athletes mental skills and stress factors: in the ......mental skills and the pss measuring stress....

BSc in Psychology

Athletes Mental Skills and Stress Factors: In the Preparation of Competing at the

Olympic Games

June, 2017

Author: Íris Mist Magnúsdóttir

ID number: 020187-3019

BSc in Psychology: Hafrún Kristjándsdóttir

ATHLETES MENTAL SKILLS AND STRESS FACTORS

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Foreword

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the BSc Psychology degree,

Reykjavík University, this thesis is presented in the style of an article for submission to a

peer-reviewed journal.


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Acknowledgment

The present study was carried out on athletes aiming for the 2016 Olympic Games and in

addition data was used from a study conducted by Rósa Björk Sigurgeirsdóttir (2012) on

athletes that aimed for the 2012 Olympic Games.

I want to thank my supervisor, Hafrún Kristjánsdóttir for grate advice and assistance.

Additionally, I want to thank the National Olympic and Sports Association of Iceland for

allowing me to access this unique data, since it is very rare for a student to access data such

as these. I give special thanks to the athletes taking their time to answer the questions,

knowing they didn’t have a lot of spare time prior to the Olympic Games, some having to

work and/or study along with training for the Games. Furthermore, I thank Bjarki Þór

Grönfeldt and Þorlákur Karlsson for assistance with the statistical analysis. Finally, I want to

thank my parents, Anna Rakel Sigurðardóttir and Magnús Örn Tómasson for their

unconditional support.


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Abstract

The importance of good mental skills for elite athletes has repeatedly been shown by

previous studies. The present study examined athletes’ mental skills and stress factors prior to

the Olympic Games (OG). Sampling was obtained by an online survey, emailed to athletes

aiming for the 2012 and 2016 OG. Participants were 33 athletes aged 16-45, from eight

different sports, divided into two groups; athletes who qualified for the OG (n = 11) and those

who did not (n = 22). Two self-report scales were submitted; the OMSAT-3 measuring

mental skills and the PSS measuring stress. In the light of previous studies, it was

hypothesized that athletes qualifying for the OG would score higher in mental skills and

lower on the stress scale. Even though athletes qualifying for the OG measured higher in all

OMSAT-3 subscales, and lower on the PSS, than those who did not qualify, difference

between the two groups was not significant. Despite insignificance, higher mental skills and

lower stress levels characterized the group that qualified for the OG, which may underline the

importance of high level of mental skills for elite athletes.

Keywords: OMSAT, PSS, mental skills, stress, Olympic Games, elite athletes

Útdráttur

Fyrri rannsóknir hafa ítrekað sýnt fram á mikilvægi hugrænnar færni hjá

afreksíþróttamönnum. Hugræn færni og streita var skoðuð hjá íþróttamönnum í aðdraganda

Ólympíuleika (ÓL). Spurningalisti var sendur á þátttakendur sem stefndu á ÓL 2012 og 2016.

Þátttakendur voru 33 íþróttamenn á aldrinum 16-45 ára, úr átta mismunandi íþróttagreinum,

skipt í tvo hópa; íþróttamenn sem komust á ÓL (n = 11) og þeir sem komust ekki (n = 22).

Tveir sjálfsmatskvarðar voru lagðir fyrir; OMSAT-3 til að mæla hugræna færni og PSS til að

mæla streitu. Í ljósi fyrri rannsókna þótti ástæða til að ætla að íþróttamenn sem komust á ÓL

myndu mælast hærri á hugrænni færni og lægri á streitu. Þrátt fyrir að þeir sem komust

mældust hærri á öllum þáttum OMSAT-3 og lægri á PSS mældist munurinn ekki marktækur.

Þrátt fyrir ómarktekt einkenndi betri hugræn færni og lágt streitustig hópinn sem komst á ÓL,

sem bendir til mikilvægi hugrænnar færni hjá afreks íþróttamönnum.

Lykilhugtök: OMSAT, PSS, hugræn færni, streita, Ólympíuleikar, afreks íþróttamenn


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Athletes’ Mental Skills and Stress Factors: In the Preparation of Competing at the Olympic

Games

Awareness on the importance of sport psychology has increased in recent years, causing

the field to grow significantly (Salmela, Monfared, Mosayebi & Durand-Bush, 2009). Great

success has been achieved in analyzing the characteristics and qualities needed for effective

sport psychology consulting (Anderson, Miles, Robinson, & Mahoney, 2004; Gould,

Murphy, Tammen, & May, 1991; Lubker, Visek, Geer, & Watson, 2008; Orlick &

Partington, 1987 and Sharp & Hodge, 2011). Sport psychology researchers agree that, for

elite athletes to reach their pinnacle, mental skills and preparation are essential and are linked

to success in sports (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a; 1992b; Gould, Finch, & Jackson,

1993; Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993a; 1993b; Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkins, 1987; Orlick,

2008; Orlick & Partington, 1988; Salmela, Monfared, Mosayebi & Durand-Bush, 2009 and

Williams & Krane, 1998).

