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J Caregiver-infant interactions in humans: reciprocity and interactional synchrony.

J Stages of attachment identified by Schaffer

J Multiple attachments and the role of the father

J Animal studies of attachment: Lorenz and Harlow.

J Explanations of attachment: learning theory and Bowlby’s monotropic theory. The concepts of a critical period and an internal working model.

J Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’. Types of attachment: secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure resistant. Cultural variations in attachment, including van Ijzendoorn.

J Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation. Romanian orphan studies: effects of institutionalisation.

J The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model.

COURSE COMPANION

ATTACHMENT

AQA AS Psychology Course Companion Attachment

AQA AS Psychology Course Companion

Caregiver-infant interactions in humans: reciprocity and interactional synchrony.

What You Need to Know

Ainsworth (1989) defines attachments as, “Relatively

long-enduring ties in which the partner is important as a

unique individual….there is a desire to maintain closeness

to the partner.”

Reciprocity refers to the process in which a behaviour is matched

during an interaction e.g. smiling back when someone smiles

at us. Reciprocity develops, in its simplest form, at a very early

age. According to Feldman (2007), reciprocity can be seen

in interactions from 3 months of age. This conclusion was

supported by Meltzoff & Moore’s (1997) research, which

demonstrated that babies as young as 12-27 days would attempt

to imitate facial and physical gestures.

Interactional synchrony refers to how a parent’s speech and

infant’s behaviour become finely synchronised so that they are

in direct response to one another. It was defined by Feldman

(2007) as a “temporal co-ordination of micro-level social

behaviour” and as “symbolic exchanges between parent and

child”. Feldman suggests that interactional synchrony serves a

critical role in developmental outcomes in terms of self-regulation,

symbol use, and the capacity for empathy.

Brazelton et al. (1975) identified trends in mother-baby

interactional synchrony. Videotapes of 12 mother-baby pairs’ play

behaviour was examined up to 5 months of age, which revealed

three phases of play:

J Attention and build-up

J Turning away

J Recovery

These three phases were repeated at regular intervals over the 7

minute footage. It was concluded that the three phases of play

demonstrate the early signs of organised behaviour.

Isabella and Belsky (1991) hypothesised that caregiver-baby

pairs that developed secure attachment relationships would

display more synchronous behaviour than babies with insecure

relationships. Babies were observed at 3 and 9 months and the

secure group interacted in a well-timed, reciprocal, and mutually

rewarding manner. In contrast caregiver-baby pairs classed as

insecure were characterized by interactions that were minimally

involved, unresponsive and intrusive. Avoidant pairs displayed

maternal intrusiveness and overstimulation, while resistant

pairs were poorly coordinated, under-involved and inconsistent.

Isabella and Belsky concluded that different interactional

You need to be able to describe caregiver-infant interactions in humans and you need to be able to define reciprocity and interactional synchrony

It would be useful to be aware of some research in the area

J NOTES

Attachment AQA AS Psychology Course Companion


Stages of attachment identified by Schaffer


Schaffer and Emerson (1964) studied 60 babies from

Glasgow at monthly intervals for the first 18 months of life

using a longitudinal method.

Children were all studied in their own homes and visited monthly for

approximately one year. Interactions with their carers were analysed

to establish if and when infants started to display separation anxiety.

Results revealed that attachments were most likely to form with

carers who were sensitive to the baby’s signals, rather than the

person they spent the most time with.

By 10 months old, most of the babies had several attachments,

including attachments to mothers, fathers, siblings and extended

family. It was observed that the mother was the main attachment

figure for roughly half of the babies when they were 18 months old

and the father for most of the others. Based on this finding, this

would suggest that being sensitive and responsive (including playing

and communicating an infant) is more instrumental in attachment

development than physical care.

Schaffer’s observational research led to the formulation of four

distinct stages of developmental progress that characterise infants’

attachments:

J Asocial stage (0-6 weeks) – Similar responses to objects &

people. Preference for faces/ eyes.

