atasament la adolescenti

8/12/2019 Atasament La Adolescenti

1/18

PATERNAL/MATERNAL ATTACHMENT PEER SUPPORTSOCIAL EXPECTATIONS OF PEER INTERACTION ANDDEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS

Yih Lan Liu

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to investigate how paternal and maternal attach-ment might relate to adolescents' peer support, social expectations of peerinteraction, and depressive symptoms; 1,144 8th graders in Taiwan partici-pated m the study. The relationships were examined through a structuralequating modeling. Consistent with theoretical formulations, adolescents withsecure attachments to parents reported.higher peer support, fewer negativeexpectations, and fewer depressive symptoms. Paternal and maternal attach-ment contribute almost equallytoadolescents' social expectations of peer inter-action and depressive symptoms. Attachment to the same-sex parent wasrelated to adolescents' perceived peer support.

Recent research on depression has articulated a cognitive-interper-sonal approach in order to conceptuaUze depression in adulthood andchildhood. According to this model of depression, lack of security maycreate enduring vulnerabil i t ies to depression or behavioral problemsby impairing an individual 's ability both to participate in satisfyingsocial relat ionships and to appropriately understand and evaluate so-cial intera ction s (M ongrain, 1998; B ar re tt Ho lmes, 2001). The devel-opniental origin of maladaptive cognitions is believed to stem fromchildhood experiences (Cum mings Cicchetti, 1990; H am m en,1992a,b). A ttachm ent theory postulates t h at early relat ionsh ip experi-ences will provide a child with cognitive working models of self rela-t ionships, and others in general . These internal structures containassumptions and expectations about self and others in a social contextand thus regulate the processing of information about interpersonalevents and relationships (Bowlby, 1979; 1981).

The authors would liketothank the National Science Council ofthe Republicof China for financially supporting this research imder Contract No NSC89-2413H-143-001.


2/18

Evidence has indicated that the quality of attachment experiencesis associated with a variety of indices of adaptive psychological func-tioning (Hammen et al., 1995; Kenny et al., 1998; Muris et al., 2001;Papini Roggman, 1992; Tum er-Cobb, et al., 2002; Wei, Heppner,Mallinckrodt, 2003). The notion of internal and interpersonal modelsmay be useful in elucidating pathways to emotional or behavioral ad-justm ent. Interpersonal schema mayfilt rnformation about past rela-tionships to help appraise emotional consequences of presentinteractions. People with dysfunctional in terpersona l schema (insecureattachments) which resulted from experiences of parental rejection orinconsistency in early childhood may believe that they are not worthyand therefore not expect responsiveness from others (Hammen et al.,1995).They also tend to report a higher level of anxiety and unfulfilledhopes, and to withdraw from social interaction or to be negative anduncertain in social interactions (Barrett Holmes, 2001; FeeneyNoUer, 1990). Allen and Hauser (1996) suggested th at insecure a ttach-ments cause defensive exclusion and distortion of mem ories. Individu-als in this state of mind may find it difficvilt to behave fiexibly andnondefensively in other social interactions. They have negative expec-tations of themselves and others in interactions, which are potentiallyself-fulfilling and m ay reduce opportunities for positive social inter-action.In addition to acknowledging and interpreting interpersonal situa-tions, the internal working model also organizes rules of emotionalself-regulation and memory accesstofacilitate responsiveness and rec-ognize availability of attachm entfigur s(Kobak e tal.,1993). This viewsuggests that working models should infiuence a person's perceptionofthe efficacy of supportive transactions and relationships. Kobak andSceery (1988) indicated that secure persons are more effective in tu rn-ing to others for support in times of distress. Inversely, insecure per-sons are less likely to tu m to others for support because they are e itheroverwhelmed by negative emotional arousal or restricted in acknowl-edgement of the ir feeUngs. Other studies also confirmed the belief th atsecure attachment cognitions are associated with enhanced levels ofperceived social support from both family and friends. In contrast,insecure attachment is related to problems in relationships (Blain,Thompson, Whiffen, 1993; Herzberg et al., 1999; Sarason et al., 1991;Wallace Vaux,1993). Herzberg etal.(1999) pointed out th at securelyattached students not only believe that their social environment is


