreappropriate member of the opposite sex, I.e., someone closer to their own age & not related!An unresolved Oedipus complex may, for example, cause conflict with the same sex parentin later stages/life.


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Evaluation of Freudian theory

Freud provided a unique of studyinghuman behaviour & used methods thatgave novel insights into the humanunconscious, e.g., dream analysis, freeassociation, Freudian slips, which he

tried to apply in a rigorous, scientificcontextual way.

The concept of defence mechanismsseems to have strong face validity: e.g.,people often use denial about bad news.There is even some research support forit: Adams et al. (1996) & reaction among

homophobic men when watchinghomosexual pornography they becomearoused watching it despite being on aconscious, outward level homophobic.

Freuds methods, nevertheless, havebeen criticised for being subjective &having little scientific credibility: theycannot be falsified, lack validity &reliability.

Also, Freud relied heavily on casestudies, which are unique personalhistories so are difficult to generalisefrom & difficult to repeat (so lackreliability). His sample, based on hisclients (he was a psychiatrist), consistedmainly of upper middle-class Viennese

women, few men & only 2 children,whom he met only briefly, so cannot beconsidered representative enough tobase a whole theory of humanexperience.


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Evaluation of Freudian theory

The notion of the Id, ego & superegoseems to have good face validity, it canexplain why we often seem to be pulledin different directions & feel guilty aboutour desires.

It encompasses the influences of instinct(biology), logic (cognitive) & theinfluence of other people (social), so is acomprehensive model of personality.

It does seem to be the case that childrendevelop in stages & that early

relationships with our families are veryimportant in affecting our development.

The concept of defence mechanisms isdifficult to study empirically because it isdifficult to test; they are unconsciousresponses & therefore difficult tomeasure, if something is unconscious,by definition, it will be difficult toanalyse. Furthermore, they areresponses to threatening or traumaticsituations which are hard to replicate inan artificial, controlled environment.

Similarly, the notion of the Id, ego &

superego are difficult to test empiricallybecause they are unconscious, abstractconstructs/concepts.


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Evaluation of Freudian theory There seems to be some evidence for the

existence of personality traits linked to thepsychosexual stages, e.g., the analpersonality: stubbornness, orderliness &stinginess being more prominent in somepeople & associated with certainprevailing attitudes regarding body

functions & political views (ONeill et al.1992; Maltby & Price, 1999)

The case study of Little Hans has beenused as evidence for the Oedipus complex& the need for a small boy to identify withhis father.

Some research suggests that girls have

later relationships with (or marry) maleslike their father, & boys go on to haverelationships (or marry) females like theirmother (Connor & Brown, 2007) supporting the Oedipus complex & theFreudian notion of identification.

Although his general ideas about child developmentmight have some face validity, his overemphasis onbody-parts, libido & the sexual nature of childsdevelopment negate the validity of many aspects of histheory of child development.

His notion of the Oedipus complex is not well-supported, e.g., the case study of Little Hans is deeply

flawed & is only one case study. Moreover, children in single & gay parent families do

not seem to have any particular issues with genderdevelopment, as would be predicted byFreuds theory.

Although children in the Phallic stage (approx.3-7) areinterested in their genitals, they are generally aware oftheir own gender at an earlier stage (Fagot & Leinback,

1993). Castration anxiety & penis envy are obviously very

difficult concepts to investigate scientifically. (Why?)

Feminists take issue with Freud because his theoryimplies women are inferior as they lack a penis & desirea penis substitute. Gender development in girls is morevague than for boys in Freuds theory. NB., Freud was a

product of his time & not especially sexist for the era.


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Psychodynamic, Biological & Learning explanations of gender development

Feature Psychodynamic Biological LearningMethodology Dream analysis, free

association, case studies

Genes, twin studies, scanning,

DNA & Hormones

Experiments/Observtions

Nature Instincts (Id), unconscious &development in stages: phallic

stage & libido, repression,

sublimation

Genes & hormones Born blank slate ignores inherited

characteristics: no nature

NurtureSuperego: morals, conscience &

gender behaviour from parents

& society

Experience & environment can

influence genes & hormones, but

generally gender is nature

All nurture, e.g., parents, school, peers,

society, role models.

Scientific Not scientific, subjective,difficult to prove scientifically

& measure empirically, cannot

be falsified.

Very scientific, easier to quantify,

operationalise & so measure

Experiments, so can isolate & control

variables, but human behaviour still

hard to measure quantifiably.