J Indiscriminate attachments (6 weeks – 6 months) –

Preference for human company. Ability to distinguish between

people but comforted indiscriminately.

J Specific (7 months +) – Infants show a preference for one

caregiver, displaying separation and stranger anxiety. The baby

looks to particular people for security, comfort and protection.

J Multiple (10/11 months +) – Attachment behaviours are

displayed towards several different people eg. siblings,

grandparents etc.


You need to be able to outline the stages of attachment proposed by Schaffer.

You may also be required to identify the stages from examples of behaviour given in the examination.

J NOTES

Multiple attachments and the role of the father


Bowlby (1988) reasoned that if patterns of attachment are a product

of how their mother has treated them, it could be anticipated that the

pattern he develops with his father is the product of how their father

has treated them. Bowlby suggests that fathers can fill a role closely

resembling that filled by a mother but points out that in most cultures

this is uncommon. Bowlby argues that in most families with young

children, the father’s role tends to be different. According to Bowlby,

a father is more likely to engage in physically active and novel play

than the mother and tends to become his child’s preferred play

companion.

Schaffer & Emerson found that additional attachments developed in

the proceeding months following the 4th stage, observing 31% of

infants displaying 5 or more attachments by 18 months.

Grossman’s (2002) conducted a longitudinal study of 44 families

comparing the role of fathers’ & mothers’ contribution to their

children’s attachment experiences at 6,10 and 16 years. Fathers’

play style (whether it was sensitive, challenging and interactive)

was closely linked to the fathers’ own internal working model of

attachment. Play sensitivity was a better predictor of the child’s long-

term attachment representation than the early measures of the of

attachment type that the infant had with their father.

Field (1978) conducted research which compared the behaviours

of primary caretaker mothers with primary and secondary caretaker

fathers. Face-to-face interactions were analysed from video footage

with infants at 4 months of age. Overall, it was observed that fathers

engaged more in game playing and held their infants less. However,

primary caretaker fathers engaged in significantly more smiling,

imitative grimaces, and imitative vocalizations than did secondary

caretaker fathers and these were comparable with mothers’

behaviour.

Brown et al. (2012) investigated father involvement, paternal

sensitivity, and father−child attachment security at 13 months and 3

years of age. Results demonstrated that involvement and sensitivity

influenced father−child attachment security at age 3. Involvement

was a greater predictor of secure attachment when fathers were

rated as less sensitive.

Link - The research from Brown and Field indicates that the

gender of a caregiver is not crucial in predicting attachment

types/ quality, rather it is the extent of caregiver involvement. This

point can be paralleled with Ainsworth’s Caregiver Sensitivity

Hypothesis (1979). Although this was based on observations

of mothers’ behaviour, it predicted that responsive and sensitive

care predicted attachment types.

You need to be able to describe what research has found with regards to the role of the father, so learning some studies will be important



J NOTES

Animal studies of attachment: Lorenz and Harlow.


In the 1950s research which used animal subjects to investigate early

life experiences and the ability for organisms to form attachments

contributed significantly to the field of developmental psychology.

Two of the most well-known animal studies were conducted by

Konrad Lorenz and Harry Harlow.

Lorenz (1952) Lorenz’s research suggests that organisms have a biological

propensity to form attachments to one single subject. Lorenz

conducted an experiment in which goslings were hatched either with

their mother or in an incubator. Once goslings had hatched they

proceeded to follow the first moving object that they saw between

13 & 16 hours after hatching; in this case, Lorenz. It supports the

view that having a biological basis for an attachment is adaptive as

it promotes survival. This would explain why goslings imprint after

a matter of minutes due to their increased mobility; human babies

are born immobile and therefore there is less call for them to form an

attachment straight away, and so, this develops later (8-9 months).