3/18

contributes to a person's self-regulation of distress (Priel Shamai,1995). The perceived availability of social support may play an im-portant role in predicting coping efficacy, well-being, and psychologicalhealth (Hammen et al., 1995; Kenny et al., 1998; Muris et al., 2001;Papini Roggman, 1992; Turner-Cobb et al., 2002; Wei, Heppner,Mallinckrodt, 2003).While inte m al working models of attachm ent are presumed to helpguide the active processing of interpersonal information, stable beliefsor expectations about relationships are expected to expand across rela-tionships. As Bowlby suggested, once a child's in tem al working is de-veloped, the models would be relatively stable and therefore predictother closer relationships late r in life(Bowlby,1973), especially if thoserelationships are similar in aspecttoan attachm ent relationship(Ains-worth, 1990). Empirical evidence has indicated that parent-child at-tachment pattems are associated with interpretations of friends'behavior and interaction pattems. Allen and Land (1999) suggestedthat the continuity of parents' availabihty as attachment figures mayfacihtate offsprings' ability to explore (emotionally), to separate fromthem, and to form close relationships with peers. Secure attachmentwith the mother assists the child to regulate negative emotions con-stmctively, to express more positive feelings, and thu s to interac t w ithpeers more effectively (Kobak Sceery, 1988) Children w ith negativerepresentations of attachment figures were reported to display lowerperceptions of interpersonal acceptance and lower appraisals of family/peer support, more negative and rigid interpretations , and more nega-tive expectations of matemal/peer response in hypothetical social in-teractions (Rudolph, Ham men, Burge, 1995; Zimm ermann, 2004).Lack of support and acceptance tends to cause depression in childrenor adolescents (Chu, 1996; Feldman, Rubenstein, Rubin, 1988).Though Bowlby (1969/1982) assumed th at the m other is the primaryattachm ent figure, researchers have acknowledged the importance ofother attachment figures, especially fathers. Attachment to fathersversus a ttachm ents to mothers has been found to make a differentialcontribution to individual psychological functioning and adjustment(Rice, Cunningham , Young,1997;Kenny Gallagher, 2002; Young-blade Belsky, 1992; Youngblade et al., 1993). Generally speaking,attachment to mothers has been reported to be associated with chil-dren's or adolescents' peer acceptance and relationships (Kerns,Klepac, Cole, 1996; Markiewicz, Doyle, Brendgen, 2001; Young-


4/18

that children with attachment security to fathers were rated to beless cooperative, less positive, and less coordinated with the ir friends.Similarly, Markiewicz,Doyle, Brendgen (2001) reported that attach-ment security to fathers was inversely related to attachment securityto friends. In contrast, Zimmermann (2004) reported a positive associa-tion between support attachm ent experiences with fathers and friend-ship quality and concepts. Roberts (1994) also found that fatherscomforting and acceptance of the ir children s emotional distress arelinked with more positive peer relationships. The role of paternal at-tachment in adolescents peer relationships requires further clarifi-cation.In a review of relevant studies regarding attachment and parent-peer relations in Taiwan, only Sun (1994,1997a,b), using the Inventoryof Parent and Peer Attachment, conducted a series of studies investi-gating the infiuence of attachm ent relationship w ith pa ren ts and peerson adolescents problem behaviors (1994) and drug attitudes (1997a).Her findings indicated that insecure attachment with parents was as-sociated with more depression/pessimism, anti-authority behavior,anxiety, and liberal attitudes toward drug usage. However, how paren-tal attachment representations affect adolescents peer relationships

and their consequent adjustment is still not clarified. The currentstudy was designed to investigate how a ttachm ent relationships withfathers and mothers related to adolescents perceived peer support andsocial expectations of peer interactions, and how the relations werefurther associated with the ir depressive symptoms. The model hypoth-esized that secure attachment to fathers and to mothers would posi-tively predict perceived peer support but negatively predict negativesocial expectations of peer interaction; perceived peer support wouldbe negatively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas negativesocial expectation of peer interaction would be positively associatedwith depressive sjrmptoms. Finally, gender differences were examinedto see whether attachm ent relationships with fathers or with m othershave differential infiuences over adolescentboys or girls peer relation-ships as well as the ir depressive sjnmptoms. Recent research has indi-cated that the patterns of developmental change in attachmentrelationships during adolescence are infiuenced by gender of the at-tachment figure and by gender of the adolescent (Buist et al., 2002).It was expected th at adolescent boys would display different pat tem sof relationship pathways tha n would girls.


