ASEAN/SF/89/Tech. 11

ASEAN/SF/89/Tech. 11 December 1989BIVALVE FARMING: AN ALTERNATIVE ECONOMIC

ACTIVITY FOR SMALL-SCALE COASTAL FISHERMEN IN THE ASEAN REGION

by Medina N. Delmendo

ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project Manila, Philippines

1989

NOTICE OF COPYRIGHT The copyright in this publication is vested in the Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations. This publication may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, by any method of process, without written permission from the copyright holder. Applications for such permission with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction desired, should be made through and addressed to the Project Coordinator, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, P. O. Box 1184, Makati Post Office, Makati, Metro Manila or 3rd Floor, Arcadia Building, 860 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines.

ASEAN/UNDP/FAO REGIONAL SMALL-SCALE COASTAL

FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT PROJECT POSTAL: P. O. BOX 1184, MAKATI

POST OFFICE CABLE: FOODAGRI MANILA STREET: 3RD FLOOR, ARCADIA

BUILDING ADDRESS: MAKATI, METRO MANILA

— 1299 PHILIPPINES TELEX: PHONE:

64111 FAO PN 973617

ADDRESS: 860 QUEZON AVENUE, QUEZON CITY METRO MANILA, PHILIPPINES

Ref: 19 September 1990

Dear Ms Gribling,

We are sending herewith the following fisheries reports missing from your library collection as per your Transmittal Slip to Mrs. Medina N. Delmendo, Project Coordinator, RAS/84/016 dated 5 Deptember 1990.

2 copies each of the following:

Project Progress Reports - ASEAN/SF/PR- 1 2 3 Technical reports contributed to symposia/meetings, etc.- ASEAN/S'F/Tech- 4 5 6 7 8 9

The following reports are not yet ready for distribution. We will send you copies as soon as they are available:

ASEAN/SF/GEN/9, 10, 11,12, 13, & 15

ASEAN/SF/TECH/11, 12 onward

ASEAN/SF/WP/7

I would like to take this opportunity to request the following FAO fisheries reports for our project library if already available for distribution:

FAO Fisheries Tech, Pap, series, 308, 309, 310, 311, 313 onward

FAO Fisheries Circ. 820, 821, 822, 823, 825 onward.

We welcome your donations of other fisheries materials (duplicates) for our project library. Thank you very much.

Yours sincerely,

Paulina T. Zabala Library Asst./Secretary

Armand Gribling Fisheries Library FAO, Rome

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. MOLLUSC FARMING AREAS IN THE PHILIPPINES 5 3. FARMING METHODS 7 3.1 Oyster culture 7 3.1.1 Broadcast method 7 3.1.2 Stake method 7 3.1.3 Hanging method 7 3.1.4 Longline method 8 3.1.5 Lattice-tray method 8 3.2 Mussel culture 8 3.2.1 Stake method 8 3.2.2 Hanging method. 8 3.2.3 Rope-web method 8 3.2.4 Raft method 9 4. POTENTIALS FOR IMPROVEMENT AND FURTHER DEVELOPMENT 10 4.1 Shifting of farming sites to deeper waters 10 4.2 Improving farming management techniques 10 4.2.1 Spat collection 12 4.2.2 Hardening 16 4.2.3 Hanging of spats for growout 16 4.2.4 Fattening 17 5. ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF OYSTER AND MUSSEL FARMING 17 6. POTENTIALS FOR EXPANSION OF OYSTER/ MUSSEL FARMING FOR

SMALL-SCALE FISHERMEN 18 7. RATIONALE FOR EXPANSION 24 8. ACTIONS NEEDED 24 9. DEPURATION OF MOLLUSCS , 24 10.

MOLLUSCS FARMING DEVELOPMENT PLANS IN OTHER ASEAN COUNTRIES 27

10.1 Indonesia 27 10.2 Thailand 28 10.3 Malaysia 30 10.4 Singapore 30 10.5 Brunei 31 11. CONCLUSIONS 31 REFERENCES 32 APPENDICES Appendix 1 - Prospectus for a one-half hectare oyster farm using hanging

method (Philippines) 35 Appendix 2 - A prospectus of 1 000 m2 mussel farm using stake method

(Philippines) 37 Appendix 3 - Presidential Decree No. 23/1982 regarding seafarming

development in Indonesia waters, President of Republic of Indonesia 43

BIVALVE FARMING: AN ALTERNATIVE ECONOMIC ACTIVITY FOR SMALL-SCALE COASTAL FISHERMEN IN THE ASEAN REGION

by

Medina N. Delmendo1

1. INTRODUCTION Most countries in the ASEAN

region are faced with the problem of uplifting the socio-economic conditions of small-scale coastal fishermen. This problem has become more serious as a result of dwindling catches from coastal fisheries resources. The rapid population growth in coastal communities has all the more exerted increasing pressure on the productivity of these resources as fishing effort from the artisanal fishing sector has been increasing.

A strategy which some developing countries could undertake to find alternative economic activities for small-scale fisher-men would be in bivalve farming such as oysters and mussels. These molluscs are easy to farm; they are nutritious food items and with proper management and direction of bivalve farming development programmes, the product could be a source of foreign exchange.

The world mollusc production amounted to 4.4 million metric tons in 1985 of which about 2.9 million MT or 65.6 percent were produced from aquaculture (Figure 1). Asia contributed about 72.5 percent of the total while the rest came from Europe, North America, Oceania, South America and Africa (Figure 2). Of the total aquaculture production in Asia, molluscs contribute 20 percent (Figure 3). The major mollusc-pro-ducing countries in the ASEAN region are Japan, Korea and China (Table 1).

Among the ASEAN countries, the Philippines is the major mollusc producer where the growth rate over a 4-year period was 131.6 percent (1980–1984). Oysters made up 55 percent of the country's total mollusc production. Malaysia devotes mainly to cockle farming while Thailand produces more mussels than oysters. Singapore was highly successful in mussel farming but the price and marketability of the product was not that good to encourage fishermen to expand farming operations.

Figure 1. World mollusc landings from capture

and culture fisheries in 1985 (Source: Lovatelli, 1989)

Figure 2. Mollusc aquaculture production by

continent in 1985 (Source: Lovatelli, 1989)

Figure 3. Aquaculture production in Asia in

1985 of the major resource groups (Source: Lovatelli, 1989)

Among the species of bivalves cultured and harvested from the wild in the region include the oysters, cockles and mussels. Of the species of oysters belonging to Ostreidae, the Crassostrea and Saccrostrea predominate. Oysters of commercial importance belonging to Crassostrea include C. rivularis, C. gigas and C. plicatula, which are widely cultured in Japan, Republic of Korea and China. The subtropical and tropical species of oysters include C. belcheri, C. echinata, C. eredalei, C. lugubris, C. madrasensis, Saccrostrea cucullata and Ostrea folium.

Oysters are very nutritious. It also contains a high level of glycogen which makes an excellent source of energy that reduces the work load of the pancreas of the human body. Complex sugars in the bloodstream must be broken down into glycogen by enzymes which the pancreas secretes before these are stored in the liver. Glycogen pro-vided from oysters will reduce the work load of the pancreas (Yamaha Fishery Journal No. 28, 1989). The nutritional content per 100 g portion of oyster compared to other food items is in Table 2.

Oysters are a gourmet and luxury food in developed countries. On the other hand, in developing countries such as the Philippines, it is a cheap food but increased demand for local consumption is constrained by poor quality due to the fact that oyster farms are located in shallow coastal areas contaminated with domestic wastes. As

such, the consuming public is wary of eating oysters too often. The Philippines cannot meet the export quality standards required by importing countries for this reason. Oyster and mussel farming is already a viable economic activity in the country despite very traditional techniques used in general.

Table 1. Total production of molluscs

Unit: 1 000 metric tons Annual values Average annual growth

rate (%) Country/region 1975 1981 1982 1983 1984 1975–84 1980–84Australia 9.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 -1.6 -0.0 China 248.9 301.6 343.4 309.1 372.6 -8.0 7.8 Hong Kong (U.K.) 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 -5.8 -18.8 India 0.1 1.8 1.8 4.0 4.0 81.4 27.1 Japan 278.0 302.0 335.2 347.1 341.7 4.4 3.5 Korea, Republic of 189.5 317.8 281.0 289.4 282.8 5.7 -0.9 Malaysia 53.5 121.3 121.3 49.4 49.4 -8.5 -23.6 Philippines - 12.8 25.3 29.8 34.9 131.6 131.6 Taiwan (Province of China) 30.9 44.7 46.2 53.7 59.2 13.1 11.2 Thailand 23.0 53.7 23.9 29.8 29.8 -2.7 -14.4 New Zealand 0.9 5.0 5.0 7.1 7.1 38.4 11.1 Asia-Pacific Total 834.1 1 169.1 1 191.5 1 127.7 1 189.8 5.7 1.7 Rest of world 554.1 659.1 World 1 388.2 1 786.8 Source: Csavas, 1985

Table 2. Comparison of nutritional contents (per 100 g portion) Minerals (mg) Vitamins

Food Energy Protein Fat Sugar Calcium Iron A B1 B2 C (Kcal) (g) (g) (g) (IU) (mg) (mg) (mg)

Oyster raw 78 9.7 1.8 5.0 55 3.6 55 0.16 0.32 4 Eggs 162 12.3 11.2 0.9 55 1.8 640 0.08 0.48 0 Milk 59 2.9 3.2 4.5 100 0.1 110 0.03 0.15 Ø Source: Revised Standard Nutritional Contents List of Japanese Foodstuffs

The Philippines ranked 8th among the top 10 oyster producers in the world while Thailand ranked 12th. The major oyster producers are the United States, Japan, Korea and France as shown in Table 3 (Chew, 1989).

Table 3. Oyster production for several lead countries (total

worldwide market = 1 101 000 metric tons, 1985)

Country Production × 1 000 mt

World market (%)

United States 260.4 23.6 Korea 254.5 23.1 Japan 251.2 22.8 France 139.8 12.7 China 45.0* 4.1* Mexico 42.7 3.9 Taiwan 25.5 2.3 Phillipines 15.5 1.4 New Zealand 10.8 0.9 Australia 7.9 0.7 Canada 4.7 0.4 Thailand 4.5 0.4 * Estimated

Source: Chew, K., 1989

The green mussel Perna viridis is cultured in the ASEAN region, particularly in Thailand, Singapore and

Philippines. Thailand ranked 7th and the Philippines 8th in the world production of mussels (Table 4).

Table 4. Mussel production for several lead countries (total

worldwide market = 713 000 metric tons, 1985)

Country Production × 1 000 mt

World market (%)

Netherlands 116.2 16.3 Spain 103.2 14.5 China 101.0 14.2 Denmark 74.7 10.5 France 54.9 7.7 Korea 54.4 7.7 Thailand 49.5 6.9 Philippines 26.2 3.7 West Germany 20.8 2.9 Chile 17.0 2.4 United States 15.7 2.2 Italy 10.9 1.5 Source: Chew, K., 1989

For the mussel producers in Asian and Oceania region, the estimate shares of two ASEAN countries in the production of mussels, despite the extensive methods employed is quite substantial as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Approximate share of mussel

production for major producing countries of Asia and Oceania (Source: Chew, 1989)

Cockles, clams and arkshells are other bivalves which are widely cultured in the ASEAN region. The most common species of cockles are Anadara granosa and Arca. Thailand,

Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines are among the lead producers of these bivalves, particularly the cockles (Figure 5 and Table 5).