Harlow (1958)Harlow conducted research with 8 rhesus monkeys which were

caged from infancy with wire mesh food dispensing and cloth-

covered surrogate mothers, to investigate which of the two

alternatives would have more attachment behaviours directed

towards it. Harlow measured the amount time that monkeys spent

with each surrogate mother and the amount time that they cried for

their biological mother. Harlow’s findings revealed that separated

infant rhesus monkeys would show attachment behaviours towards

a cloth-covered surrogate mother when frightened, rather than

a food-dispensing surrogate mother. Monkeys were willing to

explore a room full of novel toys when the cloth-covered monkey

was present but displayed phobic responses when only the

food-dispensing surrogate was present. Furthermore, Harlow

reviewed infant monkeys that were reared in a social (non-isolated)

environment and observed that these monkeys went on to develop

into healthy adults, while the monkeys in isolation with the surrogate

mothers all displayed dysfunctional adult behaviour, including:

a) Being timid; b) Unpredictable with other monkeys; c) They had

difficulty with mating; d) The females were inadequate mothers.

Implications of animal studies of attachment

Lorenz (1952) – The fact that the goslings studies imprinted

irreversibly so early in life, suggests that this was operating within

a critical period, which was underpinned by biological changes.

The longevity of the goslings’ bond with Lorenz would support

the view that, on some level, early attachment experiences do

predict future bonds. The powerful instinctive behaviour that the

goslings displayed would suggest that attachments are biologically

programmed into species according to adaptive pressures; goslings

innately follow moving objects shortly after hatching, as this would

be adaptive given their premature mobility.

Harlow (1958) – The rhesus monkeys’ willingness to seek refuge

from something offering comfort rather than food would suggest

that food is not as crucial as comfort when forming a bond. The fact

that isolated monkeys displayed long-term dysfunctional behaviour

illustrates, once more, that early attachment experiences predict

long-term social development. Despite being fed, isolated monkeys

failed to develop functional social behaviour, which would suggest

that animals have greater needs that just the provision of food.

Strengths Weaknesses

Humans and monkeys are similar – Green (1994) states that, on a biological level at least, all mammals (including rhesus monkeys) have the same brain structure as humans; the only differences relates to size and the number of connections.

Results cannot be generalised to humans - It is questionable whether findings and conclusions can be extrapolated and applied to complex human behaviours. It is unlikely that observations of goslings following a researcher or rhesus monkeys clinging to cloth-covered wire models reflects the emotional connections and interaction that characterises human attachments.

Important practical applications - Harlow’s research has profound implications for childcare. Due to the importance of early experiences on long-term development, it is vital that all of children’s needs are catered for; taking care of a child’s physical needs alone is not sufficient.

Research is unethical - The use of animals in research can be questioned on ethical grounds. It could be argued that animals have a right not to be researched/ harmed. The pursuit of academic conclusions for human benefits could be seen as detrimental to non-human species.

Learn the work of both Lorenz and Harlow and be prepared to evaluate it too.



Explanations of attachment: learning theory and Bowlby’s monotropic theory. The concepts of a critical period and an internal working model.


Learning theory proposes that attachment is essentially learned

through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and/or Social

Learning Theory. Traditional learning theory suggests that the

pleasure induced by food is integral to the attachment process.

Classical conditioning is based on stimulus-response associations.

When someone is hungry, food leads to a reflex response of pleasure.

When food is combined with another stimuli, such as a mother (who

provides the food), eventually she becomes associated with food and

elicits the same response.

Food (US) – Pleasure (UCR)

Mother (CS) + Food (US) – Pleasure (UCR)

Mother (CS) – Pleasure (CR) = Attachment

Operant conditioning suggests that behaviours are introduced and

modified by behaviour-consequence associations. This can include

positive reinforcement (behaviour is increased when rewarded),

punishment (behaviour is reduced) and negative reinforcement

(behaviour is increased due to the avoidance of something

unpleasant).