Changes over

time

Stages through to 18 but

gender development basicallyfixed by end of Phallic stage

1st 5 years

Development fixed at birth &

before, but hormonal changes overtime

Learning is continuous & lifelong

through reinforcement

so can explainchanges over time, by culture & across

generations (Why?)

Early years 1st 5 years, resolving conflicts

generated in Phallic stage very

important

Sex given at birth, but

environment can affect gender,

hormonal changes throughout life

Early years important, lots of learning

takes place then

Parental

contribution

Child identifies with same sex

parent, values, behaviour etc.

Parents give genes 50% each Parents usually main providers of

reinforcement & role models,

especially in early years.


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Psychodynamic, Biological & Learning explanations of gender

development: similarities & differences (NB., sex refers to biological

differences between men & women; gender refers to psychological & social differences.)

Psychodynamic & Biological both usecase studies, but in very different ways,e.g., Little Hans, & Money.

Psychodynamic & biological both allowsome room for nurture influencingnature (but only limited for biological).

Biological & learning are both veryscientific in their approach, trying togenerate quantifiable data.

All acknowledge influence of parents ongender development, BUT in verydifferent ways.

Biological & learning are both far morescientific in their methodology, moreobjective, less interpretative, easier tofalsify.

Learning focuses entirely on nurture;biological focuses almost entirely onnature; psychodynamic = combinationof both.

Psychodynamic=gender developmentoccurs in stages, main stages being 0-5;biological=not stages but inheritedcharacteristics; learning=continuousreinforcement but reinforcementreceived in early years very important forgender development.


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Studies in detail: Can you describe &

evaluate:

The case studyof Little Hans(1909): Freud.

AND:

Dibs: Personalitydevelopment in

play therapy(1964). OR:

Effectiveness ofpsychoanalytical

therapies(Bachrach et al.,

1991). OR:

Identity,personality &

defencemechanisms

(Cramer, 1997).


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The case study of Little Hans (1909)

Name: Case study of Little Hans Aim: To cure Hans phobia of horses; to

provide research support for FreudsOedipus theory.

Method: Case study, incl. dream analysis,free association & clinical interview(carried out byHans father, Freud only saw

Hans once or twice & his therapeutic inputwas minimal). From the age of 3LittleHans had developed such an interest in hispenis, or widdler, that his mother hadthreatened to cut it off. He had alsodeveloped a morbid fear of horses andbecame scared to leave the house. At thistime Hans father had stopped Little Hansgetting into his parents bed in themornings. Over time Little Hans fear of

horses became limited to horses with blackharnesses, he also once reportedly uttered,Daddydont trot away from me.

Generalisability: It was a case study based onone child: therefore, not able to generalise to allchildren.

Reliability: Case studies, because of theirunique nature, are difficult to replicate.

Application to real life: Freud assumed thatthe Oedipus complex affected all children & thateveryone needs to resolve the conflicts that arise

in this phase; displaced resentment & fear,including phobias can affect lots of people.Freuds focus on the unconscious has lead topsychoanalysis, a humane & compassionate wayo dealing with many types of clinicalconditions.

Validity: Lots of detail is generated by a casestudy such as this, and often more detail meansgreater validity. However, Little Hans father

provided most of the data, no information camefrom little Hans directly; his father may not havebeen very objective and much of the informationgathered involved a great deal of subjectiveinterpretation.


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The case study of Little Hans (1909) Results: Really interpretation of themes in

Little Hans case history. Little Hans phobiaof horses ended with 2 significantdreams/fantasies: Little Hans has severalimagery children with his mother, where hisfather is the grandfather; the other concerns aplumber visiting the house & fitting him witha bigger widdler.

Conclusion: Freud interpreted Little Hansphobia of horses as an expression of theOedipus complex. Horses, especially thosewith black harnesses, symbolised his father,who had a black moustache & a biggerwiddler (horses are well-endowed). LittleHans displaces his resentment & fear of hisfather (nb., castration anxiety) onto horses.

The Oedipul resentment towards his fathergrew stronger when his father refused to letLittle Hans into the parental bed, denying freeaccess to his mother. The unconsciousconflict with his father is happily resolvedwhen Little Hans gets a big widdler like hisfather & marries his mother, with his father inthe role of grandfather. At the time of this

resolution his fear of horses disappears.

Validitycontd: For example, assuming blackharnesses reminded Little Hans of his fathersmoustache, or that the phrase Daddy donttrot away from me was really that significant.It is also worth noting that Little Hans motherthreatened to remove his widdler, not hisfather, as is suggested by the Oedipus

complex. Little Hans has also been scaredwhen he saw a horse collapse in the street, andthis incident (as suggested by the Learningapproach) might have been the cause of horsephobia. Concepts such as the unconscious &castration anxiety cannot be scientificallytested.