5/18

M THO

Participants were 1,289 8th graders from eas tem Taiwan who wereselected by randomly stratified cluster sam pling; 1,144 questionnaireswere completed (Boys, 622; Giris, = 522). Data were collectedin school settings from March to Ju ne ,2001.Participants were admin-istered a series of measures in groups: Children Depression inventory(CDI; Kovacs, 1981), Child's Perception of Security(CPS;Kem s et al.,1996), Children's Expectation of Social Behavior Questionnaire(CESBQ, Rudolph et al., 1995), and Perceived Social Support from.Friends (PSSFr, Procidano & Heller, 1983). The adolescents werefound to live in th e following family stru ctures : paren ts living together,76.7 ;divorced, 10.1 ; separated, 5.7 ; widowed, 5.1 ; rem arried,2.4 . The average age of the participants was 14.The scales on parental attachment, perceived social support, socialexpectations, and depression were originally in English. All question-naires were translated into Chinese prior to administration. Threebilingual Chinese scholars independently translated each item andthen compared translations to resolve any disagreements. Throughprimary da ta analyses, items which have neghgible correlations withthe scales were eliminated, and the inte m al consistencies ofthe ques-tionnaires were all modified to be approximately .75.CDI is the most widely employed self-report measure of depressionin children. It consists of27 items designed to measure cognitive, af-fective, and behavioral symptoms of depression two weeks prior to thetest. Each item lists three statements that are scored as 1 through 2,indicating the varying levels of symptom security. The CDI has beenascertained to have adequate in tem al consistency, test-retest reliabil-ity, and acceptable convergent validity in Westem countries. In Tai-wan, in addition to Liu (2003), Chen and Huang (1998) translated theCDI into Chinese and their research team applied the scale to childrenand adolescents including 3rd to 6th grade community children versuschildren with cleft lip palate (Huang et al., 1999), and communityadolescents and adolescents exhibiting delinquent behaviors (Huang,1998). Their findings indicated that the3 week test-retest reliabilitywas .53-.54 and the intemal consistency was .80-.86, showing goodreliability and constmct validity. The rehability of1 monthtest-retestand intemal consistency were .69 and .88, respectively.TheCPSis a self-report instm m ent which includes 5items m easur-


6/18

in communicating with the attachm ent figure. Items were rated usingHater 's (1982) Some kids Other kids . . . format. Children weretold to indicate which statement was more like them and then to indi-cate whether this statement was really true for them or sort of tmefor them . Each item on the scale was scored from 1 to 4, with higherscores indicating a more secure parent-child attachment. Liao (2001)had read this scaleto 1346th graders in Taiwan and found th at partici-pants could fully understand the content. The internal reliability ofCronbach's coefficient is .84 in her study. For the present study, thewording of the scale was revised to be more suitable for adolescents.For instance, some kids feel it is easy to trus t their fathers/mothersis revised as some teenagers feel it is easy to tru st their fa thers/mothers. Participants completed the scales of the father version andthe mother version. Rehabihty analysis showed tha t item 11 someteenagers w ish to be more close to their fathers/mothers and item 15 some teenagers wish their fathers/mothers could provide more helpfor their troubles had negligible correlations with the total scale. Thetwo items were then deleted and the Cronbach's reliability coefficientsof the scales were .79 for the father version and .77 for the motherversion.

The CESBQ examines children's predictions about the outcomes ofinterpersonal encounters. Fifteen vignettes describe hypotheticaltransactions between children and peers. Each item is followed bythree alternatives refiecting either supportive, indifferent or overtlyhostile interpersona l responses by others (scored as0,1 ,and2,respec-tively).The15peer items are summedtoform the score tha t representsthe children's expectations in these domains. A sample item is as fol-lows: You see some children playing a game during recess one day, soyougoover and ask if you can play with them. What do you think thatthey might say? (a) They might say mean things about me and tell meto go away (hostile); (b) They might just act like I wasn't even thereand keep playing (indifferent); (c) They might tell me to join in thegame and make room for me (positive). Since there might be culturaldifferences in peer interaction, prior to the pilot study, the thirty vi-gnettes were read to an 8 th grader to see whether the described situa-tion in the original scale was common or reasonable in Taiwan. Minormodifications were made to the situations described in some items.The scale has a range from 0 to 30 with higher scores indicating morenegative expectations. The Cronbach's reliability coefficient for