Orlick and Partington (1988) studied some of the highest ranking athletes in the world

from various sports. According to the athletes the most important factors to succeed were, for

example; quality training that included daily goal setting and imagery training, and quality

mental preparation for the competition, that included developing a competition focusing and

refocusing plans. When distinguishing between athletes competing at a top level and athletes

competing at lower ranks, a study conducted by Mahoney, Gabriel and Perkins (1987)

showed that elite athletes were more confident, better able to focus before and during

competition, less anxious and had better internally-focused imagery abilities. William and

Krane (1998) also distinguished how important mental skills are, reaching a conclusion from

their study, that successful athletes have better concentration, manage their anxiety better and

have higher self-confidence (Greenleaf, Gould & Dieffenbach, 2001). Durand-Bush, Salmela

and Green-Demers (2001) conducted a study on international and national level Canadian


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athletes, using the Ottawa Mental Skills Assessment Tool (OMSAT-3), a self-report scale

that measures a wide range of mental skills (Salmela, 1992). Result showed that OMSAT-3

differentiated between the groups on most mental skill scales (Salmela, Monfared, Mosayebi

& Durand-Bush, 2009). Salmela, Monfared, Mosayebi & Durand-Bush (2009) found similar

results in a study on Iranian athletes aiming for the Asian Games in Doha. The OMSAT-3

was administered to 208 athletes, six months prior to the Games. Results on selected versus

non-selected athletes showed that the selected athletes revealed higher on total mental skill

scores. Two subscales were found to be significant, stress reaction and refocusing skills.

Additionally, relaxation skill was borderline significant. In the wake of the Games the same

athletes were studied and results showed that the stress reaction scale was the only thing

separating medal winners from non-medalist. The results from this study show the expertise-

related difference between selected scales in OMSAT-3.

The OG are a leading international sporting events and to achieve the goal of entering the

competition is often the highlights of an athlete’s career (Haberl, 2007). Due to that they only

come around every four years, they are often an opportunity to justify years of hard work.

The environment in the OG is different from all others, due to pressure and the world´s focus

on the Games (Greenleaf, Gould & Dieffenbach, 2001). The differences between individuals

and teams who meet expectations to those who brake under pressure, is among other things;

mental preparation, distraction control, planning and physical preparation (Gould et al. 1998,

1999, 2002). When aiming for a big competition like the OG, many cognitive and stress

factors need to be considered and improved in the eve of the competition.

Various studies have been conducted on athletes aiming for the OG and competing at the

Games. The results are comparable and all indicate the importance of the mental aspect

(Gould, Ecklund & Jackson, 1992; Gould et al., 1999; Gould et al., 2001a; Haberl &

McCann, 2012; McCann, 2000; Portenga, Aoyagi & Statler, 2012; Weinberg & Gould, 2014;


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Wylleman & Lavellee, 2004). A study on ten U.S. Olympic winners conducted by Gould,

Dieffenbach and Moffet (2002) showed that OG medalists all scored high on confidence,

goal setting, mental preparation, concentration, relaxation and attention management,

compared to non-medalists. Orlick and Partington (1988) also studied the importance of

mental skills among OG athletes and found that psychological factors such as concentration

before and during the OG, had the greatest impact on athlete’s performance.

One of the most critical mental skill to work on and improve is stress level. Jones and

Swain (1995) reported that successful athletes experienced stress as an opportunity for

efficient performance, while less successful athletes experienced that stress could reduce their

performance (Salmela, Monfared, Mosayebi & Durand-Bush, 2009). Mahoney and Avener

(1977) found similar results in successful and unsuccessful Olympic gymnasts. Results

revealed similar level of anxiety in both groups, though successful gymnasts experienced and

viewed the feeling as desirable while the others tended to get over-aroused, started doubting

themselves and experienced the anxiety level in a negative way. To reduce stress symptoms,

sports psychologists use various methods, for example goal setting which is a good

motivational tool for athlete performance. Elite athletes tend to set high standards for

themselves and often it is beneficial for their performance. Some demand so much of

themselves and make unrealistic goals, which can lead to levels of anxiety (Koivula,

Hassmén & Fallby, 2002). Studies of goal setting have shown that specific and challenging

goals improve performance (Locke & Latham, 1985).

As with physical skills, you need to learn and practice mental skills. Mental skills are

believed to interact, and pressure situations can therefor affect various mental skills. Because

of that, Salmela, Monfared, Mosayebi & Durand-Bush (2009) pointed out the importance of

having a sport psychologist on-site on big competitions. U.S. Olympians and coaches have

also reported the importance of having a sport psychology consultant for mental preparation


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for the OG (Gould et al., 2001). However, few studies have examined the differences in

athletes’ performance, whether or not they receive a professional assistance from sport

psychologist.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the role of mental skills and stress, in

a sample of athletes training for the OG. In the light of previous studies, the following

hypothesizes were proposed:

H1: Athletes qualifying for the OG will score higher in mental skills than those who

will not qualify.

H2: Athletes qualifying for the OG will score lower on the stress scale than those who

will not qualify.

Furthermore, as there is limited evidence in the literature, the aim of this study was

also to explore if there was difference between the two groups on following variables: 1)

athletes self-evaluated performance for the last month, 2) has sought sport psychological

assistance to enhance performance and 3) how athletes perceived the importance of

psychological factors. Final aim of the study was to see which variables predicted whether or

not participants qualified for the OG.