Ethics: Little Hans phobia was dealt with in acompassionate, sympathetic way, he wascured simply by encouraging him to talkabout his dreams & feelings.


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Identity, personality & defence mechanisms

(Cramer, 1997) Name: See above

Aim: Whether a young person withcommitted goals is less likely to use defencemechanisms than a young person with nostrong goals. The more anxious & incrisis aperson is, the more likely they are to sue

defence mechanisms, so supporting Freudiantheory.

Method: 91 23 yr old males & females weregiven a Thematic apperception test (TAT).This is where pictures are shown &participants are asked to tell/interpret thestory of the picture. They were also given aQ-sort, where they were asked to sort a list of

characteristics according to how they appliedto them. These identity characteristics were tomeasure self-esteem & commitment to goals:there were 4 types: diffused (not yet reachedcrisis); foreclosed (adopted goals withoutcrisis); moratorium (in crisis); andachieved (passed through crisis & adoptedown goals).

Generalisability: A large sample wasused.

Reliability: To ensure reliabilityinter-rater reliability was applied tothe interpretation of the TAT storiesby the coders of the stories &experienced coders were used.

Application to real life: Self-esteem, anxiety, defence mechanisms,goal achievement are all important topsychological well-being.

Validity: Good construct validitybecause it was found that in the Q-

sort achieved & foreclosed identitywere strongly correlated with highcommitment; diffused & moratoriumstates were not: as was expected to thecase of the Q-sort was valid & hadconstruct validity.


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Identity, personality & defence mechanisms

(Cramer, 1997) Results: Diffused & moratorium states

showed anxiety & used denial defencemechanisms; diffused state also usedprojection. The achieved state showed theleast use of defence mechanisms & were lowestin anxiety, presumably no unconsciousconflicts occurring. Foreclosed showedpositive attitudes. Self-esteem was low forboth diffused & moratorium states, & high forboth achieved & foreclosed states. There wereno gender differences.

Conclusion: Defence mechanisms are afeature of human experience, especially during

a period of crisis & their use is linked to highanxiety & low self-esteem. High self-esteem,goal achievement & commitment to goalscorresponds to low use of defencemechanisms.

Validitycontd: However, there are stillsome validity issues. Defencemechanisms are unconsciousmechanisms & so difficult to measurescientifically & objectively; also the

interpretation of the TAT test is open tointerpretation. Furthermore, the Q-sorthad only 4 categories (diffused,foreclosed, moratorium, achieved);participants may have had overlappingtraits but were placed in to 1 of the 4

categories, so reducing the validity. Ethics: There are no ethical issues.


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Other key studies Dibs: personality development in play therapy (Axline, 1964).

Axline, a clinical psychologist, helping Dibs, a 5 year old boy with his behavioural problems. Usingpsychodynamic explanation, he had an overcontrolling superego & his ego could not balance the demandsof his id & superego. He had a very difficult with his parents, especially his father, and displaced hisresentment & anger towards his parents on other children. Through play therapy he expressed his anger,brought it to the surface, and this enabled him to build a better relationship with his parents & regulatehis emotions more effectively; it also enabled his parents to examine their own parenting style &behaviour towards Dibs (a highly intelligent child).

Effectiveness of psychoanalytical therapies (Bachrach et al., 1991). A meta-analysis of 1700 patients & 450 psychoanalysts.

For patients with insight, depending on how improvement is measured, between 60 to 90% patientsimprove significantly during psychoanalysis. However, it is impossible to predict based on initialassessments, which patients will benefit.

Early research into psychoanalysis was sceptical about the benefits (Eysenck, 1952). However, Eysencksresearch criteria have been thrown into doubt. Leichsenring & Leiberg (2007) conducted a meta-analysiswith randomly allocated control groups 7 independent judgements about patients conditions. Of 24studies, 23 showed that psychodynamic therapies are as effective as the other standard therapies.

However, there is debate about whether simply having someone listen to you might itself be therapeutic;therefore, it is the psychoanalysis per se that works, or the professional psychoanalyst, but simply the

feeling that someone is listening, being sympathetic and paying you attention: the treatment is a placebo(a charge also levelled at pharmaceutical treatments of depression. NB., being in psychoanalysis can be time consuming, so expensive & disruptive to patients lives when

they gain insight into the supposed unconscious reasons for their problems (e.g., poor early familyrelations).