Figure 5. Approximate share of clam, cockle

and arkshell production for major producing countries of Asia (Source: Chew, 1989)

Table 5. Catches of combined clams, cockles and arkshells for several lead countries in Asia (In Thousand of metric tons, 1975 to 1985)

Country 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 China 225.3 288.8 217.6 269.2 367.4 473.0 Japan 233.8 288.1 264.2 152.4 241.3 277.6 Korea 86.0 92.9 81.9 105.0 97.6 147.3 Thailand 20.7 34.1 21.8 85.6 48.4 54.0 Indonesia 2.5 34.0 34.7 39.5 45.8 53.5 Malaysia 29.2 46.4 63.4 68.9 42.4 46.8 Taiwan 17.0 21.6 20.0 23.6 27.5 30.0 Philippines 2.9 3.0 4.2 3.7 4.7 2.3 Species: China Bivalvia Japan Anadara subcrenata, Mactra sachalinensis, Meretrix lusoria and Venerupis

japonica Korea Arca spp, Anadara granosa, Cardiidae, Mactra sachalinensis, Meretrix

lusoria and Venerupis japonica Thailand Anadara granosa and Paphia spp Indonesia Anadara spp and Meretrix spp Malaysia Anadara granosa and Paphia spp Taiwan Anadara spp, Corbicula spp and Meretrix spp Philippines Anadara spp and Paphia spp Source: Chew, K., 1989

While molluscs, particularly oysters, cockles and mussels are easy to farm compared to finfish and shrimps, their cultivation techniques have not improved much from traditional methods in the developing countries. Mollusc culture is not capitalintensive; the species use natural food and does not pollute the environment. All molluscs seeds are obtained from natural grounds. 1 Project Coordinator, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 3rd Floor, Arcadia Building, 860 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines

2. MOLLUSC FARMING AREAS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Oysters and mussels are the most common molluscs farmed in the country. Oyster farms are located in 17 provinces of the Philippines with major production areas in Cavite and Bulacan provinces which border Manila Bay; Pangasinan in northern Luzon,

bordering Lingayen Gulf; Sorsogon in southern Luzon; Capiz and Negros Occidental in the Visayan region. Figure 6 shows the areas where natural populations of oysters are present, existing farming areas and location of potential oyster farming sites. Oyster farming was started in Cavite in 1935 through government demonstration work. After World War II this was reactivated.

Mussel farming is a more recent practice compared to oyster farming. Its expansion took place in the early 1960s. The improved culture method known as the “rope-web” system was developed only in 1974 in Sapian Bay, Capiz. Mussel farming areas are located in Bacoor, Cavite along Manila Bay where there are about 134 farms; Sapian Bay, Capiz approximately 300 farms and Maqueda Bay in Samar, where there are about 250 farms. Figure 7 shows the location of natural mussel grounds, farming areas and potential sites for development of mussel farming.

1. Buguey, Cagayan (NG, FA) 2. Ilocos Norte (NG, FA) 3. Ilocos Sur (NG, FA) 4. Aringay and Sto. Tomas, La

Union (NG, FA) 5. Lingayen Gulf and Tambac

Bay (NG, FA) 6. Agno River, (Manat, Binmaley

Pangasinan and Davel, Dagupan City (NG, FA)

7. Binuangan and Malolos, Bulacan (NG, FA)

8. Abucay and Mariveles, Bataan (FA, NG, PS.)

9. Cavite (Bacoor and Ternate Bays) (NG, FA).

10. Balayan Bay, Batangas (NG, FA) FA)

11. Batangas Bay (NG, 12. Tayabas Bay (PS) 13. Makato, Aklan (PS) 14. Sapi-an Bay, Capiz (NG, FA)

A) 15. Banate Bay, Iloilo (NG, FA) 16. Bacolod (Port of Banago) (NG,

FA) 17. Binalbagan and Hinigaran

Negros Occidental (NG, FA) 18. Himamaylan, Negros

Occidental (NG, PS) 19. Panguil Bay, Misamis

Occidental (PS) 20. Luuk, Bongao Cave, Sacol

Island Zamboanga del Sur (PS)

21. Atoll Lagoon, Sta. Cruz Zamboanga del Norte (PS)

22. Malalag Bay, Davao City (NG. FA)

23. Del Carmen Dapa, Surigao del Norte (PS)

24. Calape, Bohol (NG, FA) 25. Cebu (NG, FA, PS) 26. Leyte (PS) 27. Maqueda Bay and Jiabong

Samar (PS, NG) PS) 28. Catbalogan, Samar (PS) 29. Sorsogon (NG, FA) 30. Calauag Bay, Quezon (PS) 31. Alabat Island, Quezon (PS) 32. Polilio Island, Quezon (PS)

Figure 6. Natural oyster grounds, farming areas and potential sites in the Philippines (From: SCS/82/WP/103)

The Philippines has an even temperature which is ideal for year round farming of oysters and mussels. Vast areas with satisfactory salinity, current and phytoplankton are available. Areas which do not have natural stocks

of these molluscs could be used as transplantation of seeds from natural grounds to set up a spawning stock to provide natural setting and future self-sustaining population.

1. Masinloc, Zambales (NG, FA) 2. Binuangan, Obando, Bulacan

(NG, FA) 3. Bacoor and Binakayan Cavite

(NG, FA) 4. Tayabas Bay, Quezon (FA,

PS) 5. Aklan (PS) 6. Sapian Bay, Capiz (NG, FA) 7. Banate Bay, Iloilo (NG, FA) 8. Bacolod City (NG, FA) 9. Binalbagan and Hinigaran

Negros Occidental (NG, FA) 10. Himamaylan, Negros

Occidental (NG, FA) 11. Bohol (PS) 12. Babatngon, Leyte (PS) 13. Maqueda Bay, Samar (NG,

FA, PS) 14. Catbalogan, Samar (FA) 15. Sorsogon Bay, Sorsogon

(PS)

Figure 7. Natural green mussel grounds, farming areas and potential farming sites in the Philippines (From: SCS/82/WP/103)

3. FARMING METHODS 3.1 Oyster culture The farming methods of oyster

are still generally traditional using the stake, hanging, longline; broadcast methods and lattice-tray method.

3.1.1 Broadcast method The broadcasting technique is

the most primitive wherein empty shells are scattered on the oyster bed. Oyster spats settle on these shells and harvested by diving or hand-picking at

low tides. This method can only be used in very shallow areas with firm bottom which are generally exposed at low tides.

3.1.2 Stake method The stake method is usually

practiced in soft, muddy and shallow beds, usually not more than 1 m deep. Bamboo stakes are simply stuck in the oyster bed which serve as spat settlement (Figure 8). The stakes are usually as high as the prevailing. tide level in the area.

Figure 8. Oyster farming by stake

method (PCARRD, 1983) This method is better than the

broadcast method in that the growth of oysters is faster and mortality of spats on settlement to the stakes is reduced. However, they are more prone to predation by crabs, star-fishes and shell borers. Bamboo as stake material is costly; it does not also collect as much spats as the oyster shells.

Both the broadcast and stake methods do not transplant spats after settlement They are left to grow where they have settled. This is not so in the hanging method. Some-times when the spat settlement is dense, the strings of cultches are moved farther apart to avoid too much congestion. Smaller oysters are also left behind during harvest for further growth.

3.1.3 Hanging method This uses strings of empty shells

as cultch collectors. Strings made of nylon or polyethylene twine are provided with spacers or knots of 10 cm interval at which the empty shells are held. The length of the string depends on the location of the oyster plot. In most cases these are located in an inter-tidal zone along the coastline with depths of 1–2 m. These strings are hung or fastened to bamboo or wooden framework (Figures 9a and 9b) at 25–30 cm apart. The advantages of the hanging method are that the productivity is higher; the

oysters grow with thinner shells and high quality meat; harvesting is easier; there is less mortality due to predators. However, the cost of production is higher. This method can be applied in places where natural populations do not exist but favourable for growth of oysters or mussels.

Figure 9a. Bamboo plot for hanging

oyster string-collectors

Figure 9b. Harvesting oysters by

untying hanging collectors (PCARRD, 1983)

3.1.4 Longline method Four parallel lines of about 20 m

long and 20 cm apart are strung between two bamboo or wooden posts. Strings of threaded oyster shells held every 12–15 cm apart by small plastic or bamboo tubes are hung on the line. This

is actually a modification of the hanging method but the framework where the threaded strings of oyster cultches are hung is made of rope or polyethylene twine.

3.1.5 Lattice-tray method Bamboo splits are woven into a

lattice and tied with galvanized wire, nylon or polyethylene twine. The splits are spaced 15–30 cm apart. The lattice can be positioned like a tray horizontally or vertically. They can be installed in a triangular position supported by bamboo or wooden support.

In Malaysia, instead of using bamboo lattice trays, wire mesh trays supported with wooden frames are used. These are held on wooden stands or racks which are installed in tidal flats.

All these methods are applied in intertidal zones along shallow coastal areas which become exposed at low tides. Usually they are close to residences of small fishermen and populated localities like Binakayan and Bacoor towns in Cavite province; Binmaley and Dagupan in Pangasinan province. These are major oyster producing areas but domestic waste loading of nearby waters is quite high due to dense population and lack of sewerage treatment systems.

3.2 Mussel culture 3.2.1 Stake method Mussel farming techniques also

employ the stake method as in oyster farming. Bamboo stakes or mangrove trunk and palm tree trunks are used. As much as 5 000 stakes could be stuck on a mussel bed with an area of 0.25 ha. About 2.5–15.0 kg/stake could be produced by this method.

A modified stake method called the wigwam method is also used. About 7–10 stakes or poles are stuck to the mud bottom in a 2 m radius from a central pole. The upper ends of the

poles are tied to the center to form a wigwam. This is used in deeper water areas with stronger water movement. The poles serve as spat collectors but no thinning nor transplantation of spats is made.

3.2.2 Hanging method The same principle of hanging

method in oyster farming is also used for mussel. However, coconut husks are used as cultch collectors besides empty oyster shells. This method is applied in deeper water areas as the mussels do not need exposure like the oysters.

3.2.3 Rope-web method This method was introduced in

Sapian Bay, Capiz. A unit of rope-web consists of a parallel pair of ropes measuring 5 m, positioned at 2 m apart, connected in a zigzag pattern at 40 cm intervals between knots along each parallel rope (Figure 10). Bamboo pegs of 20 cm long and 1 cm in width are inserted in each zigzag rope spaced at 40 cm between pegs. This prevent the oyster clusters from sliding down the rope as they grow bigger and heavier. The distance between posts is 5 m; the rope-web is stretched 3 m apart along the rows. Rope-webs are installed parallel with the water current and positioned 2 m deep at low tide. These are untied at harvest and reused for subsequent cropping cycles. The rope-web method can produce up to 300 t/ha/yr if the spatfall is heavy; on the average, 200 t/ha/yr is produced (shell on) (Young and Serna, 1982).