Method

Participants and Procedures

A total of 33 individual sport athletes (13 males, 20 females) between the ages of 16 to

45 (M = 25, SD = 6.8) completed an online survey sent to them via email (see Appendix B).

The survey was sent to a total of 40 athletes aiming for the 2012 or 2016 OG. The response

rate was therefore 82%. The athletes came from eight different sports, of which swimming (n

= 14) and track and field (n = 8) had the greatest representations. Additionally, participants

from shooting sports (n = 3), fencing (n = 2), judo (n = 2), gymnastics (n = 2), archery (n = 1)


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and badminton (n = 1). Thereof, 11 competed at the Games (5 males, 6 females). A total of

22 did not qualify the OG (8 males, 14 females).

The participants were selected by the National Olympic and Sports Association of

Iceland (NOC), in cooperation with each National Sports Federation. Participants were

selected if it was plausible that they would qualify for the OG. Population sample was

therefore used in the study. Participants in 2012 and 2016 received identical questions, and

were examined in conjunction. The 2016 data was conducted by the author of the present

paper, but the data from 2012 was collected by Rósa Björk Sigurgeirsdóttir (2012).

At an initiatory meeting prior to the 2016 OG, Hafrún Kristjánsdóttir, a psychologist on

the NOC professional team, introduced the study to all Icelandic athletes aiming for the OG.

They were informed that participating in the study was optional and their answers

confidential. A questionnaire was sent to participants in April and May 2016. A reminder was

sent a week later, both via e-mail and Facebook.

Measures

The Ottawa Mental Skills Assessment Tool (OMSAT-3 - Durand-Bush, Salmela &

Green-Demers, 2001; Salmela, 1992); To determine which mental skills were perceived to be

important for athletes to perform consistently at a high level, the OMSAT-3 self-report scale

was administered (see Appendix C). The questionnaire consisted of 48 questions that

measured various psychological skills proven to be important in expert performance, with the

highest possible score of 336. It contained 12 mental skills, grouped under three categories;

First was Foundation skills, consisting of three subcategories; goal setting, self-confidence

and commitment. Secondly Psychosomatic skills, consisting of four subcategories; stress

reactions, fear control, relaxation and activation. The third and last section was Cognitive

skills, consisting of five subcategories; imagery, mental practice, focusing, refocusing, and

competition planning. Each item was answered on a strongly disagree to strongly agree, 7-


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point Likert scale. An Icelandic version of the OMSAT-3 was used in the present study,

translated and localized by Haukur Ingi Guðnason (2006). The Icelandic version of the scale

has not yet been standardized. Cronbach´s alpha in this study was α=0.87. According to

Duran-Bush, Salmel and Green-Demeres (2001), the OMSAT-3 discriminate validity is good

as it discriminates between elite and non-elite athletes and has acceptable internal consistency

and test-retest reliability (Stevenson, 1999; Durand-Bush, Salmela & Green-Demers, 2001).

Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein, 1983) measures the

perception of stress, by self-reports of emotional reactions to stressful situations. Each item is

presented on a 5-point Likert scale, from 0 = never to 4 = very often. Score ranges from 0-16,

where more points indicate more stress. The original scale consists of 14 questions. In this

study, a short version of the scale was used, consisting of four questions translated by Daníel

Þór Ólason (2009) (see Appendix D). Both the long and the short version of the scale has

been found to be reliable (Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein, 1983). According to Cronbach´s

alpha test, the short version reliability in this study is α=0.54.

Background questions; All participants answered background questions concerning

their gender, age, self-evaluation of their performance for the last month and psychological

assistance to enhance performance.

Statistical Analysis

To test hypothesis 1 and 2, independent samples t-test were run to see the difference

between athletes whether or not they qualified for the OG, on all factors on the OMSAT-3

and on the total score on the PSS. To report practical significance, Cohen’s d effect size was

calculated with the formula Cohen's d = (M2 - M1) ⁄ SDpooled.

Because of the small sample size in this study, chi-square tests were run to explore the

connection between whether or not participants qualified for the OG and three different

background variables; self-evaluated performance for the last month, psychological


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assistance and the importance of psychological factors. Responses from athletes’ self-

evaluation of their performance for the last month was recoded to different variables, from

five points to two points; “very unsatisfied, unsatisfied or neither” were grouped together and

“satisfied or very satisfied” were grouped together. To answer the research question proposed

in the introduction, i.e. to see which variables predicted whether or not participants qualified

for the OG, logistic regression was conducted. Cronbach’s alpha was measured on the

Icelandic versions of both self-report scales. Assumptions for independent samples t-tests

were assessed with Levene's test.