It is also suggested that a more effective way of dealing with psychological issues is not to focus on thepast, rather to focus on the present & future, as more recently developed psychological therapies do, e.g.,Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT).


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1 Key issue from the

Psychodynamic approachThe effectiveness ofpsychoanalysis OR

False memory syndromeOR

Early childhood experience& sexual orientation OR

Do dreams have meaningOR

Explaining individualprejudice


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Key issues: Psychoanalytic therapies Psychoanalysis: events from our childhood,

especially traumatic events may be buriedin our unconscious, but they cause pressureto build up (nb., the hydraulic model)which can be manifested as mental illness.

Our egos often use defence mechanisms tohelp us deal with unconsciousconflict/tension; however, this is only ashort term solution.

Psychoanalysis can help patients(sometimes referred to as analysands)unlock unconscious feelings which arecausing pressure through dream analysis,fee association, Freudian slips & clinicalinterview. By bringing the problem to thesurface the patient can confront the issue &resolve it. The psychoanalysis providescatharsis: a safe therapeutic environment inwhich past trauma can be remembered, re-

experienced & worked through. In psychoanalysis transference occurs,

where the patient transfers their feelings ofangst towards key figures in their lives ontothe therapist. Counter-transference mayalso occur, where the therapist transferstheir own feelings onto the patient.

See notes on Bachrach et al. (1991); the effectiveness

of psychoanalysis has been criticised, but there isgood evidence to support its effectiveness but is ita placebo?

Should the focus be on the past, would it be betterfor therapeutic purposes to focus on present &future?

Evidence form studies such as Brown & Harris(1978), a study of clinical depression in adult women;and Lemma-Wright (1995) Alex: a case study ofchildhood trauma, shows that negative earlychildhood experiences can have a profound effect onlater mental health. [See links to 2000 AS syllabus &Psychodynamic approach.]

Psychoanalysis only works fro neurotic conditions,I.e., where the patient has some degree of insightabout their conditions, e.g., OCD, unipolardepression, not for psychotic conditions, where thepatient lacks any insight about their condition, e.g.,

schizophrenia. Concepts from the psychodynamic approach used in

psychoanalysis, such as the id, ego & superego, roleof unconscious & defence mechanisms etc., aredifficult to measure & investigate in a scientific way.

See also Axline (1964), Bachrach et al. (1991) &Cramer (1997) above.

It is retrospective, past memories may not beaccurate.


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Key issues: Do dreams have meaning? According to the psychodynamic approach dreams

are the royal road to the unconscious. Dreams are

often a reflection of our unconscious desires,anxieties etc., they are an expression of wishfulfilment.

The unconscious mind controls much of ourthinking & behaviour; the ego tries to control thedemands of the id through defence mechanisms,such as repression; however, through dreams ourunconscious desires can often be expressed.

However, even in our dreams our egos still work to

protect our conscious minds from the unconsciousmind: we dream in symbols.

Manifest content: the literal content of thedream, what happens in the dream.

Latent content: the underlying wishes containedin the dream, or the underlying meaning of thedream, which can be discovered by interpreting thesymbols used in the dream & reported in the

manifest content, e.g., trains going throughtunnels!

3 further processes can occur in dreams:displacement (object/person causingdistress/desire is replaced by another;condensation (several aspects of a situation arecombined or condensed into 1); secondaryelaboration (symbols used in dreams are madeinto a narrative).

This theory of dreaming can explain the recurringnature of many dreams; we keep thinking about

the same unresolved desires/anxieties. Dreams often do reflect our conscious worries &

desires, suggesting they relate to unconsciousdesires.

Solms (2000) shows that damage to the limbicsystem of the brain (linked to emotion & memoryprocesses) leads to the loss of 2 mental functions:dreaming & wishing. This seems to suggest that

dreams are somehow linked to wishes. However, there are alternative physiological

explanations for dreaming, e.g., activationsynthesis (Hobson & McCarley, 1978); ReverseLearning theory (Crick & Mitchison, 1983) [seelinks with 2000 AS syllabus-Physiologicalapproach & powerpoint presentations].

We often dream about desires & anxieties in a very

literal, non-symbolic way. Dreams are often completely random & bizarre.

The interpretation of dreams is very subjective, sointerpretations cannot be verified. Even Freudhimself famously wrote, sometimes a cigar is just acigar.


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Key issues: early childhood experiences & sexual

orientation The Oedipus complex suggests that in the

phallic stage a male & female children resolvetheir conflicts over expression of the libidowith the opposite sex parent by identifyingwith the same sex parent.