Figure 10. Diagrammatic drawing of a

rope-web tied to bamboo poles (PCARRD, 1983)

3.2.4 Raft method A raft may be made of bamboo

or wooden pontoons with cross beams buoyed up by empty metal or plastic drums, old car tires blown with

styrofoam or ferroconcrete buoys (Figure 11). Rafts are installed parallel to the flow of tide.

A unit of raft may be 6 m × 8 m or 8 × 5 m. Collector or growout ropes are hung on the raft. Collector ropes are shorter than grow-out ropes. Both are provided with weights to prevent them from floating. Collector ropes are hung at about 0.5 m apart while the growout ropes at 1 m apart. Abaca rope or polycoco ropes are used as growout ropes. They are provided with bamboo pegs of 25 mm long × 1.5 cm wide which are inserted into the lay of the rope at 30 cm interval. These pegs prevent the growing mussels from slipping. A one-meter rope can hold 5–15 kg of mussels. Growout ropes could be as long as 4 m long depending on the depth of the mussel farm.

Figure 11. Construction detail of a mussel raft using

bamboo framework and floats (Source: Yap, W.G., el. al., 1979)

In Singapore, spat collector ropes are hung at 8 ropes/m2 which are spread out to 4 ropes/ m2 for growout. At this density the level of production attained ranged from 100 to 160 kg/m2 every six months (Cheong, 1982).

4. POTENTIALS FOR IMPROVEMENT AND FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

Comparing the practices and farming methods used in the Philippines and other developing countries in the ASEAN region with those found in Japan or the Republic of Korea, it is readily seen that there is great potential for improvement and development. This could be accomplished by undertaking certain changes.

4.1 Shifting of farming sites to deeper waters

In general, oyster and mussel farms are located in very shallow coastal waters with in 1–2 meters depth. These are often within paddling distance from the shoreline.

In Japan, oyster farming evolved from these stages: (a) traditional stone-spreading technique; (b) standing-pole culture; (c) standing pole followed by bottom spreading; (d) standing fence culture; (e) simple hanging type; (f) raft-type hanging; and (g) longline hanging type. The hanging type is employed in waters from 5 to more than 10 m deep. The simple hang-ing technique was the

basis for the large-scale oyster farming development in Japan.

Although the hanging method is used in the Philippines, the farm sites are still limited to very shallow tidal areas.

The advantages gained in using deeper waters are:

a. Growth and fattening characteristics of the oysters are improved.

b. The three-dimensional use of the surface water is effected, hence, less area is required for an equivalent amount of production.

c. Culture operation could be conducted regardless of sea bed quality.

d. Unused deeper water areas could be used for culture purposes.

e. Work could be performed regardless of tide condition.

f. Predator organisms are avoided.

It will be noted that the Japanese oyster farming had shifted from the shallow tidal oyster farm sites to the deeper water areas as illustrated in Figure 12.

4.2 Improving farming management techniques

Farming management techniques have to take into account the growth pattern of the oyster since it remains stationary for the rest of its life. It therefore cannot search for a better

environment. The farmer, there-fore, has to move the oysters to grounds which can provide the best conditions possible to meet its biological and physiological requirements at each stage of growth period. A good choice of farm sites, timing and combination of their uses spells the difference in oyster farming management.

Water temperature and salinity are the most important growth factors governing the life of the oyster. In temperate countries like Japan and Korea, the most productive period for spawning of oysters is during summer (June–August) when temperature increases to 24°C–25°C. Egg release and fertilization are triggered by a rapid rise in temperature or a sudden decline in salinity.

In the Philippines and other ASEAN countries, water temperature is ideal all year round and oysters become marketable within 4–6 months. Rainfall, although seasonal, is adequate to maintain the flow of streams and rivers to provide suitable salinity levels for growth as well as for spawning. Reproduction of oysters is found excellent in many areas of the country. Setting continuous throughout the year with peaks during March–May and September–November. This situation makes it possible to collect spats at least twice a year. A system of spat collection should be developed other than what is traditionally practiced to insure a year round production and supply of oysters or mussels.

Figure 12. Diagram of the historical development of oyster

farming in japan (Source: Yamaha Fishery Journal No. 28, Jan. 1989)

From the experience of Japan, oyster farming also started in very traditional practices which dates back about 400 years ago. Shallow tidal areas were also used until they found out that oyster larvae could also be collected in deeper waters. From the simple hanging method, the large-scale hanging type developed (Figure 13).

Spat collection is used to be done in shallow tidal areas. However, in Japan, spats are being collected offshore since the 1960s. This practice was influenced by the loss of natural shallow tidal spawning grounds as a consequence of industrial and agricultural reclamation works and more significantly, due to improvements in oyster culture technology. Research work was steadily continued which determined oyster spat resources and

their distribution. This led to a reliable method of predicting spat falls and gathering grounds. Hence, under Japanese conditions, the routine process of culturing oysters had been established. The management schedule of oyster farmers are easily programmed as shown in Figure 14.

In the Philippines and other ASEAN countries, oyster spats are collected mainly in shallow tidal areas where growout plots are also located. Information in the Philippines on spat resources and their distribution are hardly known other than what is only traditionally known by local farmers.

Figure 13. Evolution of the simple

small-scale hanging type to large-scale hanging method (Source: Yamaha Fishery Journal No. 28, 1989)

A mature oyster produce from 50–100 million eggs. After fertilization the eggs and larvae undergo a random dispersion and distribution depending on tide, wave motion and edding currents. Portion of the eggs are carried offshore. After 2–3 weeks of their drifting stage the larvae settle down. While the distribution of larvae are highly uneven, it is important to know where densest settlement of spats occur. The Japanese found that spat collection is better offshore such that they have established their routine activities of industrial oyster farming operations which include the following steps:

4.2.1 Spat collection In view of the knowledge about

spat resources and their distribution, the Japanese and Korean oyster farmers collect spats off-shore. They use empty scallop shells strung through a wire which are then hung to bamboo rafts which are either movable or fixed (Figure 15). Design and construction is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 14. Routine oyster farming management technique in Japan

(Source: Yamaha Fishery Journal No. 28, 1989)

Figure 15. Cultch collectors and spat holding rafts (Source: Yamaha Fishery Journal No. 28, 1989)

Figure 16. Design and construction of oyster raft and longline hanging method of oyster culture (see photographs 1 and 2) (Source: Yamaha Fishery Journal No. 28, 1989)

In the case of the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), the water layer in which it could settle or adhere to is from the high tide to 1 and 2 m below the ebb tide line. It was reported (Park, et. al., 1988) that in this range, the middle layer of water provides the best opportunity for settlement of the oyster (Figure 17). The nature of settlement and adherance vary according to depth of water and collecting method.

In shallow areas the fixed collecting method is used as the range

of vertical adherance is narrow. Conversely, this becomes wider in deeper waters and in this case the hanging method is used (Figure 18). Spat setting is highly affected by water current. Settlement does not occur where water flow is more than 5–7 cm/sec. The density of larvae during the planktonic stage indicates the degree of settlement levels that could take place. It is estimated that oyster spats developed per million eggs is about 1 percent (Park, et. al,, 1988).

Figure 17. Depth range where natural setting of the

Pacific oyster occurs (Source: Park, Byung Ha, et al., 1988)

Figure 18. Distribution of oyster larvae by water depth

(Source: Park, Byung Ha, et. al., 1988)

Photograph 1. Oyster raft for hanging method of oyster culture

(Courtesy of Mr. Alessandro Lovatelli, RAS/86/024)

Photograph 2. Longline hanging method of oyster culture

(Courtesy of Mr. Alessandro Lovatelli, RAS/86/024)

4.2.2 Hardening After the oyster spats have

settled on the cultch collectors, these are transferred to hardening racks located in shallow tidal areas as shown in Figure 19. This area is the highest portion of the tidal zone which becomes exposed during low tide.

The hardening process undergoes a gradual period of increased exposure each day to encourage optimal growth of oysters. Exposure to air eliminates the weak individuals and ensures the survivors to mature properly by hardening their shells. This makes them endure environmental changes; mortality is reduced as the oysters become more resistant; growth is rapid and none gets lost in harvesting and handling. The period of hardening lasts from 6–8 months which coincides with the decline of temperature beginning October up to the end of spring in May. In the ASEAN countries where there is no pronounced change in temperature except slightly during the months of December to January, such hardening process will not take that long. However, naturally grown spats from the time of settling could be hardened by intermit-tent exposure before they are transplanted to deeper areas and proceed to growout. Most oyster farmers

do not practice the hardening process as the oyster plots are periodically exposed at low tide. Other considerations such as water quality and elimination or control of predators could increase production.

The hardening effect under tropical conditions could take place as well by exposure of the spats during low tide if spat collection is done in deeper areas where no such expo-sure is possible. More refinement of rearing techniques is necessary to improve the present traditional methods.

4.2.3 Hanging of spats for growout

Transplantation of the spats to the grow-out rafts in deeper areas are carried out. This is done by re-stringing the hardened seed oysters on a 9-m long wire for hanging on the growout rafts (Figure 20).

Usually, the spat collector strings contain 60–100 shells. These are restrung into 30–50 shells per growout string and are hung at 40–50 cm apart along the bamboo poles of the raft. A raft of 10 m × 20 m will contain from 500–600 strings of oysters containing from 20 000–30 000 shells with oyster spats.

Figure 19. Hardening racks of oyster seeds

(Source: Yamaha Fishery Journal No. 28, 1989)

Shells with spats are restrung for growout in offshore rafts or longline

Real long-term hanging method in Japan

Figure 20. Preparation of seed oysters for hanging in growout (Source: Yamaha Fishery Journal No. 28, 1989)

4.2.4 Fattening This is carried out for 1–2

months prior to harvesting. This entails the transfer of the oyster strings to the higher or shallower strata of the water to take advantage of better nutrition and abundant food.

In Japan, the rational for lowering the oyster strings to deeper water during part of the growing period is to avoid high temperatures near the surface water and avoid attachment of barnacles and ascidians on the oyster.

With the above routine, a single oyster raft of 10 m × 20 m produce 2–4 tons of shucked oysters.

The Philippines would do well in oyster and mussel production if farming sites are shifted from heavily polluted shallow coastal areas to deeper and cleaner waters and farming management techniques improved from the traditional methods. Government research institutions must undertake a thorough study of the spat resources, their distribution and grounds for

development of oyster farming to provide alter-native economic activity of small-scale fishermen. Besides mollusc farming, the fishermen could still engage in part-time fishing in the vicinity of the oyster or mussel rafts. Certain fishes would also be attracted below the rafts to feed on epiphytic organisms which grow below the rafts or the oyster shells. This aspect needs to be looked into.

5. ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF OYSTER AND MUSSEL FARMING

The profitability of oyster and mussel farming in the Philippines was studied by Librero, et. al. (1976). The farms surveyed were small (50 m2), medium (50–500 m2) and large farms more than 500 m2.