Results

It was hypothesized that OG qualifiers would score higher on the OMSAT-3 than OG

non-qualifiers (hypothesis 1). Independent t-test was run to see if there was a difference

between all the factors on the OMSAT-3. Table 1 shows number of participants, mean,

standard deviation, t-score, p-value and Cohen’s d for each factor of the OMSAT-3. Athletes

who qualified for the OG had a higher total score on the OMSAT-3 (M = 261.70, SD = 5.98),

than those who did not qualify (M = 247.95, SD = 28.48), however, the difference between

the two groups was not significant. On the three broader conceptual components, athletes

who qualified for the OG scored higher on all three components than those who did not

qualify for the OG. However, the results were not significant on any of the components. The

biggest difference in score on the 12 mental skill scales was in goal setting. The difference

between participants who qualified for the OG (M = 24.00, SD = 3.00) and those who did not

qualify for the OG (M = 21.32, SD = 3.80) on the goal setting subscale was significant with

the least possible margin t(31) = -2.04; p = 0.05. When calculating Cohen’s d, effect sizes

varied from medium (<0.5) to large (>0,8). The lowest was on psychosomatic skills and the

highest on mental skills.


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Table 1

Independent T-Tests Showing Difference in Number of Participants, Mean, Standard

Deviation, T-Score and P-Value for Each Factor of the OMSAT-3 score, Whether or Not

Athletes Qualified for the OG

Non-qualifiers Qualifiers n M SD n M SD t p d Psychosomatic skills 22 78.36 11.30 10 82.70 5.75 -0.88 0.39 0.43 Stress reaction 22 19.04 3.26 10 18.90 1.91 0.13 0.8 0.05 Relaxation 22 19.41 5.19 10 20.90 3.57 -0.82 0.35 0.33 Activation 22 19.36 2.97 10 20.30 2.41 -0.87 0.27 0.35 Fear control 22 21.55 3.81 10 22.60 2.55 -0.79 0.34 0.32

Foundation skills 22 67.64 8.57 10 72.80 7.73 -1.63 0.11 0.26 Self confidence 22 22.86 3.76 10 24.18 2.09 -1.08 0.43 0.43 Goal setting 22 21.32 3.80 11 24.00 3.00 -2.04 0.8 0.8 Commitment 22 23.45 3.69 10 24.80 3.94 -0.94 0.35 0.35

Mental skills 22 100.95 13.66 10 106.20 7.96 -1.13 0.27 0.27 Mental practice 22 19.27 4.44 10 20.60 3.41 -0.84 0.34 0.34 Imagery 22 21.32 4.04 10 22.30 3.53 -0.66 0.26 0.26 Focusing 22 20.50 3.79 10 21.00 3.16 -0.36 0.14 0.14 Refocusing 22 18.41 4.45 11 19.73 3.04 -0.88 0.35 0.35

Competition planning 22 21.45 3.31 11 22.27 3.10 -0.68 0.26 0.26

Total score 22 247.95 28.48 10 261.70 5.98 -1.39 0.18 0.18 *P<0.05

An independent t-test was run to see if there were a significant difference between

scores on the PSS (hypothesis 2), between athletes whether or not they qualified for the OG.

Results showed that average score for athletes who did not qualify for the OG (M = 7.0, SD =

3.05) was higher than for athletes that qualified for the OG (M = 6.54, SD = 3.08.), however

the difference was not significant and the effect size was small (d = 0.2).

Chi square tests were run to compare qualifiers and non-qualifiers to the background

variables self-evaluated performance for the last month, psychology assistance and

importance of psychological factors, shown in table 2.


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Table 2

Chi-square Test of Background Variables and Whether or Not Participants Qualified for the

OG

Did not qualify Qualified Total Chi-square p

Self-evaluated performance for the

Unsatisfied or neither (n) 10 1 11

last month % 45.5 9.1 33.3

Satisfied or very satisfied (n) 12 10 22

% 54.5 90.0 66.7 Has sought No (n) 10 6 16 0.24 0.62 psychological % 45.5 54.5 48.5 assistance Yes (n) 12 5 17 % 54.5 45.5 51.5

Importance of Rather important (n) 4 3 7 0.36 0.55

psychological factors % 18.2 27.3 21.2

Very important (n) 18 8 26

% 81.8 72.7 78.8

The Chi square tests were insignificant, indicating that the variables did not predict if

athletes qualified for the OG or not. There was only one participant for the variable “self-

evaluated performance for the last month” in the category “unsatisfied or neither” and

because of that the assumptions of chi-square were violated, so that was it was not possible to

calculate the chi-square.

To answer the research question proposed in the introduction, a logistic regression

analysis was conducted using OG qualification as the dependent variable, using background

variables, PSS and the OMSAT-3 subscales as the independent variables, shown in table 3.

However, the only marginally significant variable was self-evaluated performance during the


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last month, b = 1.36, p = 0.07. Cox & Snell R2 indicated that the model accounted for around

26% of the variance (R2 = 0.26).

Table 3

Logistic Regression Analysis with OG-Qualification as the Dependent Variable

Variable b p OR (95%) 95% CI

Self-Evaluated

Performance During the

Last Month

1.36 0.07 3.91 0.89 – 17.18

Psychological Assistance

to Enhance Performance

-1.00 0.34 0.37 0.05 – 2.88

Perceived Importance of

Psychological Factors

-1.03 0.47 0.36 0.02 – 5.73

Perceived Stress Scale 0.16 0.35 1.18 0.84 – 1.65

OMSAT Sub Scales

Foundation 0.08 0.44 1.08 0.88 – 1.33

Psychosomatic -0.02 0.81 0.98 0.84 – 1.15

Cognitive -0.01 0.95 0.96 0.86 – 1.16

Constant -4.68 0.59 0.01

Discussion

The main purpose of this study was to examine athletes’ mental skills and stress

factors aiming for the OG in 2012 and 2016. Athletes mental skills and stress levels were

compared to athletes who qualified for the OG and those who did not qualify for the OG to

see if there was a connection.