If the Oedipus complex is resolved whenchildren reach the genital stage & they becomesexual again after the latency stage, when theyare with other boys & girls their libidos will beexpressed through normal sexual orientation.

However, if the child becomes fixated in thephallic stage, i.e., for whatever reason theOedipul conflict is not successfully resolved,then later sexual orientation may not benormal.

Evidence for the Oedipus complex is very limited &based on subjective interpretation (Little Hans, 1909).

Evidence from single parent families does not showincreased rates of abnormal sexual orientation.

Malinwoski (1929) studied the Trobriand Islanders,where boys are raised by their uncles, not their fathers,

and the uncles are responsible for enforcing discipline.According to Freudian theory the boys should still gothrough the same Oedipul issues, I.e., resenting theirfathers because of they prevent them having unlimitedaccess to their mothers & fearing castration. However,the boys do have normal sexual orientation and seemto resent their uncles, suggesting the resentmentstems from being disciplined, not some unconsciouslibido issues.

LeVay suggests that brain structural differences mightaccount for differences in sexual orientation.

It is probably true to say sexual orientation is due to acomplex mix of biological, psychological & socialfactors.


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Key issues: False memory syndrome

Sometimes we use defencemechanisms to keep unpleasant &traumatic experiences in ourunconscious (repression/motivatedforgetting). This is a way of protectingour conscious selves from these

unpleasant memories. Sometimes these repressed memories

can be brought back to the surfacethrough therapy & sometimeshypnosis.

HOWEVER: Recounting things previouslyburied in our unconscious may actually be anexample of False memory syndrome.

EVALUATION: Through leading questions &subjective interpretation analysts might interpretthings a patient might be saying in a highlyinaccurate way, or may encourage them to thinkthings have happened to them when they have not.

Ethically, false memories are potentially v.damaging to theclient & others involved.

Hypnosis is notorious for confabulation, suggestibility &inaccuracy; where memories are elaborated on & mixedup.

Sometimes people make memory cue errors, where theyforget where they acquire information & think they musthave experienced it themselves, e.g., reading things in themedia & years later think they know the informationbecause they have experienced it directly.

Often people who have experienced horrific events intheir childhood can actually recall them when pushed,but simply chose not to think about these earlyexperiences.

Loftus showed that overhearing a story about childhoodcan lead to someone accepting the event featured in thestory as being real; false memories have been planted in

participants using experimental methods There is some research evidence which supports a

repression effect, e.g., participants given free associationtasks found it harder to recall the paired word if the cueword was an emotionally charged word. However, if askedto recall the paired word some days later they could,showing that it might be initial stress of thinking aboutthe emotionally charged word that causes poor memorynot repression.


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Key issues: prejudice & the appeal of horror films

One explanation of prejudice isAuthoritarian personality. Authoritariantraits include: political conservatism, rigidmorality, strong ethnocentric bias, dislikeof change, very traditional, conventionaloutlook. This explains prejudice asdisplaced resentment towards weaker,minority out-groups. Children with cold,unloving, domineering & strict parents maytake out or displace their resentment &

unexpressed anger towards their parents onweaker, more vulnerable groups: henceexplaining prejudice. It is argued thatpeople who score highly on measures ofauthoritarianism (have an authoritarianpersonality) tend to have the type of familybackground describe above.

One explanation for the appeal of horrorfilms is that watching them is a cathartic

experience, they reflect our unconsciousanxieties & fears & are a zeitgeist of thetime. We displace our anxieties onto thecharacters in the film and see our fearsbrought to the surface in the film, hencerelieving our anxieties in a safe way,through the film.

There is some research evidence to support thistheory, e.g., Adorno et al., (1950); and morerecent research suggesting that link betweenhigh authoritarian personality scores &prejudice towards out-groups & minoritygroups.

However, not all people who are prejudicedcome from the family backgrounds describedhere; also it cannot account for more generalised

prejudice in the same was that Social IdentityTheory can (see Social approach). Skal (1990) argues that certain film genres are

popular at certain times, reflecting theunconscious & conscious anxieties of the time.E.g., Phantom of the Opera The end of WWI &horrific injuries suffered by servicemen; 1950sAmerica UFO/alien invasion films reflectingfears of Cold WAR & communism; 1990s Fatal

Attraction Aids & dangers of stranger sex & 1night stands; 2000s environmental disaster films& films about random violence reflecting fearsabout global violence & global terrorism.

However, films with similar themes at anyparticular time could simply reflect thatproducers copy ideas that have been successfulbefore & films that are more topical are morelikely to be made.