The study showed that farms of all sizes could be profitable under certain conditions such as farm size, location of farm and method of farming. Larger farms had greater income than small farms but they require more labour input. Smaller farms usually use family labour. Farms located far from market outlets spend more for transport of their crops. Overall, the profitability of oyster farming is attractive enough. This is borne out by the fact that there are over 1 200 private oyster farms operating in the country. Profitability of oyster farming by size of farm and method of farming ranges from 10 to 73 percent depending on culture method used. A prospectus for oyster farming is in Appendix 1.

Although current prices of materials used for oyster farming has gone up, the market price of oysters also went up. In 1987 the total oyster production of the country was 10 361 MT valued at 52.841 million (un-shelled). On the other hand, mussel

production was 11 644 MT valued at 101.855 milion.

A survey of the profitability of mussel farming by stake method showed 56 percent (Librero, et. al., 1976). Other methods of culture could earn a profit ranging from 74 to 76 percent per ha per year (SCS, 1982).

A prospectus for a mussel farm is shown in Appendix 2.

6. POTENTIALS FOR EXPANSION OF OYSTER/MUSSEL FARMING FOR SMALL-SCALE FISHERMEN

Improved techniques of oyster farming is available; there are abundant natural oyster grounds and environmental conditions for. growing oysters are favourable all year round.

What is lacking is government incentive by way of policy on small-scale coastal fishery resource uses supporting the development of oyster and mussel culture in new areas other than those traditionally used at present. Identification of such areas for this would be required to provide small-scale fishermen with alternative fishery occupations. Oyster and mussel farming activities in certain grounds could form part of the overall fishery activities of fishermen as part of a coastal resource management system.

In 1982 a Seafarming Study made by the South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme estimated the potentials for expansion of oyster and examined the extent of possible municipal fishermen that could enjoy the benefits of said expansion nationwide. Tables 6 and 7 summarize the location and number of farms and potential areas for development.

Table 6. Estimated potential for expansion of oyster farming

Area now used Potential area

Region Province or

location Number of

farms (ha) Source of

information (ha) Source of estimate Remarks

Sanitation (estimated)

Accepted estimate (ha)

Navotas Paranaque

NCR Manila Bay - none BFAR 35 BFAR

Las Piñas

Grossly polluted

none

5 000 BFAR/RO April 1981 2 000 BFAR/RO May 1981

675–800 CDS/CDS Bolinao Bay Clean 330 PSF Bolinao to Caquiputan Clean

3 000 SFS Tambac Bay Clean

Pangasinan 386 16.8 BFAR

100 SFS Dagupan/Binmaley Polluted 4 0001 000 BFAR/RO

200 SFS Sto. Tomas Polluted 200 Sta. Lucia

La Union 39 3.7 BFAR

San Fernando Ilocos Sur 11 1.3 BFAR 100 SFS Sta. Maria, Vigan Polluted 100

I

Ilocos Norte 19 0.7 BFAR 20 Badoc, Laoag Polluted 20II Cagayan 32 9.5 BFAR 26 BFAR Clean 30

Zambales - none BFAR 20 BFAR SFS Port Matalvis Clean 20Bulacan 145 18 BFAR 17 BFAR Polluted 20

III

Bataan - none BFAR 10 BFAR 10Cavite 300 3001 PCARR 2 BFAR 117.6 ha (BFAR) Polluted none

To be terminated by reclamation within ten years

Marinduque - none BFAR 5 BFAR Clean 5Mindoro - none BFAR 10 BFAR Clean 10Palawan - none BFAR 20 BFAR Clean 20Batangas none BFAR none BFAR Clean

IV

100 SFS 100

50 BFAR Quezon - none BFAR 1 200 CDS Padre Burgos 200 SFS Padre Burgos Clean 200

Romblon 1 2.0 BFAR none BFAR noneCamarines Norte - none BFAR 13 BFAR

Camarines Sur 1 0.1 BFAR 4 BFAR Albay - none BFAR 2 BFAR Catanduanes 2 0.1 BFAR 6 BFAR Masbate - none BFAR 3 BFAR

V

Sorsogon 32 6.6 BFAR 1 500 BFAR SFS Clean 530Capiz 160 501 BFAR/RO 45 BFAR 1Tinagong Clean Dagat only = 30 ha 5002 BFAR/RO 2Est. including Clean 500 Visan, Panay, etc. Aklan 9 8.3 BFAR 10 BFAR 100 SFS Inshore of Clean 100 mussel farms and at Bata

VI

Iloilo 14 3.3 BFAR 15 BFAR Banate Bay Polluted 15Antique - none BFAR 2 BFAR - 5Negros Occ. 48 7.8 BFAR/RO 49 BFAR 1.2 ha - BFAR 100 SFS Hinigaran

Himamaylan Polluted 100

Cebu - none BFAR none BFAR 100 SFS Carmen Bay Clean 100Negros Or. - none BFAR none BFAR noneBohol none BFAR none BFAR 100 SFS Calape Inabanga Polluted 100

VII

Siquijor - none BFAR none BFAR noneVIII Leyte - none BFAR none BFAR

2 000 CDS/SFS Biliran St. Clean Leyte Bay 200 CDS/SFS Cancabato Polluted 2 000Samar 1 0.3 BFAR none BFAR Bay, Tacloban

200 CDS/SFS Silanga Bay Catbalogan Polluted

500 SFS Maqueda Bay Clean 500 Zamboanga del Norte - none BFAR 1 BFAR

Zamboanga del Sur - none BFAR 1 BFAR

Basilan - none BFAR 3 BFAR

IX

Tawi-tawi - none BFAR 3 BFAR 10Misamis Occ. - none BFAR 10 BFAR Misamis Or. - none BFAR 10 BFAR Surigao del Norte - none BFAR 10 BFAR

Camiguin - none BFAR 10 BFAR

X

50 SFS For region 50Davao del Sur - none BFAR 25 BFAR Davao Oriental - none BFAR 170 BFAR

XI

Surigao del Sur 2 0.5 BFAR 10 400 BFAR SFS For region 400Cotabato - none BFAR none BFAR noneLanao del Sur - none BFAR none BFAR none

XII

Total 1 202 429 9 1451BFAR = Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources BFAR/RO = BFAR Regional Office BFAR/LAB = BFAR Laboratory CDS = Center for Development Studies (1975) SFS = Sea Farming Study reported herein NCR = National Capital Region Source: SCS/82/WP/103

Table 7. Number of municipal fishermen who could benefit from expanded oyster culture

Region Number of municipal fishermen

(1977)

Potential expansion

(ha)

Average area per farm

(assumed) (ha)

Additional farms

Percent of fishermen who

could grow oysters

I 43 553* 4 320 0.2 21 600 49.6** II 11 793 30 0.2 150 1.3 III 36 595 50 0.2 250 0.7 IV 66 026 335 0.2 1 675 2.5** V 63 912 530 0.2 2 650 4.1 VI 35 865 720 0.2 3 600 10.0 VII 67 147 200 0.2 1 000 1.5 VIII 46 549 2 500 0.2 12 500 26.5** IX 44 111 10 0.2 50 0.1 X 29 419 50 0.2 250 0.8 XI 42 536 400 0.2 2 000 4.7 XII 13 159 - - - - Total 500 665 9 145 - 45 725 9.1 * BFAR, 1977 in "Expanded Fisheries Development Program" quoted in Smith, et. al., (1080) ** Priority regions (Provinces of Pangasinan, Quezon and Samar) Source: SCS/82/WP/1 03

For the expansion of oyster farming, a total of 9 145 ha could be developed which could benefit 9.1 percent of municipal fishermen.

In the case of mussel farming, a total estimate potential of 4 925 ha is available for development which could benefit about 9.8 percent of municipal fishermen (Tables and 9).

Table 8. Estimated potential for expansion of mussel farming

Area now used Potential area

Region Province or location

Number of farms (ha) Source of

information (ha) Source of estimate1 Remarks Sanitation

(estimated) Accepted estimate (ha)

NCR Manila Bay 1 10.31 BFAR 25 BFAR Navotas Polluted noneI All - none BFAR none BFAR noneII All - none BFAR 15 BFAR none

Zambales - none BFAR 23 BFAR 25Bulacan - none BFAR 10 BFAR 10

III

Bataan - none BFAR 9 BFAR 10Cavite 134 70 BFAR 2 BFAR To be terminated

by land reclamation within ten years

Polluted none

Marinduque - none BFAR 5 BFAR 5Mindoro Or. - none BFAR 10 BFAR 10Palawan - none BFAR 25 BFAR Clean 25Quezon - none BFAR 35 BFAR 1 200 CDS Padre Burgos 200 SFS Padre Burgos Clean 200

IV

Romblon 1 2 BFAR 2 BFAR 5Albay - none BFAR 2 BFAR Camarines Norte - none BFAR 5 BFAR Camarines Sur - none BFAR 2 BFAR Catanduanes - none BFAR 5 BFAR Masbate - none BFAR 2 BFAR

V

Sorsogon - none BFAR none BFAR Total for region 20Capiz 300 15 BFAR/RO 25 BFAR 200 SFS 200Iloilo - none BFAR 10 BFAR 10Aklan - none BFAR 10 BFAR

VI

100 SFS 100

Antique - none BFAR 2 BFAR - 5Negros Occ. 6 2 BFAR 86 BFAR

100 SFS 100Cebu - none BFAR none BFAR 501 SFS 1Carmen Bay 50Bohol - none BFAR none BFAR

VII

501 SFS 1Calape, etc. 50Leyte - none BFAR none BFAR 1001 SFS 1Babatngon 100Samar 250 200 BFAR Lab 2 0001 BFAR/RO 1Jiabong only 5 0001 Rabanal 1Maqueda Bay

VIII

1 800 FIDC/FAO

FAO IBRD Proposal

Longline culture in Maqueda Bay

4 000

IX All - none BFAR none BFAR noneX All - none BFAR none BFAR noneXI All - none BFAR none BFAR noneXII All - none BFAR none BFAR none Total 692 299.3 4 9251BFAR = Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources BFAR/RO = BFAR Regional Office BFAR/LAB = BFAR Laboratory CDS = Center for Development Studies (1975) SFS = Sea Farming Study reported herein NCR = National Capital Region Source: SCS/82/WP/103

Table 9. Number of municipal fishermen who could benefit from expanded mussel culture

Region Number of municipal fishermen

Potential expansion

(ha)

Average area per farm

(assumed) (ha)

Additional farms

Percent of fishermen who

could grow mussels

I 53 553* - - - ** II 11 793 - - - - III 36 595 45 0.1 450 1.2 IV 66 026 245 0.12 2 450 3.7** V 63 912 20 0.1 200 0.3 VI 35 865 415 0.1 4 150 11.6 VII 67 147 100 0.1 1 000 1.5 VIII 46 549 4 100 0.1 41 000 88.4** IX 44 111 - - - - X 29 419 - - - - XI 42 536 - - - - XII 13 159 - - - - Total 500 665 4 925 -. 49 250 9.8% * BFAR in “Expanded Fisheries Development Program (Smith, et. al., ICLARM, 1980) ** Priority regions (Provinces of Pangasinan, Quezon and Samar) Source: SCS/82/WP/103

7. RATIONALE FOR EXPANSION Coastal fisheries in the

Philippines and most other ASEAN countries have been over-fished and the coastal (subsistence) fisher-men have remained the poorest of the poor. By helping these fishermen become partly seafarmers (oyster or mussel farmers) would reduce fishing effort on the already over-exploited coastal resources. Finding alter-native occupations for this sector of society has been a serious problem of fishery management.