To see the difference in mental skills (hypothesis 1), the OMSAT-3 questionnaire was

used. Independent t-test was run to see if there was a difference between all the factors on the

OMSAT-3. Results did not support the hypothesis, and the hypothesis was therefore rejected.

The reason for insignificance could be due to few participants and uneven groups (n = 11, n =

22) which can indicate a power issue. However, the hypothesis was at least partially


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supported because goal setting was the single one of the 12 subcategories on the OMSAT-3

that was significant, p = 0.05. Despite insignificance on the OMSAT-3, the qualifiers scored

higher on the total score, on all three broader conceptual components and on all the subscales

of the self-report scale. Based on how high proportion of the study population answered

OMSAT-3 it is possible to say that the results are, at least partly in line with research where

selected athletes score higher on total mental skill scores than those not selected (Durand-

Bush, Salmela and Green-Demers, 2001; Salmela, Monfared, Mosayebi & Durand-Bush,

2009). The three components on the scale had effect size ranging from medium to large, with

psychosomatic skills being the lowest and mental skills being the highest. Even though the

effect size is not all high based on Cohen’s criteria, when it comes to top athletes, a little

increase in capabilities can make a big difference. At this place in the competition the

difference between first place and the second place is incredibly small, and sometimes barely

visible to the human eye. As an example, the most successful swimmer in the world Michael

Phelps, won the 100-meter butterfly at the 2008 OG in Beijing by one hundredth (0.01) of a

second. Additionally, setting an OG record. Therefore, at this place in the sport, tiny

difference can determine the results.

To measure stress levels the PSS self-report scale was used (hypothesis 2). Results from

independent t-test showed no significant difference between athletes who qualified and non-

qualifiers and the effect size was small (d = 0.2). As the previous hypotheses, it was rejected.

Internal reliability was low, therefore it is important to take the results from the PSS with

caution. However, results show that qualifiers participating in this study had lower stress

levels than non-qualifiers by scoring lower on the self-report scale. Again, it is important to

mention that big proportion of the study population took part in the study. Therefor it could

be said that results from this study is somewhat in line with Jones and Swain (1995) results,

which might indicate that successful athletes experience stressful situations as an opportunity


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for efficient performance while less successful athletes do not. When athletes have reach the

point in their career that they are competing for the first place in their field, the pressure can

get overwhelming and lead to stress. While most athletes focus on the physical skills, athletes

that focus on both mental and physical preparation are less likely to brake under pressure

(Gould et al. 1998, 1999, 2002). Stress level is one of the most critical mental skill to work

on and improve according to Jones and Swain (1995). As shown in a study by Salmela,

Monfared, Mosayebi & Durand-Bush (2009), stress reaction scale was the only thing

separating medal winners from non-medalist. As the results in this study indicate, psychology

researchers agree on, mental skills are essential to succeed in sports (Gould, Eklund, &

Jackson, 1992a; 1992b; Gould, Finch, & Jackson, 1993; Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993a;

1993b; Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkins, 1987; Orlick, 2008; Orlick & Partington, 1988;

Salmela, Monfared, Mosayebi & Durand-Bush, 2009 and Williams & Krane, 1998).

A research question was proposed in the introduction, set to examine how athletes self-

evaluated performance for the last month, whether athletes had sought sport psychological

assistance to enhance performance and how athletes perceived the importance of

psychological factors. A very limited number of studies have studied this. A logistic

regression analysis was conducted to address the research question. Seeking sport

psychological assistance to enhance performance and perceived importance of psychological

factors did not have a significant effect, but self-evaluated performance during the last month

was found marginally significant. This indicated that believing in having practiced

sufficiently, the prior month increases the probability of qualifying for the OG. Studies

conducted by Feltz (1984) and Vealeys (2001) showed a positive relationship between self-

esteem and athletes' performance (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Gould and Dieffenbach (2002)

examined mental skills of ten OL medalist winners from the US. All of these athletes scored

very high among others on self-confidence and goal-setting compared to non-medalist.


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Strengths and Limitations

The strength of the study was that the data contained most of the Icelandic participants

competing at the OG in 2012 and 2016. This means that when measuring levels of

significance, tests may not be as important when generalising over Icelandic athletes. The

data is unique and few studies exist in this area. Additionally, all participants who qualified

for the OG had the possibility to receive a psychological service prior and/or during the OG.

If participants chose to take advantage of that service, results from this study were used by

creating a report on each athlete (see Appendix E). Finally, the questioner was not biased

from the researcher due to the questionnaire was administered online.

