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theme / ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS Asking the right questions Teachers' questions can build students' English language skills BY JANE D. HILL AND KATHLEEN FLYNN H ow often are English language learners (ELLs) relegated to the back of a mainstream class- room to talk over, in their native language, what the teacher has been discussing in English? The teacher is hoping that at least one of these stu- dents knows enough English to translate for her and also has enough know-how to lead a small-group conversation. All of this fol- lows a lesson where the teacher taught without using any visuals, made notes all over the white board and called only on native English speakers. The teacher may have heard that teachers should allow ELLs to participate in a cognitively rich experience by giv- ing them a space in the room where they can discuss the lesson in their own language. This "strategic use of lan- guage," as it is sometimes called, can be useful in certain circumstances - a writer's workshop, for example - but imagine how disastrous it would be in a physics class. The problem with this practice is not just that it becomes stu- dents teaching students instead of a teacher teaching stu- - dents - it's students who have understood only some of the lesson teaching students who understood even less. Most likely, this mainstream teacher turns to such practices because she feels helpless when it comes to determining what she can do to actively engage ELLs in classroom learning. Her situation is not unusual. The 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Education indicated that of the 41.2% of teachers who taught ELLs, only 12.5% had had eight or more hours of training in such instruction in the preceding three years (n.d.). The number of ELLs in U.S. schools has only grown since that survey was conducted, meaning more ELLs in more classrooms where teachers have not received adequate training. Teachers know that student engagement is important, but how does a teacher engage students who speak a differ- ent language? This is a critical question because research has shown that higher levels of student engagement are "a robust predictor of student achievement and behavior in school" (Klen & Connell, 2004, p. 262). Tucker et al (2005) report that while "teachers exert a potent influence WWW.NSDC.ORG NATIONAL STAFF DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL 46 JSD WINTER 2008 VOL. 29, NO. I

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Page 1: Asking the right questions - DenverPeerObserversdenverpeerobservers.wikispaces.com/file/view/Higher order thinking... · Asking the right questions Teachers' questions can build students

theme / ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

AskingtherightquestionsTeachers' questions can build

students' English language skills

BY JANE D. HILL

AND KATHLEEN FLYNN

H ow often are English language

learners (ELLs) relegated to the

back of a mainstream class-room to talk over, in their

native language, what the teacher hasbeen discussing in English? The teacheris hoping that at least one of these stu-dents knows enough English to translatefor her and also has enough know-how tolead a small-group conversation. All of this fol-lows a lesson where the teacher taught withoutusing any visuals, made notes all over the white boardand called only on native English speakers.

The teacher may have heard that teachers should allowELLs to participate in a cognitively rich experience by giv-ing them a space in the room where they can discuss thelesson in their own language. This "strategic use of lan-guage," as it is sometimes called, can be useful in certaincircumstances - a writer's workshop, for example - but

imagine how disastrous it would be in a physics class. Theproblem with this practice is not just that it becomes stu-dents teaching students instead of a teacher teaching stu-

- dents - it's students who have understoodonly some of the lesson teaching studentswho understood even less.

Most likely, this mainstream teacherturns to such practices because she feels

helpless when it comes to determiningwhat she can do to actively engage ELLsin classroom learning. Her situation isnot unusual. The 1999-2000 Schools andStaffing Survey conducted by the U.S.

Department of Education indicated thatof the 41.2% of teachers who taught ELLs,

only 12.5% had had eight or more hours oftraining in such instruction in the preceding

three years (n.d.). The number of ELLs in U.S. schoolshas only grown since that survey was conducted, meaningmore ELLs in more classrooms where teachers have notreceived adequate training.

Teachers know that student engagement is important,but how does a teacher engage students who speak a differ-ent language? This is a critical question because researchhas shown that higher levels of student engagement are "arobust predictor of student achievement and behavior inschool" (Klen & Connell, 2004, p. 262). Tucker et al(2005) report that while "teachers exert a potent influence

WWW.NSDC.ORG NATIONAL STAFF DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL46 JSD WINTER 2008 VOL. 29, NO. I

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over the achievement of students,"they often have "lower expectationsfor and fewer interactions withminority students" (p. 29). Theseresearchers tie students' level ofengagement to a teacher's level of effi-cacy, e.g. a teacher's belief that she caninfluence student performance. Whenfaced with the task of educating stu-dents who don't speak English,though, how many mainstream teach-ers believe that they can adequatelyinstruct ELLs?