The 1982 Seafarming Study concluded that there are sufficient suitable sites in the country to provide space for over 45 000 oyster farms and about 50 000 mussel farms.

The capital costs involved per farm are not high. Financing assistance to be extended to small fishermen for this purpose should not be difficult to obtain since the farming methods are known and proven to be profitable.

Oysters and mussels are highly nutritious food items and have export

potential provided export quality standards are met.

8. ACTIONS NEEDED In order that this expansion plan

could materialize there are certain actions which the government must undertake.

8.1 Confirm oyster and mussel farming sites identified earlier by conducting spat resources survey and distribution in the areas proposed.

8.2 Allocate space for oyster and mussel farming with highest priority to local resident small-scale fishermen. Such allocation should be based on economic farm size for small-scale operations large enough for municipal fishermen but small and unattractive to corporations and wealthy individuals; charting of coastal waters for seafarming purposes would be essential and allocation for their uses to groups of fishermen, pre ferably, cooperatives or associations.

8.3 Organize marketing cooperatives to avoid competition in the

market place and stabilize the price and supply. Quality standard of fresh and processed products must be set by government.

8.4 Provide strategic depuration facilities to be operated by marketing cooperatives of fishermen associations or provide clean sing services free of charge or at nominal cost to producers.

8.5 Organize training programmes on farming management techniques, cooperatives management and marketing or pro vide management services free of charge until the fishermen associations are capable enough to do so.

8.6 Research institutions must continue to undertake research to improve farming techniques, product quality standards, promote domestic consumption and develop export markets for oysters and mussels. More importantly, oyster and mussel seeds grounds must be identified so that seeds collection areas could be developed. Trans-plantation to growing areas could easily be made since these could be transported easily.

8.7 The government must establish or designate oyster and mussel grounds according to health standards and set the guide-lines by which to instruct oyster and mussel producers as well as distributors on product quality for consumption and export purposes. These actions would encourage consumers to buy oysters and mussels more often as they do with fish and meat for daily consumption. Thus, demand for the product will increase.

9. DEPURATION OF MOLLUSCS Molluscs are filter feeders and

are most affected by red tide organisms which are harmful to human beings. Some incidences of red tide poisoning due to consumption of mussels occurred in the Philippines which were fatal to the consumers. When this happens, shellfish farmers lose their market and their business also slumps.

In order to prevent consumer bias against the consumption of oysters and mussels and also to upgrade the quality standard of molluscs in the market, depuration should be required. This is a service which could be provided by marketing authorities particularly at the market centers. Depuration facilities could be installed so that retailers or wholesalers of molluscs could be given such services prior to selling mussels and oysters in the retail markets.

It was estimated that a 5-ton capacity shell-fish depuration plant operating every 24 to 36 hours would be able to depurate shellfish at a cost of 0.10 per kilogram of oyster or mussel (Personal Communication, 1989). A schematic illustration of a depuration plant is shown in Figures 21 and 22.

It would be strategic to install a depuration plant at the vicinity of shellfish producers such that the cost of depuration may be borne by the producers as part of their costs of production. Buyers could, therefore, purchase their products from the plant.

A government policy on quality standard of molluscs in the market for sale and consumption should be made so that the public's health and safety is assured.

Figure 21. Perspective view of shellfish purification plant

(From: Almazan, R., 1989)

Note: Arrows indicate water flow

Figure 22. Schematic drawing of shellfish purification plant (From: Almazan, R., 1989)

Table 10. Potential areas for mussel culture

Location Potential area (ha)

Sources

North Sumatera 200 2, 3 1. Tj. Balai

Riau 3 000 1 2. Teluk Bintan

Lampung 3 000 2 3. Kuala Penet, Maringgai

West Java 4 000 1 4. Banten Bay 5. Ketapang, Tangerang

Jakarta 2 000 1 6. Kepulauan Seribu

Central Java 500 1 7. Jepara

East Java 4 500 1, 4 8. West part of Madura 9. Pasuruan

10. Probolinggo (Gili Ketapang) 11. Kwanyar, Madura West Nusa Tenggara 500 1 12. Labuan Lombok 13. Batu Nampar Total 19 799 1 Estimated from topography map 2 Estimated from actual sites 3 Interviewed resource person 4 Pagcatipunan, et. al., 1981 From: Mintardjo, Kisto, 1988

10. MOLLUSCS FARMING DEVELOPMENT PLANS IN OTHER ASEAN COUNTRIES

10.1 Indonesia The government of Indonesia,

through the UNDP-assisted Seafarming Project, INS/81/008, has already identified potential areas for oyster and mussel culture sites as shown in Tables 10 and 11.

Mussel culture is still at a very experimental stage in Indonesia. On the other hand, oysters are cultured by stake method at a very limited scale.

Mollusc production of Indonesia is mainly from wild harvesting from natural grounds. The blood cockles

(Anadara granosa) is the most important species produced. Cockle farming is used to be practiced by local fishermen in West Java. However, due to lack of seeds, this was no longer practiced since 1975 (Mintardjo, 1988).

In an effort to provide coastal fishermen with alternative fishery-related occupations and improve their levels of living, the government puts high priority to seafarming development. For this purpose, Presidential Decree No. 25 was proclaimed on 25 May 1982 (Appendix 3) which was followed by a Ministerial Decree No. 473, issued 8 July 1982. One of the seafarming activities to be developed is oyster and mussel farming.

Table 11. Potential areas for oyster culture

Location Potential area (ha)

Sources

West Java 1 000 3 1. Ketapang, Tangerang

Central Java 1 000 3 2. Demak 3. Jepara

East Java 3 500 1, 3 4. Kenjeran, Surabaya 5. Pasuruan 6. Probolinggo 7. Kwanyan, Madura

West Nusa Tenggara 1 500 1, 2 8. Lombok Bay, Batu Nampar, Gerupuk in

Lombok Island

9. Bima Bay, Waworada Bay, Saleh Bay in Sumbawa Island

East Nusa Tenggara - - 10. Kupang Bay, Timor South Sulawesi 500 3 11. Jeneponto Total 7 500 1Pagcatipunan, et. al., 1982 2Estimated from actual site 3Estimated from topography map From: Mintardjo, Kisto, 1988

The guidelines for the implementation of the Decree has been prepared. The regulatory measures and control for the development of seafarming is embodied in the Seafarming Act which has been drafted for the approval of Parliament (Tiensongrusmee and Soehardi, 1988).

10.2 Thailand Among the molluscs, the green

mussel (Perna viridis) is the most important. It comprises over 50 percent of total mollusc production of Thailand. The method used is by stake method and “fish trap”. The latter is actually mussels produced from the wings of fish traps. The fish trap operators either sell or lease mussel production “rights” to mussel collectors. In other cases, the fish trap operator sets the stakes and

sell the harvest rights to mussel collectors (ICLARM Tech. Rep. 19).

The total production of mussels in Thailand for the period 1982–1983 is summarized in Table 12.

Mussels and oysters are both produced in the southern part of Thailand (Figure 23). There are 7 046 ha of existing oyster farms using various culture methods such as the rock culture; culture on cement poles, cement pipes or wooden poles; tray culture and the suspension or hanging method. All these methods are practiced in shallow tidal areas except the suspension or hanging, method adapting the raft method of Korea and Japan. This latter technique is still in experimental stage.

Figure 23. Location of mussel and oyster farms in

Thailand (ICLARM Tech. Rep. 19)

Table 12. Production in tonnes and value in thousands of baht of green mussels from stake, fish traps and natural areas by province, Thailand, 1982–1983

Stake 1982

Fish trap Natural Total Province Weight (t)

Value('000 B)

Weight(t)

Value('000 B)

Weight(t)

Value('000 B)

Weight (t)

Value('000 B)

Trat - - 1 500 4 500 - - 1 500 4 500Chon Buri 5 665 6 571 1 482 2 668 - - 7 147 9 239Chachoengsao 2 842 3 865 5 535 8 192 - - 8 377 12 057Samut Prakan - - 3 059 4 160 - - 3 059 4 160Samut Sakhon - - 13 710 22 347 .- - 13 710 22 347Samut Songkhram - - 21 529 35 738 - - 21 529 35 738Phetchaburi - - 2 553 12 765 6 12 2 559 12 777Chumphon 7 434 26 539 45 161 - - 7 479 26 700Prachuap - - - - - - - -Khiri Khan 149 745 - - - - 149 745Trang - - - - - - 0 0Ranong - - - - - - 0 0Total 16 090 37 720 49 413 90 531 6 12 65 509 128 263

Stake 1983

Fish trap Natural Total Province Weight (t)

Value('000 B)

Weight(t)

Value('000 B)

Weight(t)

Value('000 B)

Weight (t)

Value('000 B)

Trat - - 345 1 263 - - 345 1 263Chon Buri 1 393 1 964 - - - - 1 393 1 964Chachoengsao 2 524 3 559 1 019 1 691 - - 3 543 5 250Samut Prakan - - 6 501 10 791 - - 6 501 10 791Samut Sakhon - - 1 496 2 169 - - 1 496 2 169Samut Songkhram - - 5 801 10 790 - - 5 801 10 790Phetchaburi 8 632 25 897 7 108 14 926 - - 15 740 40 823Chumphon 6 037 28 678 2 115 4 462 - - 8 152 33 140Prachuap - - - - - - - -Khiri Khan 130 649 - - - - 130 649Trang - - -, - 3 5 3 5Ranong - - - .- 26 139 26 139Total 18 716 60 747 24 385 46 092 29 144 43 130 106 983Source: ICLARM Tech. Report 19

Research on hatchery techniques for bivalve molluscs were conducted. Initial findings showed that hatchery production of large oyster spat has a good possibility in Thailand. Further studies are being under-taken at the Brackishwater Fisheries Station at Phrachuap Kiri Khan.

10.3 Malaysia Molluscs production constitutes

about 11 percent of the total fisheries production of Malaysia. Cockle is the most important species produced. Extensive cockle farming operations started in Perak which developed as the most organized culture system in Peninsular Malaysia.

There is no organized oyster and mussel farming in the country until recently. Experimental raft cultures of flat oysters are being continued at Pulau Langkawi, Kedah; in Sabah, experimental culture of Crassostrea belcheri and Saccrostrea cucullata are also in progress. Mussel culture was successfully demonstrated in Johore Strait.

Oyster and mussel spatfalls occur all year round. In the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia, there are two peak seasons, the first in March–May and the second in September–December for oysters. In Sarawak, the first peak is in March–May and the second is November–December; in Sabah, the first peak in April–June and the second in October–November. Heaviest spatfalls occur 2–3 weeks after a sudden heavy rainfall.

For mussel spats, the first peak is in November–February and the second in May–June in Johore. Cockle spatfalls occur in specific areas and seasons, generally during late June to November with the peak period in September–October.