The main limitation of this study was a small sample size even though it was a high

proportion of the population, which is the main reason for the insignificance of the

hypotheses. In addition, not all athletes aiming or qualifying for the OG answered the

questionnaire. That can indicate a power issue, therefore it is important to be careful when

interpreting the results. Also, the data does not indicate how far the athletes were from

qualifying for the OG and the results from the game were not looked at. It must also be

pointed out that in each sport, athletes qualifying are chosen in different ways. In some types

of sport, it is determined by maximum number of athletes, in some the NOC sets the limit and

in other sports competitions like the World Championship determines who has the right to

participate.

Conclusions

As with physical skills, you need to learn and practice mental skills. As Ericsson (2007)

pointed out, skill learning is a lifelong ongoing process if it is trained in a targeted manner.

Gould et al. (2001) and Salmela et al (2009) also reported the importance of having sport

psychology consultant in trainings and on-site on big competitions. Despite that, there is a

lack of research guarding this manner. In conclusion, the studies above demonstrate the


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importance of cognitive behaviour in the preparation of a major competition such as the OG.

Therefore, it is important to be aware of these factors, and for coaches and athletes to get

assistance from experts during the preparation for the OG.

For future research, it would be interesting to duplicate the study in 2020, on athletes

aiming for the OG by first comparing the data to this study, and secondly combining the data

to make the sample bigger. Also, submitting the self-report scales to athletes after the OG and

see if there would be any difference. It is necessary to carry out more studies that examine the

impact of service of sports psychologists, during trainings, prior to the small competitions

and the big tournaments and on the eve of competition. Finally, it would also be enlightening

to carry out the same measures on Icelandic athletes aiming for the national team in different

sports and see if qualifiers have better mental skills and control stress better than non-

qualifiers.


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References

Anderson, A., Miles, A., Robinson, P., & Mahoney, C. (2004). Evaluating the athlete’s

perception of the sport psychologist’ s effectiveness: What should we be assessing?

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Daníel Þór Ólason. (2009). Streitu-kvarðinn. In D. G. Guðmundsdóttir (Ed.). Reykjavík.

Durand-Bush, N., Salmela, J. H., & Green-Demers, I. (2001). The Ottawa Mental Skills

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science of the structure and acquisition of expert and elite performance. International

Journal of Sport Psychology, 38, 1, 4-34.

Gould, D., & Dieffenbach, K. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their

development in Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14,

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Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K, & Moffet, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their

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Wrestling Excellence: II. Thoughts and Affect Occurring During Competition. The

sport psychologist, 6(4), 383-402.

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Peterson, K. (1998). Positive and negative factors influencing U.S. Olympic athlete and

coaches: Atlanta Games assessment. US Olympic Committee Sport Science and

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24

Appendix A

Kæri viðtakandi. Nú er undirbúningur fyrir Ólympíuleikana í Ríó í fullum gangi og einn liður í þeim undirbúningi er að safna upplýsingum frá mögulegum Ólympíuförum. Tilgangur þess er að kanna íþróttasálfræðilega eiginleika hópsins, svo sem athyglisstjórnun, einbeitingu, spennustjórnun, sjálfstraust og markmiðssetningu. Einnig verða lagðar fyrir spurningar um þá íþróttasálfræðiþjónustu sem íþróttamennirnir hafa þegar nýtt sér, sem og þá þjónustu sem þeir myndu vilja fá í kjölfar rannsóknarinnar. Þar að auki verður lagður fyrir streitukvarði ásamt bakgrunnsspurningum. Lögð verða fyrir tvö sálfræðileg próf, annars vegar OMSAT sem metur hugræna færni íþróttamanna og hins vegar PSS sem metur almenna streitu. Markmið með fyrirlagningu þessara spurninga er að safna upplýsingum svo að hægt sé að veita sálfræðiþjónustu í kjölfar rannsóknarinnar sem sniðin verður að þörfum hvers og eins. Einungis tveir aðilar munu hafa aðgang að gögnunum, Dr. Hafrún Kristjánsdóttir, sálfræðingur í fagteymi ÍSÍ og Lektor við Háskólann í Reykjavík og Íris Mist Magnúsdóttir íþróttafræðingur og sálfræðinemi. Hafrún er leiðbeinandi Írisar. Fylsta trúnaðar er gætt í hvívetna. Úrvinnsla gagna verður tvennskonar. Annars vegar verður unnin niðurstöðuskýrsla fyrir hvern þátttakanda sem hver og einn mun fá. Jafnframt verður búið til yfirlit yfir stöðu hópsins þar sem ekki verður hægt að rekja svör til einstakra þátttakenda. Yfirlitið verður unnið af Írisi Mist Magnúsdóttur og mun það nýtast í lokaverkefni hennar til BSc gráðu í sálfræði. Könnun þessi er unninn í fullri samvinnu við Íþrótta- og Ólympíusamband Íslands. Það ætti að taka um það bil 20 til 25 mínútur að svara könnuninni. Vinsamlegast reynið að ljúka við að svara sem fyrst, í síðasta lagi 12. apríl. Þeir sem hafa ekki tök á að svara fyrir þann tíma vinsamlegast látið okkur vita. Hér er tengill á könnunina: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1q4cJlb_9gJNF9-RTsqoeeuoDn1YY7dheJBKF2QO6_MY/viewform?usp=send_form Sömu upplýsingar fylgja einnig í viðhengi. Takk fyrir þátttökuna. Kær kveðja, Dr. Hafrún Kristjánsdóttir sálfræðingur í fagteymi ÍSÍ og Lektor við Háskólann í Reykjavík og Íris Mist Magnúsdóttir íþróttafræðingur og sálfræðinemi við Háskólann í Reykjavík.