7/18

hea ring about w hat I think, I rely on my friends for emotional sup-port ). For each of the statements on the two subscales, subjects areprovided w ith thre e options:yes, no,anddon tknow.Depending on thedirection ofthe item, ayesor no is assigned 1point, indicating support,or 0 points, indicating no support. Thus, each scale has a range from0 to 40 with higher scores indicating more support. The Cronbach'sreliabihty coefficient for PSS-Fr is .83.

RESULTSPreliminary Analyses

M eans and stan da rd deviations for all variables were calculated sep-arately for boys and girls (see Table 1), and two-tailed t tests wereperformed. Compared with boys, girls reported higher levels of CDIscores, f(1140) = - 2 . 60 ,p


8/18

TABLE 2Correlations Am ong At tachment PeerExpectations Peer Sup port and Depression.

1. Patemal Attachment _ 0 . 47 * -0.15*** 0.11*** -0.19**2.M atemal Attachment _ -0.17*** 0 .09** - 0 .1 93 .Peer Expec ta tions _ 4 )38*** 0 7 54 .Peer Support _ _ 42*5 .Depression*p


9/18

Maternalattachment

Paternalattachment

Peerexpectations\ ^ ^

Depression

Peersupport

Figure 1. The theoretical model linking maternal attachment patemalattachment social expectations of peerinteraction peer support and depressionexpectations of peer interaction. Perceived peer suppo rt an d negativeexp ectations of pee r inte ractio n significantly p redicted depre ssivesymptoms. Secure at tachment to fathers displayed a s imilar patternonly that parental at tachment correlated with peer support with nosignificance. Secure attachments to fathers and to mothers showeddirect corrielations with depressive symptoms.For boys th e initial model specification rev ealed a n acceptable over-all mo del fit to th e da ta x^ = 8.28 p = 0.041 CFI = .99 IFI = .99RMSEA = .053. Inspection oft he residu als and LISREL modificationindices suggested an additional relation between secure attachment tomothers and depressive symptoms. After inclusion of this regressionpa th th e res ult s showed excellent model fit x^ = 1.77 p = .42 CF I =1.0 IF I = 1.0 RM SEA = .000. Tho ugh the resid ua ls and L ISRELmodification indices also suggested a relation between secure attach-ment to fathers and depressive symptoms inclusion in the model ofthi s regression pa th imp roved th e model fit only a little A x^ = 1.77Adf= 1 Thus the former model is more appropriate to explain therelationships among observed variables. This indicates that secure at-tac hm en t to fathers significantly and positively predicted peer supp ortbut negatively predicted negative expectation of peer interaction. Se-cure attachment to mothers not only significantly related to negativeexpectations of peer interaction bu t also related directly to depressivesymp toms. Peer support an d negative expectations of peer interactionsignificantly predicted depressive sym ptoms. The standa rdized regres-


10/18

MatemalattachmentPeerexpectations

47

Patemalattachment

Depression

Figure 2. Em pirical model linking maternal attachment patemal attachmentsocial expectations of peer interaction peer support and depressionfemalemodel Standardized rejp^ession coeflBaeaots based on LIS RE LM aximum -Likelihood e stimates are presented. For simplicity coefficients that arenot significant at p


11/18

mine whether gender differences existed among path coefficients. How-ever, primary analyses indicated that boys and girls demonstrateddifferent model pa ths , and there is no need for multiple sample analy-ses. Overall, parental attachment, peer support, and social expecta-tions of peer interaction jointly explained 29 of the variance indepressive sjmiptoms for girls, and 21 ofthe variance for boys.IS USSION