It is argued that a baby’s crying leads to feeding (positive

consequence) & so the behaviour is positively reinforced. In addition,

parents are being negatively reinforced as the feeding behaviour

reduces an unpleasant experience (hearing crying). It is these forms

of reinforcement that lead to regular parent-child interactions which

form the basis for attachment.

Dollard & Miller’s (1950) Drive-Reduction Theory - The sensation

of hunger is uncomfortable leading infants into a drive state, in which

the infant is motivated to reduce this. Infants’ crying leads to attention

& ultimately feeding which reduces the discomfort and is therefore

rewarding. The mother/ person providing food is associated with a

rewarding sensation and therefore becomes a secondary reinforcer.

The infant seeks the attention and company of the secondary

reinforcer which forms the basis of an attachment.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)SLT suggests that people learn through observing and imitating

others, particularly when their behaviour is followed by a positive

consequence; this is known as indirect or vicarious reinforcement.

Hay & Vespo (1988) argue that parents act as role models for their

infants, teaching them how to respond during social interactions &

carry out relationships.

Tip – learning theory is also referred to as the behavioural

theory. Behaviourists developed their theories based on

observations of animal behaviour (such as dogs, rats and

pigeons), which was modified through classical and operant

conditioning. However when considering human attachments,

make sure that you refer to theories of human attachment

rather than background research with animals that is not

relevant to attachment.

Learning Theory Evaluation

Be prepared to be able to outline and evaluate the explanations for attachment (with research). You also

need to be able to outline/ define the concepts of a critical period and an internal working model.




There is research evidence to support the concepts of classical and operant conditioning- (e.g. Both Pavlov’s and Skinner’s research), however this is not directly applicable to attachments so offers weak support for the learning theory of attachment specifically.

Evidence contradicts learning theory’s focus on food - Schaffer & Emerson (64) reveal less than 50% of infants had primary attachment to those who fed/ bathed them. As learning theory suggests that the pleasure associated with food is the driving force that leads to attachment, this finding suggests that this cannot be the case, pointing to other variables that must be involved.

Bowlby’s Theory of AttachmentBowlby’s theory is sometimes referred to as an evolutionary

theory. Evolutionary psychology suggests that human behaviour

and phenomena can be explained through the process of

natural selection. Traits which offered our ancestors a survival

or reproductive advantage in our environment of evolutionary

adaptation (EEA) would be passed on to offspring and as a result

continue to exist and proliferate.

Bowlby (1969) suggests that attachment is a vital adaptive

quality that has evolved to increase the chance of survival through

proximity-seeking behaviour. As babies are born in an early stage

of development, they are highly dependent on the parent as they

require constant care, which means that the infant would benefit

from a biological mechanism that could keep the parent close to

them. Attachment is mutually innate in both infants & adults, with

infants using social releasers to promote interaction (eg. smiling/

eye contact encourage caregiver reactions). It is suggested that

these need to be innate to ensure that infants can maintain close

contact with their parents. Equally, parents need to be receptive

to these innate cues that the infant displays in order for this to

offer an adaptive advantage.

According to Bowlby, infants require a qualitatively unique

relationship to develop an internal working model & emotional

maturity – this special bond is known as a monotropic bond. This

special bond helps to maintain proximity between the parent and

infant and also offers the infant the opportunity to develop skills

and an understanding of how to attach and bond to others.

Bowlby suggests that attachment takes place during a critical

period. It is suggested that if a child does not form an attachment

before the critical period (2.5 years) attachment will not occur.

(Bowlby later proposed a sensitive period of up to 5 years.)

The Internal Working Model (IWM) provides a template for future

attachments. It allows individuals to predict, control & manipulate

their environment. As a result, it plays a role in later development

– this is known as the continuity hypothesis.




Associations between food and caregivers do not predict human attachments – Despite humans being fed as infants, there are massive variations in attachment types and skills that contribute to our ability to socialise, which associations between caregivers and feeding could not explain. Bowlby’s theory focuses on inter-personal factors including the development of the internal working model which can explain the complexity of how unique attachments develop and influence us.