25

Appendix B

1. Hvert er nafn þitt?

2. Hvert er kyn þitt? a. Karl b. Kona

3. Hver er aldur þinn?

4. Hver er þín íþróttagrein?

5. Við hvað starfar þú?

a. Námsmaður b. Atvinnumaður í íþróttum c. Starfa á hinum almenna vinnumarkaði d. Annað

6. Hversu góður er svefn þinn?

a. Mjög slæmur b. Nokkuð slæmur c. Hvorki né d. Nokkuð góður e. Mjög góður

7. Hefur þú leitað til sálfræðings til þess að auka frammistöðu í þinni íþróttagrein? a. Já b. Nei

8. Ef já, hversu hjálplegt var að vinna með sálfræðingi?

a. Á ekki við b. Alls ekki hjálplegt c. Ekki mjög hjálplegt d. Hvorki né e. Frekar hjálplegt f. Mjög hjálplegt

9. Hveru miklu eða litlu máli telur þú að sálfræðilegir þættir skipti í þinni íþróttagrein?

a. Mjög litlu máli b. Frekar litlu máli c. Hvorki né d. Frekar miklu máli e. Mjög miklu máli

10. Hversu ánægð/ur eða óánægð/ur ert þú með frammistöðu þína í þinni íþróttagrein þegar þú

lýtur yfir ferilinn? a. Mjög óánægð/ur b. Nokkuð óánægð/ur c. Hvorki né d. Nokkuð ánægð/ur e. Mjög ánægð/ur


26

11. Hversu ánægð/ur eða óánægð/ur ert þú með frammistöðu þína í íþrótt þinni síðastliðinn mánuð?

a. Mjög óánægð/ur b. Nokkuð óánægðu/ur c. Hvorki né d. Nokkuð ánægð/ur e. Mjög ánægð/ur

12. Hvaða þætti myndir þú helst vilja vinna með ef þú ættir þess kost að vinna með

sálfræðingi Merkja má við tvo þætti

a. Markmiðssetningu b. Einbeitingu c. Liðsheild d. Streitustjórnun e. Hugarþjálfun f. Sjálfstraust g. Reiði h. Áhugahvöt (motivation) i. Persónuleg vandamál j. Annað. Hvað þá?

13. Hversu mikla trú hefur þú á því að það geti aukið frammistöðu þína að vinna með

sálfræðingi? a. Mjög litla trú b. Frekar litla trú c. Hvorki né d. Frekar mikla trú e. Mjög mikla trú

14. Hefur þú fræðst um aðferðir íþróttasálfræðinnar með öðrum leiðum en að leita til

sálfræðings? a. Nei b. Já, með námskeiðum c. Já, með lestri d. Með öðrum aðferum. Hvaða aðferðum?

15. Hversu lítinn eða mikinn stuðning telur þú þig fá frá fjölskyldu þinni gagnvart íþrótt

þinni? a. Mjög lítinn stuðning b. Frekar lítinn stuðning c. Hvorki né d. Frekar mikinn stuðning e. Mjög mikinn stuðning

16. Hvað telur þú mikilvægustu ástæðu þess að þú stundir íþrótt þína? a. Fjölskylda mín ætlast til þess b. Ytri áhugi (t.d. peningar) c. Innri áhugi (það veitir mér hamingju) d. Til þess að vinna og vera best/ur e. Félagsskapurinn f. Annað

Appendix C

OMSAT (The Ottawa Mental Skills Assesment Tool-3, Durand-Bush, Salmela og Green-Demers, 2001) Þýðing: Haukur Ingi Guðnason.

Mjög ósammála Ósammála Nokkuð

ósammála

Hvorki ósammála né

sammála

Nokkuð sammála Sammála Mjög

sammála

1. Ég set mér markmið fyrir hverja æfingu.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

2. Ég trúi því að ég geti náð góðum árangri í minni íþrótt þrátt fyrir þær hindranir sem á vegi mínum verða.

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2

3

4

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7

3. Ég á auðvelt með að slaka á.

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4. Það eru nokkur atriði í minni íþrótt sem gætu reynst hættuleg og ég hræðist.

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2

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5. Þegar ég er þreyttur á æfingum get ég bætt í og aukið orku mína.

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6. Ég verð var við frammistöðuvandamál því ég er of taugaóstyrkur.

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7. Ég er staðráðinn að gefast aldrei upp í minni íþrótt.

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8. Ég missi einbeitingu á meðan mikilvægum leikjum stendur.

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9. Ég á auðvelt með að búa til skynmyndir.

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10. Ég set mér erfið en raunhæf markmið.

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11. Ég fer í gegnum ákveðna rútinu af atriðum sem ég geri fyrir keppni.