This study investigated the relationships among parental attach-ment, interpersonal cognition of peer interaction, and adolescent de-pressive symptoms. The results mostly supported the proposed model,revealing that patemal as well as matemal attachment significantlypredicted adolescent depressive symptoms, either by a direct path orby means of peer support and social expectations of peer interaction.The findings were consistent with previous research (Barrett &Holmes,2001;Feeney Noller, 1990; Hammen et al., 1995; Herzberget al.,1999;Kobak et al., 1993) in that individuals with secure attach-ment to parents tended to perceive more supportive peer relationshipsand were less likely to interpret rejection and disappointment in peerinteraction. Individuals with more perceived peer support and lessnegative expectation of peer interaction were associated with fewerdepressive sym ptoms. Moreover, as expected, gender differences oftherelation pathways w ere obtained. Secure attachment to fathers as wellas to mothers significantly predicted negative expectations of peer in-teraction for both sexes of the adolescents. However, secure attach-ment to the same sex of the parents related to perceived peer supportonly for the same sex ofthe adolescents. Secure attachm ent to fathersand to mothers showed a direct path to depressive symptoms for girls,but only secure attachm ent to mothers had a direct path to depressivesymptom for boys. The findings raise an issue: What is the relativeimportance of the two attachments in peer relations and depressivesymptoms for adolescent boys and adolescent girls?In regard to depressive symptoms for adolescent girls, direct linksbetween patemal attachment and depression and between matemalattachment and depression revealed that adolescent girls tend to usepatemal and matemal attachment as the secure sources of psychoso-cial distress. In contrast, a direct link between matemal attachmentand depressive symptoms for adolescent boys suggested that security


12/18

are more important in the lives of girls (Brown Gilligan, 1992) andthey a re more committed th an are boys to sustaining connections. Evi-dence indicates that adolescent girls described their parentsd attach-ment more as consistent and stable than did boys (Kermy, Lomax,Brabeck, Fife, 1998). Besides, a direct link between a ttach ment anddepression implies that parental attachments relate to adolescents'depressive sjnnptoms in a number of ways beside those of peer supportand peer expectation assessed here. Studies have indicated that thequality of current parent-child interaction contributes greatly to ado-lescents' well-being. However, during adolescence, mothers knowsmore about their children and are more involved, whereas fathers aremore dis tant and less involved (Shulman SeifFge-Krenk, 1997; Hos-ley Montemayor, 1997)^ Kenny etal.(1998), in their two-year assess-ment regarding the relationships between parental attachment andadolescent well-being, have noted that when boys feel depressed andnegative aboutself their interactions with their fathers become morenegative. Compared to women, men are less tolerant ofthe expressionof negative and depressive affect (Leadbeater etal.,1995). Fathers mayfeel uncomfortable when their son experience distress, which mightcontribute to negative or distancing father-child relationships. Con-versely, mothers may be more willing to provide support to their dis-tressed sons; therefore mother-child relationships do not change. Inthis respect, mothers provide better stress-buffering bases for adoles-cent boys.

Furthermore, concerning the relative importance of patemal andmatemal attachment on adolescent peer relationships, the findingsare controversial. With regard to social expectation of peer interaction,patemal and matemal attachment were significantly associated forboth genders, suggesting that adolescents with secure attachment toboth parents were more likely to consider ambivalent or provokinginterpersonal situations to be supportive or friendly. Given that thepositive function of secure attachment with mothers in the child's so-cial competences in peer interaction is well recognized (Kems,Klepac, Cole, 1996; Markiewicz, Doyle, Brendgen, 2001;Young-blade et al., 1993), our results are consistent with those of Zimmer-mann (2004) and Roberts (1994). C ontreras and K em s (2000) reportedth at father-child attachm ent security was correlated with child coping,with coping linked to behavior regulation with peers, and with teach-ers' reports of children's competence with peers. Dekovic and Meeus(1997),in studying adolescent peer relations, found that father behav-