Other than cockles, oyster and mussel culture operations are still in

very limited scale in Peninsular Malaysia which are practiced on part-time by fishermen. In Sabah commercial oyster farming is done by cooperatives. The rack-and-raft method produces about 18 tons/ha/yr.

The long-term strategy of the government is aimed towards export-oriented industry. However, small-scale, family-run operations are also being promoted as part of the Malaysia Plan to increase food production and raise living standards of the rural sector.

Research work on improving farming techniques, identification of sites, training and provision of technical advice to fisher-men on mollusc culture techniques are being intensified. In some places, provision of free oyster spats are being made to encourage initiation of oyster farming.

10.4 Singapore The culture of the green mussel

was very successfully carried out in Singapore. Basic research on bivalves were conducted which led to the findings that suitable mussel grounds are those which have phytoplankton concentration ranging from 17–40 μg Chl. a/1 seawater; water currents from 0.17 m–0.25 m/sec at floodtide and 0.25 m–0.35 m/sec at ebb tide; the primary productivity per hour from 73 μg to 100 μg carbon/m3.

A minimum of 0.5 ha plot of which 20–30 percent of effective culture area was used; the remaining space was utilized for anchorage purposes. Of the various methods tried by the Primary Production Department of Singapore (raft, longline, pole and bouchot), the raft method was found economically feasible. Higher profits are possible through highly mechanized large-scale operations. Production levels of 100–160 kg/m2 has been attained in the raft method.

The marketability of the mussels was not attractive enough to encourage farmers to go into large-scale production. There is no mussel processing in Singapore where the product could be absorbed for future consumption or export. Further studies on high density depuration system for bivalves including oysters and cockles are necessary.

10.5 Brunei This country is just beginning to

develop aquaculture. At. present most or the food items are imported from abroad (Singapore, Malaysia and other countries). Plans have been made for coastal fisheries development and management including aquaculture. The country is presently engaged in manpower development to build up the future technical support for the country's fisheries development programme in general and aquaculture in particular.

Brunei is economically sound and the population enjoys one of the highest per capita income levels in the world. The country, therefore, is not confronted with the problem of small-scale fishermen as in the other ASEAN nations. The development of mussel or oyster farming would probably be in the context of producing high quality seafood for domestic consumption rather than to create alternative sources of income for fishermen.

11. CONCLUSIONS There is a high potential for

expansion of mollusc farming in the ASEAN region as an alternative economic activity for small-scale fishermen. The species of molluscs preferred differ from country to country; careful planning to satisfy domestic demand and develop external markets should be made to ensure that prices of the product remain attractive to the fishermen to opt for seafarming.

Traditional techniques have to be improved and better farming sites have to be identified other than the existing farm grounds where domestic pollution as well as industrial wastes are high. The quality of product from these sites does not en-courage increased domestic consumption.

The lack of sanitary and health guidelines for producers and processors alike does not eliminate the health hazards of mollusc consumption. This situation does not also provide any of the producing countries the opportunity to enter the export market for mollusc products in whatever form.

There is lack of sustained research on mollusc farming, post harvest and processing. Despite favourable conditions for mollusc production in the region, the technical information needed for improvement of farming techniques, processing and post harvest are limited. As a consequence, production methods have remained traditional in conventional grounds, most of which are already unfit for farming due to pollution. The expansion of mollusc culture could also produce shrimp feed to substitute imported fish meal. Mussel meat has been found to be a very good feed material for shrimps. Excess supply of mussels, if any, could be channelled to prawn feeds.

The experience of Japan and Korea could be adapted under tropical conditions. The government, however, must pave the way and provide incentives to small-scale fisher-men.

The ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project (RAS/84/016), sponsored a training course on oyster farming jointly with the Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project (RAS/86/025). It was hosted by the Republic of Korea on June 1988 wherein government

technicians and sea-farmers from ASEAN countries were selected to participate. This training course gave the participants hands-on experience in modern techniques of oyster culture. The application of knowledge gained from the training course is a small contribution towards further

development of oyster culture in the ASEAN countries.

This document was prepared to disseminate relevant technical information to fisheries administrators, development planners and extension workers in the expansion of bivalve culture as an alter-native activity of small-scale fishermen.

REFERENCES Cheong, L. Country report of Singapore.

1982 In Proc. Workshop on Bivalve Culture in Asia and the Pacific. Eds. Brian Davy and Michael Graham. IDRC-200c, 1982.

Cheong, L. and W.S. Loy. An analysis of 1982 the economics of farming

green mussels in Singapore using rafts. IDRC-193c, 1982.

Chew, K.K. Recent trends in bivalve 1989 culture in the Orient.

Aquaculture Magazine. Vol. 15, No. 3, May/ June 1989.

Csavas, I. Problems of inland fisheries 1985 and aquaculture. Resource

paper, Symposium on Fishing Industry, Tokyo, Japan.

Librero, A.R., et. al. Socio-economic 1976 survey of the aquaculture

industry in the Philippines. Research Paper Series No. 6, PCARR/SEAFDEC.

Lovatelli, A. Bivalves: Status, problems 1989 and future in Asia. NACA

Newsletter, Vol. VI, No. 1, January–March 1989.

McCoy, E.W. and T. Chongpeepien. (Undated) (Eds.) Bivalve mollusc

culture research in Thailand. ICLARM Technical Report 19.

Mintardjo, K. Country report of 1988 Indonesia. Second National

Coordinators Meeting, Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project, 20–23 September 1988, Singapore.

Oon, Ng Fong, et. al. Country paper of 1982 Malaysia. In Proc. Workshop

on Bivalve Culture in Asia and the Pacific. Eds. Brian Davy and Michael Graham. IDRC-200e, 1982.

Oyster Culture-Fishing. Yamaha Fishery 1989 Journal No. 28, January 1989.

Park, Byung Ha, et. al. Culture of Pacific 1988 oyster (Crassostrea gigas) in

the Republic of Korea. Training manual prepared for the training course on oyster farming. 1988.

PCARRD Technical Bulletin No. 26. 1983 Philippines recommends for

mussels and oyster.

SCS/82/WP/103. The feasibility of 1982 oyster and mussel farming by

municipal fishermen in the Philippines.

Tiensongrusmee, B. and S. 1988 Ponjoprawiro. Draft

Seafarming Act. INS/81/008/ Manual/9.

Young, A. and E. Serna. Country report 1982 of the Philippines. In

Workshop on Bivalve Culture in Asia and the Pacific. Eds. Brian Davy and Michael Graham. IDRC-200c, 1982.

Yap, W. and A. Young. Manual on 1979 mussel farming. Aquaculture

Extension Manual No. 6. AQD/SEAFDEC, Tigbauan, Iloilo.

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 PROSPECTUS FOR A ONE-HALF HECTARE

OYSTER FARM USING HANGING METHOD1 (PHILIPPINES) Item Cost ( ) Life (Yr)

Costs Fixed cost

Materials and labor for plot construction of 125 plots2 80 000 2a) 42 pcs bamboo trunks (“puno”) at 6.50/trunk 273 b) 21 pcs bamboo poles (“baral”) at 5.00/pole 105 c) 10 pcs bamboo poles (“bila”) at 15.00/pole 150 d) 1 kg nail no. 4 at 12.00/kg 12 e) Contract labor to prepare plot 100

1.

Cost for one plot 640 2. One native banca (dugout) 3 000 33. Shed 1 500 34. Tools and diving paraphernalia 800 5

A.

Total fixed cost 85 300 Production costs

Operating cost a) One caretaker at 600.00/month for 12 months3 7 200 b) 440 kaings of empty oyster shells at 5,00/kaing4 2 200 c) 240 rolls of nylon rope no. 4 at 24.00/roll5 5 760 d) Contract labor to make "bitin" or collectors6 4 375 e) Harvesting charges at 5.00/kaing7 15 350

1.

Sub-total 34 885 Depreciation a) Plot construction 40 000 b) Dugout 1 000 c) Shed 500 d) Tools 160

2.

Sub-total 41 660 Miscellaneous a) Municipal permit 30 b) Repairs and other expenses 500 Sub-total 530

I.

B.

3.

Total production cost 77 075 Returns A. Gross income: sale of 3 070 kaings at 50.00/kaing 153 500 B. Net income: (gross income minus total production cost8) 76 425

II.

C. Returns on total investment 47% 1After PCARRD but prices updated to 1988 prices. 2A plot measures about 1 m × 20 m. There are, at least, 125 plots in half a hectare. 3Caretaking is often provided entirely or partially by family members. 4A kaing of empty oyster shells can make about 100 bitins or collectors. There are about 350 collectors/plot or 43 750 collectors/125 plots. 5One roll of nylon rope can make about 180 collectors. 6Labor is often provided entirely or partially by family members. Contract labor is 1.00 per 100 collectors. There are 350 collectors/plot. 7About 17 collectors produce one kaing of oysters. About 2 570 kaings can be harvested from the collectors. An additional 500 kaings can be gathered from bila, baral and posts (bamboo). 8A much higher income can be obtained in very productive areas and at higher selling prices during certain seasons. Exchange rate: 1 US Dollar = 20.50

Appendix 2 A PROSPECTUS OF 1 000 m2 MUSSEL

FARM USING STAKE METHOD (PHILIPPINES)1

Item Cost ( ) Life (Yr)Costs

Fixed cost 1. One banca (dugout) 3 000 52. One shed 1 500 2

Stake and stake preparation - 2a) 1 020 pcs bamboos (7–8 m) at 15.00 each2 15 300 b) Towing charges at 250.00/day for two days 500 c) Raft rental at 40.00/day for two days 80

3.

d) Staking charges at 2.50/bamboo for 1 020 bamboo pole 2 550 4. Bolo and other tools 500 3

A.

Total fixed cost 23 430 Production costs

Operating cost a) Harvesting charges a 3.00/gal. for 4 080 gal. (4 gal./stake) 12 240 b) Caretaker at 600.00/month (12 months)3 7 200 c) 100 pcs sacks at 3.50./sack 350

1.

Sub-total 19 790 Depreciation a) Banca 500 b) Shed 750 c) Stakes 7 150 d) Bolo, etc. 150 Sub-total 41 660

I.

B.

2.

Total production cost 28 340 Returns A. Gross income: sale of 4 080 gal. of mussels at 12.00/gal. 48 960 B. Net income: (gross income minus total production cost4) 20 620

II.

C. Returns on total investment 39.8% 1After PCARRD but prices updated to 1988 prices. There are two croppings a year. 2Each bamboo is staked 1 m apart; additional bamboo poles are used as guide posts. 3Often, caretaking labor is provided entirely or partially by family members. 4A much higher net income has been obtained in very productive areas and at higher selling prices during certain seasons. Exchange rate: US Dollar = 20.50

Data on the economics of the modern raft culture method for mussels done in Singapore is used as this is the most successful farming operation of mussels in commercial scale. Although the Philippines undertook demonstrations of mussel culture using the raft and the rweb methods, there

has been no in-depth economic studies made so far to serve as the basis for expansion of improved mussel culture.

The data presented in the following tables are those of Cheong, Leslie and W.S. Loy (1982).