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12. Ég virka sjálfsöruggur jafnvel í erfiðum kringumstæðum í minni íþrótt.

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13. Ég stunda hugræna þjálfun í minni íþrótt daglega.

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14. Líkami minn stífnar óþarflega upp í leikjum.

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15. Ég missi einbeitinguna á meðan á dæmigerðum æfingum stendur.

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28

Mjög

ósammála Ósammála Nokkuð ósammála


sammála


sammála

16. Mér finnst erfitt að æfa vegna þeirrar hræðslu sem tengist íþrótt minni.

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3

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17. Ég er staðráðinn í að verða framúrskarandi keppnismaður.

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18. Ég á auðvelt með að breyta um skynmyndir í huga mér.

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19. Ég get meðvitað dregið úr spennu í vöðvum mínum.

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20. Þegar ég er of afslappaður fyrir keppni get ég bætt í og aukið orku mína.

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21. Ég stunda hugræna þjálfun í minni íþrótt með hámarks frammistöðu í huga.

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22. Mistök leiða oft til fleiri mistaka þegar ég keppi.

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23. Ég set markmið til að bæta grunnþætti í leik mínum.

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24. Ég óttast að tapa.

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25. Ég fer í gegnum ákveðna rútinu með atriðum sem ég hugsa um fyrir keppni.

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26. Ég hef skýrar skynmyndir.

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27. Mér finnst erfitt að ná aftur stjórn á mér eftir að ég kemst í uppnám á meðan á leik stendur.

1

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28. Ég trúi því að ég hafi þá persónulegu getu sem þarf til að ná markmiðum mínum.

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29. Ég á auðvelt með að ná slökun hratt.

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30. Ég er tilbúinn að fórna flestu öðru til að skara fram úr í minni íþrótt.

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31. Mér finnst erfitt að einbeita mér í ákveðnum æfinga-aðstæðum.

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29

Mjög ósammála Ósammála Nokkuð

ósammála


sammála


sammála

32. Margir áhorfendur gera mig taugaóstyrkan í leikjum.

1

2

3

4

5

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7

33. Ég get fundið fyrir hreyfingum í skynmyndum mínum.

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3

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34. Ég á erfitt með að hætta að hugsa um óvæntan atburð á meðan á leik stendur.

1

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35. Hugræna þjálfunin mín er fyrirfram skipulögð.

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36. Ég stend mig betur á æfingum en í leikjum.

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37. Ég á auðvelt með að virkja mig upp til að komast á stig hámarks frammistöðu

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38. Ég á erfitt með að finna gagnlegar aðferðir til að halda einbeitingu í gegnum heilan leik.

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39. Mér finnst ég staðráðnari að bæta mig í minni íþrótt heldur en í nokkru öðru í mínu lífi.

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40. Ég geri áætlun með ákveðnum atriðum sem ég framkvæmi á meðan á keppni stendur.

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3

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41. Markmið mín gera það að verkum að ég legg harðar að mér.

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42. Ég get slakað á með gagnlegum hætti á meðan á þýðingarmiklum augnablikum í keppni stendur.

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43. Ég á erfitt með að ná stjórn á aðstæðum til að draga úr ótta mínum á æfingum.

1

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3

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7

44. Mistök sem koma upp á meðan á æfingu stendur sitja í mér.

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45. Ég þjálfa mig hugrænt fyrir þýðingarmiklar aðstæður í mínum leikjum.

1

2

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7


30

Mjög

ósammála Ósammála Nokkuð ósammála


sammála


sammála

46. Ef ég er illa upplagður fyrir keppni get ég samt auðveldlega komið mér í gang.

1

2

3

4

5

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47. Á meðan á keppni stendur hef ég áætlun sem inniheldur ákveðin stikkorð sem ég segi við sjálfan mig.

1

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48. Ég er fullur sjálfstrausts hvað varðar flesta þætti frammistöðu minnar.

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7


31

Appendix D

PSS (stytt útgáfa)-Streitukvarði, (Preceived Stress Scale, Cohen, Kamarck og Merlmelstein, 1983). Þýðing: Daníel Þór Ólason.

Eftirfarandi spurningar fjalla almennt um hugsanir og tilfinningar þínar. Gjörðu svo vel að svara hverri spurningu með því að draga hring um það svar sem best lýsir tilfinningum þínum og hugsunum síðastliðin mánuð.

Aldrei Næstum

aldrei Stundum Nokkuð oft Mjög oft

1. Hversu oft undanfarinn mánuð fannst þér að þú værir að missa stjórn á mikilvægum hlutum í lífi þínu?

0 1 2 3 4

2. Hversu oft á undanförnum mánuði varst þú örugg(ur) með þær ákvarðanir sem þú þurftir að taka til að leysa úr persónulegum vandamálum?

0 1 2 3 4

3. Hversu oft sl. mánuð fannst þér að hlutirnir gengu þér í hag.

0 1 2 3 4

4. Hversu oft á undanförnum mánuði hefur þú upplifað að vandamálin hrönnuðust upp án þess að þú réðir við þau.

0 1 2 3 4

athletes mental skills and stress factors: in the ......mental skills and the pss measuring stress....

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