13/18

tion of socializing children to modern society. Fa the rs in th eir role oflink to the outside world increase in importance as a socializing agentfor adolescents entrance to society. In the present study, fathers didnot make more of a contribution to peer interaction and depressivesymptoms th an did mothers (differences in beta weights are not large,see Figures 1 and 2), but it did suggest th at fathers role in socialexpectation of peer interaction cannot be neglected.Contrary to expectations, patem al and m atem al attachment did notpredict adolescents perceived peer support equally. As indicated, per-ceived peer support was m erely related to attachm ent to the same-sexparent. Blain, Thompson, and Whiffen (1993) proposed that perceivedsocial support could be conceptualized as an observable manifestationof attachm ent styles because both a re defined as dependent on beliefsabout the availability of significantothers. Buist et al. (2002) suggestedthat same-sex attachm ent relationships generally are of higher qua litythan different-sex attachment. Despite the fact that adolescents tendto deidealize their parents for the purpose of seeking autonomy andidentity, they still strongly use their parents as reference points con-ceming important life choices (Youniss Somlar, 1985), especially thesame-sex parent. In this respect, attachment to the same-sex parentis expected to have a stronger relation with peer support compared tothe opposite-sex parent. Yet, the argument is tentative because therelation between attachment to the same parent and peer support issignificant but not strong enough (all Ps less tha n .15). Fu rther studiesare needed to clarify the relation.Although some authors suggest that attachment security with par-ents may decrease during adolescence (Papini Roggman, 1992), thepresent study shows that adolescents perceptions of parental avail-ability are important throughout this period. In particular, attachm entto father seems to be playing a more important role in influencing peerrelations than previously believed. The present study has providedsome contributions to understand ing the relationships among workingmodels of attachm ent, social support, social expectations, and depres-sion, yet its limitations should be m entioned. Firs t, research on parent-peer relationships have reported th at fathers and m others have uniquecontribution to their offsprings peer relationships. For example, at-tachment to mothers is more related to children s friendship qualities,peer popularity, distress regulation, and self-esteem, whereas attach-ment to fathers is more related to conflict resolution and social compe-tence with peers (Parke et al., 2004). Nevertheless, these studies


14/18

therefore decrease their influenceonthem.The exact natu re of mother-child and father-child relationships in influencing their peer relation-ships and adjustment requires further study. Second, self-report mea-sures were used in the current study and it is known that they aresusceptible to social desirability and to current affective sta tes (Lewin-sohn Rosenbaum, 1987). Further studies could include measures ofparental perceptions of adolescents' well-being as well as attachmentto adolescent sons and daughters.

R F R N S

Ainsw orth, M. D. S. (1990). Some considerations re gard ing theo ry and asses s-ment relevant to attachments beyond infancy. In M. T. Greenberg, D.Cicch etti, E. M. Cim imings (Eds.),Attachment in the preschool years:Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 463-4 88). Chicago: Un iversity ofChicago Press.Allen, J. P., H aus er, S. T. (1996). Autonomy and related nes s in adolescent-family interactions as predictors of young adults' states of mind regard-ing at tachm ent. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 793-809.Allen, J. P., Land , D. (1999). A ttach m ent in adolescence. In J. Cassidy P.R. Shaver (Ed s.),Handb ook of attachment: Theory, research, atid clinicalapplications (pp. 319-335). New York: Guilford Press.B arr ett, P. M., Holmes, J. (2001). At tach m ent relatio nsh ips as predictors ofcognitive interpretation and response bias in late adolescence. Journalof Child and Family Studies, 10 1),51-64.Blain, M. D., Thom pson, J. M., Whiffen, V. E. (1993). A ttachm ent and per-ceived social support in late adolescence: The interaction between work-ing models of self and othe rs.Journal of Adolescent R esearch, 8,226-241.Bowlby, J . (1973).Attachment and loss: Volume 2. Separation. New York: Ba-sic Books.Bowlby, J. (1979). Th e ma kin g and b rea kin g of affectional bond s.British Jour-nal of Psychiatry, 130,421-431.Bowlby, J. (1981).Attachment and loss; Volume 3.Victoria: Pen guin Books.Brown, L. M., Gilligan, C. (1992). M eeting at th e crossroads. Cam bridge,MA: Harvard University Press.B uis t, K L., Dekovic, M., M eeus, W., Van Aken, M . A. G. (2002). Develop-m ental pa ttern s in adolescent attachm ent to mother, father and sibling.Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31 3), 167-176.Ch en, S. H., Hu ang , C. (1998).Depressive tendency in adolescents with con-duct problems. Presented at the First International Conference onChild Adolescent M ental H ealth , Hon g Kong (in Ch inese).Chu, Y. F. (1996).Factors that influence adolescent depression tendency. Therelationship among sex, age, family structure, and help-seeking behav-iors. Unpublished Masters thesis. National Chan-Chii University (inChinese).