The theory offers limited real world applications – Learning theory does not offer any practical applications that can be used in childcare or therapy. Because learning theory focuses on the pleasure associated with feeding there are no implications beyond this. Alternative research has highlighted the importance of the formative years of life and how early experiences affect future development. Such research has implications that extend to childcare practice and therapies which explore how we form relationships. Learning theory cannot be applied in the same way due to its simplicity.


The need for monotropy appears to be universal - Ainsworth (1967) observed the Ganda tribe of Uganda. Infants form one primary attachment even when reared by multiple carers.

Fox’s (1977) research into Israeli communal farms has revealed child-rearing practices that are quite distinct from conventional Western ones. Fox reported that children spend a majority of the day with nurses called metapelets rather than their biological parents; in fact infants tend to spend approximately 3 hours a day with their biological mother. Observed infants appeared to still form a (special) monotropic bond with their mothers despite not seeing them for extended periods of time, which supports Bowlby, as he claimed that monotropy was a necessity that was innately programmed in infants. So it would seem that despite the cultural variations in child-rearing practises, the process of attachment appears to be universal.

The importance of monotropy is overemphasised - Thomas (98) questions the benefits of monotropy & suggests it may be more beneficial having a network of attachments to support infants & their social/ emotional needs. Parke (81) found that qualitatively different attachments provide different benefits. Similarly, Van Ijzendoorn, & Tavecchio (1987) argue that a stable network of adults can provide adequate or better care than a mother who has to meet all a child’s needs.

Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’. Types of attachment: secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure resistant. Cultural variations in attachment, including van Ijzendoorn.


Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (1970) used structured

observational research to assess & measure the quality of

attachment. It has 8 pre-determined stages, including the

mother leaving the child, for a short while, to play with

available toys in the presence of a stranger & alone and

the mother returning to the child:

Stage 1 – Mother and child enter the playroom

Stage 2 – The child is encouraged to explore

Stage 3 – Stranger enters and attempts to interact

Stage 4 – Mothers leaves while the stranger is present

Stage 5 – Mother enters and the stranger leaves

Stage 6 – Mothers leaves

Stage 7 – Stranger returns

Stage 8 – Mother returns and interacts with child

Ainsworth & Bell (1970) used 4 criteria (separation/ stranger

anxiety, reunion behaviour & willingness to explore the room) to

classify 100 middle class American infants into 1 of 3 categories.

Children were observed through a one-way mirror and were

classed as one of the 3 attachment types below based on their

responses to the 8 stages:

FindingsJ 70% Secure

J 15% Avoidant insecure

J 15% Resistant insecure

Therefore most US children appeared to be securely attached.

The results highlight the role of the mother’s behaviour

in determining the quality of attachment. This led to the

conceptualisation of the Caregiver Sensitivity Hypothesis, which

suggests that a mother’s behaviour towards their infant predicts

their attachment type.

Types of observation

Which type of observations characterise the methods that

Ainsworth used?

J Structured/ unstructured

J Overt/ covert

J Disclosed/ undisclosed

What are the advantages and disadvantages of designing

the study this way?

You need to be able to outline and evaluate the strange situation procedure. Similarly you

must be able to outline and evaluate cross cultural research (specifically van Ijzendoorn

as a minimum requirement)

Secure Insecure Avoidant Insecure Resistant

Separation Anxiety Infants were upset when their mother left the room.

Showed mild distress when their mother left the room.

Infants were very upset at separation.

Stranger Anxiety Wary of strangers and treated them differently to their mother.

Rejected the strangers’ attempts to comfort them.

Rejected the strangers’ attempts to comfort them.

Reunion Behaviour Infants displayed joy when the mother returned and were easily

comforted.

Infants did not display joy when the mother returned or seek

comfort. Infants kept a distance from mothers.

nfants displayed anger and rejected the mother when she returned and were not

comforted





Secure Insecure Avoidant Insecure Resistant

Exploration/ Orientating behaviour

Infants orientated to their mothers using them as a safe base to explore.