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Research Methods/How Science Works & Practical:

Case Studies Case studies: Much ofFreuds theories is based on research gathered from case studies. Case studies are detailed studies of a unique individual, or small group of people who have had a unusual

experience or have unusual traits or qualities.

Case studies often involve a variety of techniques, e.g., clinical interviews, psychometric tests,questionnaires, observations, experiments & Case Histories (where qualitative data in the form of thestory of the individual being studied is gathered). NB., psychodynamic case studies typically involve:clinical interviews, Freudian/action slips, free/word association, dream & symbol analysis &

psychoanalysis (I.e., Little Hans). Triangulation is often a feature of case studies, where all the data from various research methods is

pooled to try & establish common themes & trends.

Case studies tend to gather a lot of qualitative data; Freuds case studies only gathered qualitative data.

To improve the interpretation & analysis of qualitative data and, therefore, its validity, triangulation isoften used. This is where qualitative data from different sources is gathered & analysed for commonthemes & trends.

Where common themes are found from different sources suggests reliability; if similar themes areconfirmed by different sources this also implies greater validity the themes identified are more likely tobe valid or a genuine, true reflection of the participant or behaviour being studied. If common themescan be shown to be valid & reliable through triangulation, this also suggests generalisability.

However, the nature of untriangulated qualitative data means that issues of interpretation & subjectivityoften negate the validity & reliability of such data, making it far less unscientific than quantitative datawhich can be more easily objectively & statistically analysed.


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Case Studies (Continued) Case studies are often the only means of

studying a rare event or person with aunique experience, I.e., researchers cannotdeliberately engineer scenarios onindividuals to see how they would react.

Case studies often generate a great deal ofqualitative, detailed data, so are arguablyhighly valid.

The data frequently comes directly from thepersons concerned & often in their naturalsurroundings again making the datagenerated more valid.

Psychodynamic Case Studies: they can beused to help the patient (analysand), as wella study them, e.g., Little Hans.

Freud developed specialmethods/techniques to access theunconscious & to gather data from patientsin complex situations with difficultpsychological issues.

Due to their unique nature, case studies cannot be

replicated which reduces their reliability. There is a large amount of subjective interpretation

involved because of the qualitative nature of thedata, affecting validity to some extent & reliability:different researchers may interpret the qualitativedata differently.

Also, as they are unique it is impossible to say if

other individuals in the same situation wouldbehave in the same way, i.e., they cannot begeneralised.

Objectivity may be undermined because theresearcher often spends a lot of time with the subjectof the case study.

Psychodynamic Case Studies: The analyst has to do a

lot of interpretation (e.g., dream & symbol analysis)& this interpretation could be highly subjective, notscientific.

Concepts used in psychodynamic case studies, suchas the unconsciousness & defence mechanisms etc.cannot be tested in a rigorous scientific manner.


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Case Studies & Ethics:

Confidentiality & privacy are particularly relevant with regard to casestudies. (Personal details should only be used with permission;pseudonyms should be used to protect anonymity.)

Masson (1989) has made specific criticisms of Freudian case studies. The interpretation of the psychoanalyst, because of their perceived expert

power & salience in the patients life, can push the patient towards certainvalues & goals that may not be their own: so the psychoanalysis may haveundue control, power & influence over the patient. (NB., respect forpatients autonomy?)

There appears to be a strong gender bias in Freuds work, e.g., boys arefocused on far more than girls: girls have weaker identification with thesame sex parent & so have weaker moral development according to

Freud. (NB., respect for all individuals, treating everyone with equalrespect.)

There is arguably an overemphasis on sexual matters, which is not only acredibility issue (it stretches the credibility ofFreuds theories); it is also anissue with regard to transference, where the patient may transfer feelingsof a sexual nature, or resentment etc., onto the analyst. This too can be

ethically sensitive.


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Correlational Designs Correlation studies are studies where there is no IV & DV 2 variables are measured against each other,

e.g., how extrovert you are & what type of social life you have (clearly you would have to operationalise thevariables carefully in order to measure & compare them).

It is not suggested that 1 variable causes the other, cause & effect relationships cannot be inferred,simply that the variables are related. There is a relationship between the 2 variables but it cannot beinferred that 1 variable causes the other.

Correlation studies often rely on self-report data, using rating scales. Ratings scales generate ordinal data(see later slides).

Correlation studies are notrepeated measures, matched pairs, or independent measures designs(see Social & Cognitive sections); they involve the same participant providing data for the two variablesbeing measured, e.g., personality type & type of social life.