In this article, we present aninstructional strategy that helps teach-ers engage ELLs in learning, thusincreasing their own belief that theycan effectively teach English languagelearners, and we propose a profession-al development activity that willcement this strategy in teachers'minds. The beauty of this strategy,which focuses on questions in theclassroom, is that it helps teachers

specifically address the needs of ELLswhile also meeting the needs of everystudent in the classroom. It allowsteachers to integrate learning for ELLsin mainstream classrooms and to helpthese students achieve academic suc-cess at the same levels as their nativeEnglish-speaking peers. Finally, itshows teachers one direction for creat-ing a supportive environment forEnglish language learners.

TIERED QUESTIONSIn Classroom Instruction That

Works With English Language Learners(Hill & Flynn, 2006), we recommendthat teachers use questions frequentlythroughout a lesson because doing so

JANE D. HILL Is a lead consultant at Mid-continent Research for Education andLearning (McREL). You can contact her at4601 DTC Blvd., Suite 500, Denver, CO,80237, 303-632-5529, fax 303-337-3005,e-mail: [email protected].

KATHLEEN FLYNN is a lead consultant atMid-continent Research for Education andLearning (McREL). You can contact her at4601 DTC Blvd., Suite 500, Denver, CO,80237, 303-632-5563, fax 303-337-3005,e-mail: [email protected].

NATIONAL STAFF DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL

Stages of second-language acquisition and tiered questions

STAGE CHARACTERISTICS TEACHER PROMPTS

Preproduction The student: • Show me ..."* Has minimal comprehension. * Circle the ..."* Does not verbalize. • Where is ...?"* Nods "yes" and "no." - Who has ...?"* Draws and points.

Early The student: * Yes/no questions.production * Has limited comprehension. - Either/or questions.

"• Produces one- or two-word - Who, what, andresponses. how many

"* Participates using key words questions.and familiar phrases.

"* Uses present-tense verbs.

Speech The student: ° Why ...?emergence ° Has good comprehension. * How ...?

"* Can produce simple sentences. 0 Explain ..."* Makes grammar and o Questions requiring

pronunciation errors. a short sentence"* Frequently misunderstands response.

jokes.

Intermediate The student: • What wouldfluency * Has excellent comprehension. happen if ...?

* Makes few grammatical errors. * Why do youthink ...?

- Questions requiringmore than a one-sentence response.

Advanced The student has a near-native level - Decide if ...fluency of speech. • Retell ...

Source: Adapted from The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the

Classroom, by Stephen D. Krashen and Tracy Terrell. Oxford, England:

Pergamon, 1983.

offers ELLs opportunities to use theirnew language and provides teacherswith opportunities to assess ELLs'understanding of the content beingpresented. However, teachers need toask appropriate questions of Englishlanguage learners. To use the strategywe recommend, which we call tieredquestions, teachers must know thestages of language acquisition and beable to determine what stage eachELL is in. The chart above summa-rizes the five stages of language acqui-

sition - preproduction, early produc-

tion, speech emergence, intermediatefluency, and advanced fluency - aswell as the characteristics of each, andappropriate prompts to use whenquestioning English language learners.By knowing the stages of languageacquisition and stage-appropriatequestions, a teacher can engage stu-dents at the correct level of discourse.Paying attention to teacher promptsthat accompany the stages of acquisi-tion is one way to help a studentmove to the next level of English pro-ficiency.

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Knowing the level of languageacquisition also allows a teacher towork within the student's "zone ofproximal development" - that areabetween what the student is capableof at the moment and the point youwant your student to reach next(Vygotsky, 1978). According toVygotsky, you can work in a student'szone of proximal development by"scaffolding" language development,

Z or providing the support a studentneeds as she progresses.

4)Scaffolding is essentially a way toE nudge a student toward a higher level

of performance. With language devel-.I- opment, this can be done by model-

ing correct grammar or pronuncia-tion, providing direct

While teachers instruction, or asking

use questions challenging questions.

often, they tend For example, if a student

to ask lower- is in the preproduction

level questions, stage, he will be success-

e.g. questions ful at stage-appropriate

that ask tasks such as pointing,

students to finding, or circling a pic-

simply recall or ture. However, you can

recognize scaffold further develop-

information, ment by supporting him

rather than as he attempts tasks char-

higher-level acteristic of the early pro-

questions that duction stage, such as

require students answering yes/no ques-

to analyze and tions or providing one-

evaluate word responses. In other

knowledge, words, if you adapt theway you prompt, studentswill respond according to

both their current stage and the stagejust beyond.