Summary of capital costs (S$) of 75-m2 and 150-m-rafts based on 1980 prices (S$2.15 = U.S.$1.00)

Initial cost (S$)

75-m2 raft Life

expectancy(years)

Depreciated annual cost

(S$) Initial cost

(S$)

150-m2 raft Life

expectancy (years)

Depreciated annual cost

(S$) Fixed capital costs Wood - - - - - - Main frame 797.50 5 159.50 1 595.00 5 319.00

Supporting beams ($7.35 each) 220.50 5, 44.10 441.00 5 88.20

Planks ($10 each) 100.00 5 20.00 200.00 5 40.00

Lights and anchoring - - - - - -

Navigational lamps ($66/set) 66.00 5 13.20 132.00 5 26.40

Concrete anchors (sand, gravel and cement) 120.40 5 24.08 120.40 5 24.08

Iron bar ($4/m) 64.00 5 12.80 64.00 5 12.80 Chain ($17/m) 136.00 5. 27.20 136.00 5 27.20

Shackle ($18 each) 72.00 5 14.40 72.00 5 14.40

Thimble ($20 each) 80.00 5 16.00 80.00 5 16.00

Anchor rope ($450/160-m coil) 450.00 5 90.00 450.00 5 90.00

Total 2 106.40 - 421.28 3 290.40 - 658.08 (68%) - (26%) (62%) - (21%) Variable capital costs

Bolts, nuts, nails and washers 73.01 1 73.01 165.22 1 165.22

Floats ($14/200-L drum) 448.00 0.5 896.00 896.00 0.5 1 792.00

Paint 60.00 0.5 120.00 120.00 0.5 240.00

Twine ($11.75/coil) 23.50 0.5 47.00 47.00 0.5 94.00

Total 604.51 - 1 136.01 1 228.00 - 2 291.22 (19%) - (59%) (23%) - (74%) Labour and miscellaneous costs

Labour ($600/month) 300.00 5 60.00 600.00 5. 120.00

Miscellaneous 100.00 5. 20.00 200.00 5 40.00 Total 400.00 - 80.00 800.00 - 160.00 (13%) - (5%) (15%) - (5%) Total raft cost 3 110.91 - 1 637.29 5 318.62 - 3 109.30 Note: Percentage denotes portion of total raft cost

Comparative costs (S$) of various culture ropes based on 1980 prices (S$2.15 =.U.S.$1.00)

Thinning ropes (4-m) Polycoco ropes Nursery/spat

collecting Production/

grow-out 2-m 4-m

Material costs Polyethylene rope 0.61 2.23 1.43 2.23 Coconut coir rope 2.76 - 0.41 0.83 Polytex twine 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 Kuralon twine 0.04 - 0.07 0.14 Manila twine 0.08 - - - Brick 0.09 - - - Chopsticks - 0.32 - - Total 3.64 2.61 1.97 3.26 (75%) (77%) (68%) (72%) Labour and miscellaneous costs Labour 1.19 0.71 0.89 1.19 Miscellaneous 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Total 1.24 0.76 0.94 1.24 (25%) (23%) (32%) (28%) Total cost per rope 4.88 3.37 2.91 4.50 Note: Percentage denotes portion of total rope cost

Comparative costs (S$) of thinning and nonthinning culture based on 1980 prices (S$2.15 = U.S.$1.00)

Thinning Nonthinning 75-m2 raft 150-m2 raft 75-m2- raft 150-m2 raftCapital investment Fixed assets 6 111 8 818 6 111 8 818 Working capital 4 375 8 749 (a) 3 837 (a) 5 273 (b) 4 075 (b) 5 750 Total capital 10 486 17 567 (a) 9 948 (a) 14 091 (b) 10 189 (b) 14 568 Operating cost/year Fixed costs Depreciation 2 237 3 809 2 237 3 809 Licence fee 40 75 40 75 Cost of capital at 10% interest 1 049 1 757 (a) 995 (a) 1 409 (b) 1 019 (b) 1 457 Total 3 326 5 641 (a) 3 272 (a) 5 293 (b) 3 296 (b) 5 341 Variable costs Staff salaries ($400/month) 4 800 9 600 4 800 4 800 Ropes, netting, etc. 1 949 3 896 (a) 873 (a) 1 746 (b) 1 350 (b) 2 700

Maintenance of boats and miscellaneous 500 1 000 500 1 000

Fuel and miscellaneous transport 1 500 3 000 1 500 3 000 Total operating costs 12 075 23 139 (a) 10 945 (a) 15 839 (b) 11 446 (b) 16 841 Annual returns

Yield (tonnes) at two harvests per year 24.0 48.0 (a) 15.0 (b) 30.0

(b) 25.2 (b) 50.4 Cost of production (S$/tonne) 503 482 (a) 730 (a) 528 (b) 454 (b) 334

Return per S$ investment at sale price of S$350/tonne 0.70 0.73 (a) 0.48 (a) 0.66

(b) 0.77 (b) 1.05 Note: (a) is for 2-m polycoco rope; (b) is tor 4-m polycoco rope Source: Cheong, 1980

Comparative costs (S$) of operating a single raft and a 0.5-ha farm using 4-m polycoco ropes based on 1980 prices (S$2.15 = U.S.$1.00)

Single raft 0.5-m ha farm (at 20% utilization)

75-m2 150-m2 13 75-m2 rafts 7 150-m2 raftsCapital investment Fixed assets 6 111 8 818 47 443 45 226 Working capital 4 075 5 750 33 475 34 150 Total capital 10 186 14 568 80 918 79 376 Operating cost/annum Fixed costs Depreciation 2 237 3 809 22 681 23 363 Licence fee 40 75 500 500 Cost of capital at 10% interest 1 019 1 457 8 092 7 938 Total 3 296 5 341 31 273 31 801 Variable costs Staff salaries 4 8001 4 8001 38 4002 38 4002

Ropes 1 350 2 700 17 500 18 900

Maintenance of boats and miscellaneous 500 1 000 3 000 3 000

Fuel and miscellaneous transport 1 500 3 000 8 000 8 000

Total 8 150 11 500 66 950 68 300 Total operating costs 11 446 16 841 98 223 100 101 Annual returns

Yield (tonnes) at two harvests per year 25.2 50.4 327.6 352.8

Cost of production (S$/tonne) 454 334 300 284

Return per S$ investment at sale price of S$350/tonne 0.77 1.05 1.17 1.23

1Workers at $400/month 2Manager at $1 200/month; supervisor at $800/month; workers at $400/month

Comparative costs of operating farms within and away from the spat ground based on 1980 prices (S$2.15 = U.S.$1.00)

Within spat ground Away from spat ground 0.5-ha farm 0.75-ha farm (0.75-ha farm)

2 harvests/

year

3 harvests/

year

2 harvests/

year

3 harvests/

year

2 harvests/

year

3 harvests/

year Assumptions

Sets of ropes used (at 600 ropes/set) 1 2 1 2 1 2

Rafts for production (150 m2/raft) 71 71 101 101 72 72

Rafts for spat collection (150 m2/raft- - - - - 3 3

Analysis (figures in S$ unless otherwise stated) Capital investment Fixed assets 45 226 45 226 62 180 62 180 64 180 64 180 Working capital 34 150 44 100 38 450 52 200 37 050 46 750 Total capital 79 376 89 326 100 630 114 380 101 230 110 930 Operating cost/year Fixed costs Depreciation 23 363 23 363 32 890 32 980 33 290 33 290 Licence fee 500 500 750 750 750 750

Cost of capital 10% interest 7 938 8 933 10 063 11 438 10 123 11 093

Total fixed costs 31 801 32 796 43 703 45 078 44 163 45 133 Variable costs Staff salary 38 400 38 400 38 400 38 400 43 200 43 200 (56%)3 (44%)3 (50%)3 (37%)3 (58%)3 (46%)3

Ropes (4-m polycoco) 18 900 37 800 27 000 54 000 18 900 37 800

Maintenance of boats and miscellaneous 3 000 3 500 3 500 3 500 3 500 3 500

Fuel and other miscellaneous transport 8 000 8 500 8 000 8 500 8 500 9 000

Total variable costs 68 300 88 200 76 900 104 400 74 100 93 500 Total operating costs 100 101 120 996 120 603 149 478 118 263 138 633 Annual returns Yield (tonnes)4 352.8 529.2 504.0 756.0 352.8 529.2

Cost of production (S$/tonne) 284 229 239 198 335 262

Return per S$ investment at sale price S$350/tonne 1.23 1.53 1.46 1.77 1.04 1.34

1Rafts used for both spat collection and grow-out 2Seven rafts in grow-out area, three located in spat ground 3Denotes percentage of staff salary to variable costs 4Based on 42 kg/4-m polycoco rope per harvest Source: Cheong, 1980

Appendix 3 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 23/1982

REGARDING SEAFARMING DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA WATERS PRESIDENT OF REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA1

CONSIDERING:

a. that Indonesia waters have high potential for the development of profitable seafarming activities;

b. that seafarming plays a role in the programmes of increasing fish production, maintaining environmental condition and balancing capture activities;

c. that seafarming provides employment opportunities with low cost technology as well as;

d. improves the income of the needy coastal population thereby increasing supply of animal protein to the population; and

e. that the Indonesia waters as source of various activities need a coordinative management so that seafarming activities as well as the other sector activities could mutually cooperate and support each other to maintain a continuing development.

REMEMBERING:

1. Article 4 Chapter (1) and Article 33 Chapter (3) as well as Constitution 1945;

2. Law No. 4/1960, Government Regulation regarding Indonesia waters (Gazette No. 22/ 1960 plus Gazette No. 1942);

3. Law No. 5/1960 regarding Basic Regulations on Agriculture (Gazette No. 38/1974 and Gazette No. 1942); .

4. Law No. 12/1967 concerning Cooperative Principles (Gazette No. 23/1967 and Gazette No. 2832);

5. Law No. 5/1974 concerning Government Regulation in District (Gazette No. 38/1974 and Gazette No. 3037);

6. Law No. 4/1982 concerning Regulations on Living Environment Management (Gazette No. 12/1982 and Gazette No. 3215);

7. Government Regulation No. 64/1957 concerning Decentralization of Central Government affairs in charge of fishery, forestry and small-scale rubber or rubber estate to the provincial government (Gazette No. 169/1957 and No. 1490);

8. Presidential Decree No. 44/1974 concerning principles of Department Organization; and

9. Presidential Decree No. 45/1974 concerning Organization Structure of Department of which has been amended several times with the latest issue No. 15/1982.

DECIDING:

THE PRESIDENTIAL DECREE REGARDING SEAFARMING DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA

ARTICLE 1

Seafarming is an activity to undertake and develop natural resources of various fishes and non-fishes in Indonesia waters.

ARTICLE 2

1. The development of seafarming which is undertaken in Indonesia waters whose condition is eligible for that purpose is meant to increase the income of fish farmers/fisher men, to give employment opportunities and to increase supply of animal protein to the coastal population.

2. The site location which is selected to undertake seafarming culture as mentioned in above Article 1, should meet with the technical conditions by noticing other sectors' interest so that no losses would incur during their respective operations or activities.