Correlation designs are used to help establish if there are relationships between variables that might meritfurther investigation.

There are 2 types of correlation (or relationship): positive & negative. A positive correlation is where when 1 variables rises so does the other; e.g., as IQ rises so does income; the

longer psychoanalysis takes place, the better the outcome for the patient (Bachrach et al., 1991): of coursethis does not mean that psychoanalysis is necessarily the cause of the better outcome, time might be thekey factor not the psychoanalysis itself spontaneous recovery over time is a feature of some clinicalconditions (e.g., clinical depression).

A negative correlation is where as 1 variable rises, the other falls; e.g., as IQ rises the likelihood of suffering

from a mental disorder falls. A perfect correlation gives a score of : a score 0.87 would be close to 1 so indicates a v.strong correlation or

relationship. One to establish the level of correlation is to gather the data for the 2 variables beingcompared & out them into rank order, highest to lowest. If the highest scores for 1 variable match with thehighest scores for the other variable it is positive correlation; if the high scores for one variable match thelowest scores for the other, it is negative correlation. A scattergraph is used to represent correlationsgraphically.

To establish if the level of correlation is statistically significant an inferential statistical will be used: forthis course it will be Spearmans Rank or Spearmans RHO at a level of significance of p


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Correlation Designs (Continued) In many cases there is little

manipulation of variables, with variablesoften occurring naturally because thevariables being measured are of existingsituations. This means research is less

contrived & fewer controls are needed,making the research more valid &realistic.

Correlations can show relationshipsbetween variables that might not beexpected, therefore, highlighting an are

of research that might not otherwise beexplored.

Correlations simply show relationshipsbetween variables, not cause & effect.Scientific knowledge is usually based onnotions of causal connections. Whereasit might be useful to know if

relationships exist, it is much moreuseful to know the causes behind theserelationships.

There are still some validity issues withcorrelation studies; usually at least oneof the variables being measured has to

be operationalised, e.g., personality orIQ. How these variables areoperationalised is often quite artificial &contrived & so less valid.


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Longitudinal & Cross-sectional studies Longitudinal studies: these follow the same group of participants

over a long period of time, weeks, months or even years, employing avariety of methods to study these individuals, e.g., experiments,surveys & observations. Child of our Time on BBC1 is a good example

of a longitudinal study.

Cross-sectional studies: these are often regarded as the opposite oflongitudinal studies. The are measures taken at one moment in timeinstead of over a prolonged period. A cross-section of the targetpopulation is studied, as opposed to the same group of participants,

hence more than one group of participants is studied. For example, ifChild of our Time was a cross-sectional study, instead of waiting every2-3 years to study the same group of children, infants, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,14 year olds etc. would be studied at the same time.


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Longitudinal Studies

There are very useful for studying thedevelopmental trends in children, or theeffects of particular variables over time,e.g., media violence.

As they use the same participants iteliminates participant variables(variables between the participantstaking part) so reducing bias.

It also means the participants, as they arethe same group will have similarexperiences and cultural/social

influences, e.g., Child of our Time allthe children are living in & going toschool in the UK being influenced bysimilar social & cultural phenomena(excluding social class & ethnicity).

As the research takes place over aprolonged period it is very expensive &time consuming & full conclusions canbe a long time in coming.

As the research takes place over a longtime participants may drop out, reducingthe sample size & making it lessrepresentative & reliable.

The researchers themselves may moveon & new researchers may have adifferent relationship with the

participants, possibly affecting theresults.


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Cross-sectional studies

Results & conclusions are muchquicker in arriving, which has lots ofpractical benefits, e.g., making thestudy cheaper & easier to carry out.

There are arguably more ethical

because research measures are onlybeing imposed on the participantsonce, rather than over a sustainedperiod.

As the research takes place only once,drop rates will be low so reliability &generalisability should remain high.

As different participants are used participant variablescan affect results. E.g., in Child of our Time if differentage ranges were to be studied at the same time, howthings are taught, what is taught, parenting styles, socialattitudes towards children etc., might all be factorsaffecting development which could differ between the

age ranges, especially the greater the age ranges, e.g.,between children raised in the 1970s/80s & childrenraised in the late 1990s, 2000s. All these things couldaffect their language skills & psychology development.

It is generally harder to control & eliminate confoundingvariables between 2 or more groups of participants thanit is if studying the same group of participants over time,

e.g., if studying the same group of individuals it wouldbe easier to control for social class & leisure intereststhan if studying 2 different groups at the same time, I.e.,being working class in the 1970s might be quite adifferent experience to being working class now,similarly with leisure interests.