LOWER- AND HIGHER-LEVEL

QUESTIONSResearch has shown that cues and

questions "are at the heart of class-room practice" (Marzano, Pickering,& Pollock, 2001, p. 113). In fact,cueing and questioning can accountfor as much as 80% of what occurs ina classroom on any given day(Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock,

48 JSD WINTER 2008 VOL. 29, NO. 1

Bloom's taxonomy

CONCEPT LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

Knowledge: Tell what you know or remember. who, what, why, when,"* What is ...? where, omit, choose, which,"* Where is ...? name, select, find, match,"• Which one ...? name, label, show, recall

Comprehension: Demonstrate understanding compare, contrast,of facts and ideas. demonstrate, illustrate,

"* How would you compare ...? Contrast ...? rephrase, show, classify"* Which is the best answer ...?"* How would you classify the type of ...?

Application: Use what you learn in apply, build, choose,another way. construct, develop, make

"* How would you use ...? use of, organize, plan, solve,"* What would result if ...? model, identify"* What other way would you plan to ...?

Analysis: Look at something closely to find analyze, discover, dissect,out more about it. infer, examine, survey, test

"* Why do you think ...? for, relationships"* What inference can you make ...?"* What is the relationship between ...?

Synthesis: Put ideas or parts of things together. build, combine, compile,"* What ways could...? create, design, formulate,"* Why do you think ...? imagine, invent, predict"* Imagine ...

Evaluation: Tell if something is right or wrong, criticize, decide, defend,good or bad. evaluate, recommend,

"* Do you agree/disagree ...? agree, appraise, opinion,"* Why do you think ...? disprove"* Decide if ...

Source: Adapted from Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, by Benjamin S.

Bloom. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1984.

2001). However, teachers are fre-quently unaware of how heavily theyrely on cueing and questioning. Inone study, elementary teachers whothought they were asking 12 to 20questions each half hour actuallyasked 45 to 150 questions (Marzano,Pickering, & Pollock, 2001, citingNash & Shiman, 1974).

While teachers use questionsoften, they tend to ask lower-levelquestions, e.g. questions that ask stu-

dents to simply recall or recognizeinformation, rather than higher-levelquestions that require students to ana-lyze and evaluate knowledge(Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock,2001). Research indicates that thisoccurs with all students, but the prac-tice is particularly prevalent withEnglish language learners (Ramirez,1992) because teachers believe thatthese students cannot understand orrespond to higher-level questions.

)WWW.NSDC.ORG NATIONAL STAFF DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL

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This is not true, as we will demon-strate, but to successfully ask higher-level questions of ELLs, teachers mustbe conscious not only of the stages oflanguage acquisition, but also of thelevels of questions that they can askeach day of all their students.

What distinguishes lower-levelfrom higher-level questions? Readerslikely use or recall Bloom's Taxonomy,which provides a structure for catego-rizing the level of abstraction of ques-tions (Bloom, 1984). (See chart on p.

48.) It illustrates the levels in theTaxonomy, which starts with lower-level questions - recalling informa-tion, for example - and concludeswith higher-level questions - com-paring and discriminating betweenideas, for example.

How, though, a teacher might ask,can I possibly ask a preproduction orearly production student a questionthat involves analyzing information ifthe most the student can do is pointor give a one- or two-word response?A teacher should not mistake ELLs'limited level of output for their abilityto think abstractly. It's easy to keepasking preproduction students toshow something by pointing, but thepointing can and must do more thanhave them recall knowledge. It's easyto ask an early production student aquestion that requires a yes-noresponse, but the yes-no questiondoesn't have to and should not centeronly on recalling knowledge.

The chart on p. 50 uses a 3rd-grade classroom lesson on types of ani-

mals to illustrate how a teacher canalign the stages of language acquisitionwith the various levels from Bloom'sTaxonomy in order to ask ELLs high-er-level questions. For example, ateacher can ask a preproduction stu-dent a knowledge-level question, suchas "Where is the raccoon?" as well asasking this same student to categorizetypes of animals, as in an analysis-levelquestion: "Show me an animal thatcan't live in the forest." Similarly, anearly production student can be askedto categorize: "What are the parts of afish that help it live in the water?"With these higher-level questions, ateacher is truly engaging English lan-guage learners. (See chart on p. 50.)Because teachers must attend to askinghigher-level questions of all students,

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Source: Adapted from Bloom's Taxonomy Halliday'Contributors: Mike Gaddis and Cynthia Bjork.