15/18

Cu mm ings, E. M., Cicchetti, D. (1990). Toward a tran sactio nal model ofrelations between attachment and depression. In M. Greenberg, D. Cic-chetti, E. M. Cum mings (Eds.),Attachment in the preschool years:Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 339-372). Chicago: University ofChicago Press.Dekovic, M., M eeus, W. (1997). Pe er rela tion s in adolescence: Effects ofparenting and adolescents' self-concept. Journa l of Adolescence, 20163-176.Feeney, J., Noller, P. (1990). Atta chm ent style as a predictor of adu lt roman -tic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58,281291.Fe ldm an , S. S., Ru ben stein , J. L., Ru bin, C. (1988). Dep ressive affect andres train t in early adolescents: Relationships with family stm ctu re, fam-ily process and friendship support. Journal of Early A dolescence, 8 3),179296.Hammen, C. (1992a). Cognitions and depression: Some thoughts about newdirections.Psychological Inquiry, 3, 247-250.Ha m m en, C. (1992b). Cognitive, life stres s, and in terperso nal approach es to adevelopmental psychopathology model of depression. Development andPsychology, 4, 189-206.Harter, S. (1982). The perceived competence scale for children. C hild Develop-ment, 53, 87-97.Herzberg , D. S., Ha mm en, C , Burge, D., Daleyet, S. E. (1999). A ttach m entcognitions predict perceived an d en acted social suppo rt du ring l ate ado-lescence.Journal of Adolescent Research, 14 4),387-404.

Hosley, C. A., M ontemayor, R. (1997). Fa th ers and adolescents. In M. E.Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (3rd ed DD162-178). New York: Wiley.Hu ang , C , C hen, S. H., Lee, S. R., W ang, K. Y. (1999). Are children withclefl hp/p alate in T aiwan m ore depressed? In th e 4th A sian Pacific CleflLip P al at e Conference (p. 109).Huang, Y. C. (1998).A study of depressive tendency among adolescents withproblem behaviors. National Science Counsel report (in Chinese)Kenny, M. E., Lomax, R., Brabeck, M., Fife, J. (1998). Long itudinal pa th-ways l inking adolescent reports of matemal and patemal a t tachmentsto psychological well-being.Journal of Early A dolescence,18 3),221-243.Kenn y, M. E., Gallagh er, L A. (2002). Ins tru m en tal and social/relationaicorrelates of perceived ma tem al an d pa tem al attac hm ent in adoles-cence.Journal of Adolescence, 25, 203-219.K em s, K. A., Klepac, L., Cole, A. K. (1996). Pee r relationsh ips correlates ofthe mother-child relationship in middle childhood. Developmental Psy-chology, 32, 457-466.Kob ak, R. R., Cole, H., Fere nz-G illues, R., Flem ing, W., Gam ble, W. (1993).Attachment and emotion regulation during mother-teen problem-solv-ing: A control theory ana lysis. Child Development, 64,231-245.Kobak, R. R., Sceery, A. (1988). Atta chm ent in late adolescence: W orkingmodels, affect regulation, and representation of self and others ChildDevelopment, 59, 135-146.