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Types of Data: nominal, ordinal, interval &

ratio

The type of data used in research determines the type of inferential statistical used toestablish statistical significance.

Nominal: The simplest form of data. Information, or data, is simply placed into categories& you simply count how many participants fall into each category, e.g., how many males &females; how many have passed their driving test or not; are aged 20-24, 25-30, 31-35 etc.,held open a door for a stranger, did not, stopped at zebra crossing, did not etc.,

Ordinal: this is where data is put into order, e.g., 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc., Likert scales are examplesof ordinal data, e.g., how do you rate the 6th form? very good, Good, Average, Poor, verypoor. Ordinal data can be used to put things into rank order, e.g., exam results or rating of ahotel or restaurant. V.good, or A* would clearly be 1st, good or A 2nd, average or B 3rd etc.However, putting things into rank order does not tell you what the intervals are betweencategories, I.e., they are not necessarily the same. E.g., good is better than poor but is thegap between V.good & Good the same as the gap between Poor & Verypoor?

Interval: This is data that is measured on a scale which has precise & equal intervals, e.g.,temperature; knowing that today was 27c & yesterday was 24c is more accurate & precisethan knowing that today was very warm & yesterday was warm, or that today was hotter thanyesterday. Interval data conveys much more information than ordinal data.

Ratio: This is information that has all the characteristics of interval data, plus it has a true 0point (unlike temperature where it can be 6c etc.). There are no negative values with ratiodata, e.g., something cannot weigh 6grams.


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Research Methods/How Science Works &

Practical: The Practical NB., you need to sampling methods for unit 2 as well as unit 1 (see Social Approach).

A study from the psychodynamic approach must be some form of correlation, using variablesrelated to this approach & using the Spearman RHO statistical test to test for significance; datamust therefore be ordinal and generated through self-report methods, e.g., questionnaires,interviews, likert scales.

Perhaps you could compare commitment to goals or high self-esteem with lower anxiety & use ofdefence mechanisms; or individual characteristics associated with anality, e.g., lack of generosity(careful, parsimony), orderliness & political views/attitudes (e.g., how traditional or right wing); anal;traits & parental strictness/permissiveness; dreams/symbols in dreams & unconsciousnesswishes/anxieties (a dream diary will have to be carried out).

NB., you must ensure that the research follows BPS ethical guidelines. You should avoid topics &questions that may be embarrassing, stressful or potentially distressing.

To generate useful statistical information a sample of at least 20 participants is needed. Consider relevant background research to help you establish your aims & hypothesis.

Operationalise your variables; e.g., how are you going to operationalise/measure self-esteem(maybe a scale relating to anxiety), or sense of commitment/purpose?

Pilot your questions first to ensure that you have operationalised your variables effectively


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Research Methods/How Science Works & Practical:

The Practical Writing up the practical:

Abstract: brief summary of whole study, including results & conclusion.

Introduction: background research relevant to your study.

Rationale, Aims & Hypothesis: reason for conducting the study, relating to introduction& background research, what the study is going to do, what you expect to find & aims &

hypothesis. Method: the study design, participant details, sampling method, apparatus, procedure,

controls - what was actually done.

Results: summary tables, rank order, scattergraph, results of inferential statisticaltests/Spearman RHO test. Is hypothesis supported or not?

Conclusion: what the results mean, your interpretation of results, is the background

research supported or not? Was the study sufficiently valid, reliable, credible &generalisable?

References: details of other studies cited in your research to ensure no plagiarism.

Appendices: all the other information necessary to complete your study, e.g., raw data,examples of questionnaires used, questions asked, standardised instructions, debriefingnotes, letters sent to ask permission where necessary etc.


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The Practical Correlation 2 self-rating questionnaires.

Is there a relationship between parenting style &personality traits.

The more authoritarian (strict) the parenting, themore anally retentive the adult

Anally retentive personality traits: frugal (2), tidy (2),smart appearance(2), punctual (1), careful (1)

Authoritarian traits of parents: strict (2),uncompromising (2), thorough (1), conscientious (1),traditional (1)


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The Practical contd Tick from each questionnaire the 4 which apply to you

& your parents:

Anally retentive: frugal, intelligent, messy, tidy,organised, attractive, punctual, happy, smartappearance, boring, generous, successful.

Authoritarian (strict) parents: relaxed, permissive,

uncompromising, conscientious, traditional, kind,strict, thorough, interested, successful, generous.

Alternatively, replication of Cramer (1997) study:Identity, personality & defence mechanisms

as psycho dynamic approach 09

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