SO JSD WINTER 2008 VOL 29, NO. 1

Language Functions, and Krashen's Stages of Language Acquisition.

WWW.NSDC.ORG NATIONAL STAFF DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL

Bloom's taxonomy across stages of language acquisitionLINKING THINKING, LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS, AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Levels of thinking and Language use across stages of second-language acquisition

language functions Moves from simple to complex in grammatical tenses, forms, vocabulary, etc.

Level of thinking and Preproduction: Early Speech Intermediate Advancedacademic language move from Nonverbal production: emergence: fluency: fluency:concrete recall to more response. One-word Phrases or Longer and Near native-like.complex and more abstract in response. short more complexany undertaking. sentences. sentences.

EVALUATION Teacher What are the What makes a What would Recommend aAppraise, argue, assess, attach, mismatches best good home for happen if you differentchoose, compare, defend, animal with its materials for a bear? put a worm in environment for aestimate, judge, predict, rate, environment and the duck to (Examine the desert? mother duck toselect, support, value, evaluate asks: Is this the build a nest? settings and raise her

right evaluate: "A ducklings. Defendenvironment? cave makes a your choice.Find the right good home.")environment.

SYNTHESIS Point to the Say the How could you What would a How would youArrange, assemble, collect, animals that live names of the change a clam need to protect thecompose, construct, create, in the soil. animals that scorpion so it survive in the wildlife in a forestdesign, develop, formulate, live in the could swim? desert? where hiking wasmanage, organize, plan, soil. very popular?prepare, propose, set up

ANALYSIS Show me an Name the How are How does a Why do youAnalyze, appraise, calculate, animal that parts of a raccoons and bear use its think a bearcategorize, compare, contrast, cannot live in the fish that help squirrels the claws to catch hibernates incriticize, differentiate, forest, it live in the same? How are fish? Gather winter?discriminate, distinguish, water. they different? berries?examine, experiment,question, test

APPIUCATION Show me what Tell me what How could you How would How would aApply, choose, demonstrate, would happen if would change the you capture deer camouflagedramatize, employ, illustrate, we put the fish in happen if we body of a fish and transport itself in the forestinterpret, operate, practice, the desert. put a fish in to make it fly? scorpions to a in winter? In theschedule, sketch, solve, use the desert. zoo? desert?

COMPREHENSION Show me where a Tell me Why is a toad Explain how a Why do fish needClassify, describe, discuss, deer lives, which the color it is? snake catches gills to live in theexplain, express, identify, animals eat its prey. water? How doindicate, locate, recognize, meat. gills work?report, restate, review, select,translate

KNOWLEDGE Where is the What is the What are the Give the Tell meArrange, order, define, raccoon? name of this body parts of a definition of a everything youduplicate, label, list, name, animal? turtle? mammal. know about arecognize, relate, recall, repeat, clam.reproduce

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the last column in this chart providesquestions a teacher can ask of bothadvanced fluency students and nativeEnglish speakers.

ACTION RESEARCHTo help teachers improve their

questioning skills, we recommend anopportunity for professional develop-ment via action research. Actionresearch allows teachers to "reflect ontheir practices and student results bystudying teaching and learning"(Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles,Mundry, & Hewson, 2003, p. 162).In action research, a teacher forms herown research questions. In this case,the teacher is asking two questions:(1) Are my questions aligned with my

students' stages of language acqui-sition?; and

(2) Am I asking higher-level questions

of all my students?With these questions in mind, a

teacher invites a colleague with whomhe feels comfortable to come in for aclass period and write down everyquestion he asks - what the questionwas and which student was ques-tioned. The teacher then reviews thetranscript and analyzes his questions:1. What questions did he ask of

native English speakers?a. Chart where each question falls

according to Bloom's Taxonomy. (Seethe blank chart in the online versionof this article at www.nsdc.org/jsd/.)2. Did he ask questions of the

English language learners?a. If not, why not? How can he

learn to engage English languagelearners in the classroom experience?

b. If yes, how closely did eachquestion align to the ELLs currentstage of language acquisition or to onelevel beyond that stage?

c. Chart where each question fallsaccording to Bloom's Taxonomy.