16/18

Lea dbea ter, B. J., B latt, S. J., Qu inlan, D . M. (1995). Gender-linked vuln era-bilities to depressive symptoms, stress and problem behaviors in adoles-cents.Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 1-29.Lew insohn, P. M., Rosenb aum, M. (1987). Recall of pa ren tal behavior, acutedepressives, rem itted depressive, and n ondepressives.Journal of Person-ality and Social Psychology, 52, 61-619.Liao, C. M. (2001). The influences of attachment on conflict-coping strategiesand social adjustment in late childhood Unpublished Master 's thesis.National T aitung U niversity, Taitung, Taiwan (in Chinese).Liu, Y. L. (2003). The role of perceived social support and dysfunctional atti-tudes in predicting Taiwanese adolescents' depressive tendency.Adoles-cence, 37 (148), 823-S34.M arkiewicz, D., Doyle, A. B., Br end gen , M. (2001). Th e qu ality of adoles-cents ' friendships: Associations with mothers' interpersonal relation-ships, attachments to parents and friends, and prosocial behaviors.Journal of Adolescence, 24, 429-445.M ongrain, M. (1998). Par enta l repre sentations and suppo rt-seeking behaviorsrelated to dependency and self-criticism. Journal of Personality, 66 2),151-169.M uris, P., M eesters, C , Van Melick, M., Zwam bag, L. (2001). Self-reportedattachment style, attachment quality, and symptoms of anxiety and de-pression in young adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences,30, 809-818.Pa rk e, R. P., Denn is, J., Flyr, M. L., M orris, K. L., Killian, C , Mcdowell, D.J., W ild, M. (2004). Fa the rin g and children's peer relation ship s. In M.E. Lamb (Ed), The role ofthe father (pp. 307-34 0). New York: Wiley.Pap ini, D. R., Roggman, L. A. (1992). Adolescent perceived attac hm en t topa ren ts in relation to competence, depression and anxiety:Alongitudinalstudy. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12,420-440.Priel, B., Sh am ai, D. (1995). Atta chm ent style and perceived social supp ort:Effects on affect regulation. Personality and Individual Differences,i9(2), 235-241.Procidano, M. E., Heller, K. (1983). M easu res of perceived social suppo rtfrom friends and from family: Three validation studies.Am erican Jour-nal of Community Psychology, 11, 1-23.

Rice,K. G., Cu nning ham , T. J., Young, M. B.(1997).Attachm ent to parents,social competence and emotional well-being: A comparison of black andwhite late adolescents.Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 89-101.Roberts, W. (1994).The socialization of emotional expression. Paper presentedat the Canadian Psychological Association, Vancouver, British Co-lumbia.Rudo lph, K. D., Ha m me n, C , Burg e, D. (1995). Cognitive rep rese ntat ion sofself family, and peers in school-age children: Links with social compe-tence and sociometric status. Child Development, 66, 1385-1402.Sarason, B. R., Pierce, G. R., Shearin, E. N., Sarason, L G., Waltz, J. A.,Poppe, L. (1991). Perceived social support and working model of self andactual others.Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology,60 ,273-287.Sh ulm an , S., Seiffge-Krenk, J. (1997). Adolescents and fathers: Develop-


17/18

Sun, S. W. (1994). Adolescent-parent affective relationships: The nature andimportance of attachment. Journal of Law and C omm erce, 29(6)259-304 in Chinese).Sun, S. W. (1997a).Adolescent drug attitude: Relative effects of parent andpeer attachment Proceedings of the Nation al Science Coun sel. (P art C)7:4, 531-5 43 (in Ch inese).Sun, S. W. (1997b). Parental attachment and separation-individuation: Devel-opment during the college years.Journal of Education and Psychology20, 271-296 (in Chinese).Tum er-Co bb, J. M., Gore-Felton, C ,Marouf F., Koopman, C , Kim, P Isra-elski, D., Spiegel, D. (2002). Coping, social supp ort, and atta ch m en tstyle as psychosocial correlates of adjustment in men and women withHlV/AIDS.Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25 4).Wallace, J. L., Vaux, A. (1993). Social suppo rt netw ork orientation: The roleof adult attachment style. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,12,354365.Wei, M. F., He ppn er, P. P., M allinckrodt, B. (2003). Perceived coping as amediator between attachment and psychological distress: A structuralequation modeling approach. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(4),

Youngblade, L. M ., Belsky, J. (1992). Parent-ch ild ante cede nts of 5-year-olds'close friendships: A longitudinal analy sis.D evelopmental Psychology,28, jtYoungblade, L. M., Pa rk, K. A., Belsky, J. (1993). M easu rem ent of youngchildren s close friendships: A comparison of two indep end ent ass ess -ment systems and their associations with attachment security. Interna-tional Journal of Behavioral D evelopment, 1 6, 563-607Yo uniss, J SmoU ar, J. (1985).Adolescent relations w ith m others, fathersand friends. Chicago: University of Chicago PressZimmermann, P. (2004). Attachment representations and characteristics offriendship relating during adolescence. Journal of Experime ntal ChildPsychology, 88, 83-101.


18/18

atasament la adolescenti

Documents