ARTICLE 3

1. The Provincial Governor has determined to utilize part of sea territories or coastal area in its administrative authority as a location for seafarming.

2. For adjustment of other parties interests relevant with sea utilization, the allocation of sea location such as mentioned in Chapter (l) above can be reviewed periodically.

ARTICLE 4

1. Seafarming concession is granted by Provincial Governor to the Village Unit Cooperative (KUD) of which its operational area includes the coastal line mentioned under Article 3.

2. The concession such as mentioned in this article above clarifies that those who are undertaking seafarming are obliged to maintain the environment condition and to balance the capture activities in order to achieve a continuing development.

3. Seafarming is undertaken by fishermen/fish farmers who are members of Cooperative or Unit Village Cooperative.

4. Whatever regulation which is relevant to seafarming activity undertaking as stipulated under Chapter (3) is arranged by Unit Village Cooperative (KUD).

5. If it is still possible, fishermen/fish farmers outside Cooperative are permitted to under take seafarming within Cooperative coastal area based on the regulations fixed by the Unit Village Cooperative (KUD).

6. The concession mentioned under Chapter (1) of this article is prohibited to be overtaken or over-handed in any other form.

ARTICLE 5

1. The concession of seafarming for certain types of seafarmed products which require high technology and big capital can be granted both to the Unit Village Cooperative and individual or particular.

2. Types of seafarmed products such as aforementioned is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture.

ARTICLE 6

1. Unit Village Cooperative assists the fishermen/fish farmers in processing and marketing seafarmed products.

2. In order that Unit Village Cooperation can carry out its functions such as explained in this Article, Chapter (1), it should get some upgrading in some aspects.

3. In processing and marketing seafarmed products, it is essential that the Unit Village Cooperative cooperate with an individual or particular side.

ARTICLE 7

In carrying out the Presidential Decree in District, the Provincial Governor should notice the technical directions given by the Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Communication and other concerned Ministers.

ARTICLE 8

Other matters which have not been arranged in this Presidential Decree will further be adjusted by the Minister of Agriculture after some negotiation with other concerned Ministers.

ARTICLE 9

This Presidential Decree is put into effect from the date of its fixing.

FIXED AT JAKARTA DATED 25 MAY 1982 PRESIDENT OF REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

PUBLICATIONS AND DOCUMENTS OF THE ASEAN/UNDP/FAO REGIONAL SMALL-SCALE COASTAL FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

(RAS/84/016) Working Papers

ASEAN/SF/86/WP/1 Rabanal, H. R. Seafarming as alternative to small-scale fishing in ASEAN region. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 55p.

ASEAN/SF/86/WP/2 Soeyanto, T. The status of Bali Strait fisheries with special reference to Muncar, Kedonganan and Jimbaran coastal villages. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 36p.

ASEAN/SF/86/WP/3 Boongerd, S. and S. Chitrapong. Small-scale fishing for squids and related species in Thailand. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 44p.

ASEAN/SF/89/WP/4 Guerrero, C.V. An evaluation of the socio-economic viability of the introduction of set net on small-scale fishermen in Botolan, Zambales. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Froject, 1980 50p.

ASEAN/SF/89/WP/5 Guerrero, C.V. An evaluation of the socio-economic viability of “payaw” on small-scale fishermen using hook and line in Masinloc, Zambales. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/ FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1983. 42p.

ASEAN/SF/89/WP/6 Guerrero, C.V. An evaluation of the socio-economic viability of set net operation on small-scale fishermen in Antique and Aklan; Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1989. 47p.

ASEAN/SF/90/WP/7 Chitrapong, S. Demonstration of squid fishing in Indonesia. Manila, ASEAN/ UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. 20p.

ASEAN/SF/90/WP/8 Guerrero, C.V. Assessment of the socio-economic impact of artificial reefs on small-scale fishermen in the Philippines. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. (In preparation).

Workshop Reports/Other General Reports

ASEAN/SF/86/GEN/l Report of national consultative meeting on aquaculture engineering held in Tigbauan Research Station, SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Iloilo City, Philippines, 2–5 October 1985. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 186p.

ASEAN/SF/86/GEN/2 Zabala, P. T. (Comp.) Preliminary annotated bibliography on small-scale fisheries in the ASEAN Region. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 41p.

ASEAN/SF/87/GEN/3 Report of the training course on shrimp culture held in Jepara, Indonesia, 2–19 December 1987. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1987. 63p.

ASEAN/SF/88/GEN/4 Report of the training course on small-scale fisheries extension held in Semarang, Indonesia, 26 January–14 February 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 130p.

ASEAN/SF/88/GEN/5 Report of the training course on fisheries extension methodology held in Penang, Malaysia, 13–26 March 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 266p.

ASEAN/SF/88/GEN/6 Report of the training course on seaweed farming held in Manila, Philippines, 2–21 May 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 169p.

ASEAN/SF/88/GEN/7 Report of the training/study tour on fishing with “payaw” held in Manila, Philippines, 16 May–4 June 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 87p.

ASEAN/SF/88/GEN/8 Report of the workshop on artificial reefs development and management held in Penang, Malaysia, 13–16 September 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 188p.

ASEAN/SF/89/GEN/9 Report of the training course on seabass breeding and culture, Satul, Thailand, 1–22 August 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1989. 85p.

ASEAN/SF/89/GEN/10 Report of the training course on marine finfish netcage culture, Singapore, 5–24 September 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1989. 193p.

ASEAN/SF/89/GEN/11 Report of the workshop on shrimp and finfish feed development, Johore Bahru, Malaysia, 25–29 October 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1989. 163p.

ASEAN/SF/89/GEN/12 Delmendo, M.N. and P.T. Zabala (Comp.). An annotated bibliography on shrimp feeds and nutrition. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1989. 34p.

ASEAN/SF/89/GEN/13 Delmendo, M.N. and P.T. Zabala (Comp.). An annotated bibliography on finfish feeds and nutrition. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1989. (In preparation).

ASEAN/SF/90/GEN/14 Zabala, P.T. (Comp.). Annotated bibliography on women in fisheries in the ASEAN region. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. 24p.

ASEAN/SF/90/GEN/15 A report of the training/study tour on squid fishing, Rayong and Chonburi, Thailand, 17–24 April 1990. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. 43p.

ASEAN/SF/90/GEN/16 Report of the workshop on fishery cooperatives management, Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia, 20–15 August 1990. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. (In preparation).

ASEAN/SF/90/GEN/17 Report of the workshop on assessment of the contribution of women in post harvest processing and marketing of fish and fishery products, Philippines, 15–19 October 1990. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. (In preparation).

ASEAN/SF/90/SF/GEN/18 Report of the training course on home-made feeds preparation for small-scale aquaculture use, Philippines, 19–25 November 1990. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. (In preparation).

ASEAN/SF/90/GEN/19 Report of the training course on set net fishing, Philippines, 3–19 December 1990. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. 36p.

ASEAN Fisheries Manuals

ASEAN/SF/86/Manual No. 1 Suprayitno, H. Manual of running water fish culture. Manila, ASEAN/ UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 34p.

ASEAN/SF/88/Manual No. 2 Juanich, G.L. Manual on seaweed farming: 1. Eucheuma spp. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 25p.

ASEAN/SF/88/Manual No. 3 Trono, G.C., Jr. Manual on seaweed culture: 2. Pond culture of Caulerpa. 3. Pond culture of Grncilaria. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 20p.

ASEAN/SF/88/Manual No. 4 Aguilar, E.R. A manual on set net fishing based on Philippine conditions. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 29p.

ASEAN/SF/90/Manual No. 5 Santos, G.A. A manual for the processing of agar from Gracilaria. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. 34p.

ASEAN/SF/90/Manual No. 6 Legaspi, A.M. Fish processing: Tuna ham making and boneless milkfish. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1990. (In preparation).

ASEAN/SF/91/Manual No. 7 Pascual, F.P. A practical guide to the preparation of home-made feeds for aquaculture. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1991. 28p.

Periodic Progress Reports

ASEAN/SF/86/PR-1 Soesanto, V. Project progress report of the ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 5 October 1985–5 April 1986. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 9p.

ASEAN/SF/86/PR-2 Soesanto, V. Project progress report of the ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 6 April–6 October 1986. Manila, ASEAN/ UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 11p.

ASEAN/SF/88/PPER-3 Delmendo, M.N. Project performance evaluation report of the ASEAN/UNDP/ FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development

Project, 31 July 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 23p.

Technical Reports Contributed to Symposia/Meetings, etc. ASEAN/SF/85/Tech. 1 Rabanal, H.R. and V. Soesanto. The world fishery and culture of

Macrobrachium and related prawn species. Contributed to the National Conference on Prawn Technology, sponsored by the Philippine Fishfarmers Technical Assistance Foundation, Inc., Manila, Philippines, 27–28 November 1985. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1985. 16p.

ASEAN/SF/86/Tech. 2 Rabanal, H.R. and V. Soesanto. Commercial species of shrimps and prawns, their sources and export markets. Contributed to the Seminar on Quality Control in the Production, Processing and Marketing of Frozen Shrimps for Export, sponsored by Food Research Department, Food Terminal Incorporated, Taguig, Metro Manila, Philippines, 29–31 July 1986. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 64p.

ASEAN/SF/86/Tech. 3 Rabanal, H.R. Status and prospects of shrimp farming in the Philippines. Contributed to the Monthly Seminar Series on Timely and Related Fisheries Issues, sponsored by the Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development, (PCARRD), Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines, 5 November 1986. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1986. 24p.

ASEAN/SF/87/Tech. 4 Delmendo, M.N. Fishery administration and policy in the Philippines: Past and present. Contributed to the National Conference on Fisheries Policy and Planning, Baguio City, Philippines, 16–20 March 1987. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1987. 35p.

ASEAN/SF/87/Tech. 5 Delmendo, M.N. Milkfish culture in pens: An assessment of its contribution to overall fishery production of Laguna de Bay. Paper read in the Seminar on the occasion of the Fish Conservation Week, BFAR, October 1987 and lecture material used in the NACA Senior Aquaculture Training Course, SEAFDEC, Tigbauan, Iloilo. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/ FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1987. 17p.

ASEAN/SF/87/Tech. 6 Delmendo, M.N. and B.H. Delmendo. Small-scale aquaculture operations in the ASEAN countries. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1987. 49p.

ASEAN/SF/88/Tech. 7 Rabanal, H.R. History of aquaculture. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 13p.

ASEAN/SF/88/Tech. 8 Rabanal, H.R. and M.N. Delmendo. Organization of the aquaculture industry. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. l0p.

ASEAN/SF/88/Tech. 9 Rabanal, H.R. Report on the World Aquaculture Society, 19th Annual Conference and Exposition, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A., 4–10 January 1988. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/ FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1988. 99p.

ASEAN/SF/89/Tech. 10 Delmendo, M.N. Some advances attained in shrimp farming research and management practices: Insights to future prospects for expansion of production. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1989. 60p.

ASEAN/SF/89/Tech. 11 Delmendo, M.N. Bivalve farming: An alternative economic activity for small-scale coastal fishermen. Manila, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, 1989. 45p.

1This is a draft translation. Details and accuracy should be referred to the original version in Indonesia.