Assume that the teacher findssome room for improvement when heanalyzes his questions, as most teach-ers will. For the next six weeks, he

concentrates on developing and ask-ing questions that are appropriate toeach ELUIs stage of acquisition (or toone level beyond the student's currentstage), as well as on asking higher-level questions of all students, bothnative English speakers and ELLs.Focusing solely on this one new prac-tice for an extended period of timeshould make it easier for a teacher toachieve results.

Six weeks later, the colleaguecomes in again to script the teacher'squestions. Will the teacher be perfectafter six weeks? Of course not, but heshould see marked improvement. Andthe improvement will not only be vis-ible in that transcript of questions, hewill also see an increased level ofengagement in learning with all hisstudents, and he will feel far less help-less in instructing ELL students.

WHAT'S NEXT?Once a teacher is skilled at asking

tiered questions, she should beginworking toward giving students tieredassignments during class and tieredhomework. The chart on p. 50, whichaligns the stages of language acquisi-tion with Bloom's levels of abstrac-tion, is as useful in forming assign-ments as it is in developing questions.Teachers should talk with each otherabout their tiered assignments andtiered homework to realize whatworks and what doesn't. Samples oftiered assignments and tiered home-work can be kept in a portfolio fornext year's teachers. And once ateacher masters tiered assignmentsand homework, it's on to tiered assess-ments.

CONCLUSIONIn Classroom Instruction That

Works With English Language Learners,we note that language learning is notsomething that will "just happen"when English language learners areexposed to English in a mainstreamclassroom. Instead, teachers need to

make language learning purposeful,intentional, and explicit. A teacher isbeing intentional when she pays care-ful attention to her questions.Questions that are not only aligned toa student's stage of language acquisi-tion but also focus on higher-orderskills will allow ELLs to more fullyengage in learning both language andcontent. Will it take additional timeto prepare to engage all students inclassroom activities? Yes, especially atfirst. But the payoff is huge - days ofrich learning experiences for Englishlanguage learners where a teacher,who previously felt helpless, is nowconfident that she has allowed herstudents to experience success in theclassroom.

REFERENCESBloom, B. (1984). Taxonomy of

educational objectives. Boston: Allyn &Bacon.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1973).Explorations in the functions of lan-guage. London: EdwardArnold.

Hill, J.D. & Flynn, Onceg

K.M. (2006). Classroom is skill'

instruction that works asking

with English language questi

learners. Alexandria, VA: should

ASCD. workin

Klen, A.M. & giving

Connell, J.P. (2004). tiered

Relationships matter: assig

Linking teacher support duringtiered

to student engagement

and achievement. Journal homey

of School Health, 74(7),262-273.

Krashen, S.D. & Terrell, T.(1983). The natural approach:Language acquisition in the classroom.Oxford, England: Pergamon.

Loucks-Horsley, S., Love, N.,Stiles, K.E., Mundry, S., & Hewson,P.W. (2003). Designing professionaldevelopment fbr teachers of science andmathematics (2nd ed.). ThousandOaks, CA: Corwin Press.

VOL. 29, NO. 1 WINTER 2008 JSD 51

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tiered

ons, sheI begin

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students

ments

class and

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EU,

Marzano, R.J., Pickering, D.J.,& Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroominstruction that works: Research-basedstrategies for increasing student achieve-ment. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Nash, R.J. & Shiman, D.A.(1974). The English teacher as ques-tioner. English Journal, 63, 42-45.

Ramirez, J.D. (1992). Executivesummary of the final report:

Longitudinal study of structuredEnglish immersion strategy, early-exitand late-exit transitional bilingualeducation programs for languageminority children. Bilingual ResearchJournal 16, 1-62.

Tucker, C.M., Porter, T., Reinke,W.M., Herman, IFC., Ivery, PD.,Mack, C.E., & Jackson, E.S. (2005).Promoting teacher efficacy for working

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with culturally diverse students.Preventing School Failure, 50(1), 29-34.

U.S. Department of Education,National Center for EducationStatistics. (n.d.). Schools and staffingsurvey: 1999-2000. Available atnces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002313.pdf.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind insociety. Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press.

4Learning

Your Partner inDeveloping ProfessionalLearning Communities

1.888.399.1995www.voyagerlearning.com

NATIONAL STAFF DEVELOPMENT COUNCILW .NSDC.ORG

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COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

TITLE: Asking the right questionsSOURCE: J Staff Dev 29 no1 Wint 2008

The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and itis reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article inviolation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher:http://www.nsdc.org/