Infants did not orientate to their mothers to explore..

I. Alternated between trying to remain close and keeping a distance.

Mother’s behaviour Mothers were consistently responsive and sensitive.

Mothers sometimes ignored infants.

Mothers were inconsistent and sometimes inpatient.


Replicable/ high inter-observer reliability – As the research is highly operationalised, observers have a clear view of how a securely attached infant should behave, due to the 4 specific criteria that Ainsworth used. For this reason, the research should have high inter-observer reliability & it is also replicable so its reliability can be checked.

Low Population Validity - A major methodological criticism of Ainsworth’s research is that the sample was restricted to 100 middle class Americans & their infants, so it is unlikely that findings would be representative of the wider population.

Reliability of classifications – Waters (1978) assessed 50 infants at 12 and at 18 months of age using the SS procedure. Waters found clear evidence for stable individual differences using Ainsworth’s behavior category data. The greatest consistency was seen in reunion behaviours after brief separations. 48 of the 50 infants observed were independently rated as being classified in the same category at 18 months.

Categories are not always applicable - A further classification group (disorganised) was subsequently identified by Main & Cassidy (1988), which would suggest that infants do not all fit into the three categories introduced by Ainsworth.

Procedure is culturally biased – The SS was designed by an American according to observations of US children. Consequently, the criteria used to classify infants are based on US values, relating to child-parent behaviour. It could be argued that this is Eurocentric, so observations of non-Americans will judged according to American standards. Eg. Japanese infants were judged as being resistant due to high levels of distress that were observed but this reflects their lack of experience during the “infant alone” part of the research, rather than an resistant attachment type.

Cross Cultural VariationsThe Strange Situation procedure has had a profound impact within

developmental psychology and has become a recognised and

validated method to assess individual differences in attachment

types. The procedure has been used in a variety of cultural settings

to identify whether patterns of attachments appear to be universal or

are subject to cultural influences. One of the most commonly cited

cross-cultural studies which uses the Strange Situation procedure

was conducted by Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s in 1988.

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis

summarized findings from 8 countries, which included the UK,

US, Sweden, Japan, China, Holland, Germany & Israel. The meta-

analysis examined 32 studies and consulted nearly 2000 Strange

Situation classifications in total. The meta-analysis yielded a number

of findings and conclusions:

Percentage of each attachment type

Country (number of studies) Secure Avoidant Resistant

USA (18) 65 21 14

UK (1) 75 22 3

Holland (4) 67 26 7

Germany (3) 57 35 8

Japan (2) 68 5 27

China (1) 50 25 25

Israel (2) 64 7 29

Sweden (1) 74 22 4

J Average findings were consistent with Ainsworth’s original

research - Secure 65% - Avoidant 21% - Resistant 14%

J Intra-cultural variation was nearly 15 times greater than the cross-

cultural variations. Van Ijzendoorn speculated that this was linked

to differences in socio-economic factors and levels of stress that

varied between samples used within each country.

J 6/8 countries produced findings that were proportionally

consistent with Ainsworth & Bell (1970).

J Japan & Israel revealed a higher incidence of resistant than

avoidant children.

J Chinese findings revealed the lowest rate of secure attachments

(50%) with the remaining children falling into the other categories

equally.

It was concluded that the modest cross-cultural differences reflect

the effects of mass media, which portrays similar notions of

parenting.



Evaluation


Comparison is aided by the standardised methodology. The use of the strange situation as a procedure means that a comparison can be made across cultures, and the reliability is therefore high

The study was not globally representative - Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg recognised that data from less Western-oriented cultures were required to establish a more global perspective attachment classifications, pointing out that Africa, South America, and Eastern European socialist countries were not represented.

Overall findings are misleading - As a disproportionately high number of the studies reviewed were conducted in the USA (18/32), the overall findings would have been distorted by these. This means that the apparent consistency between cultures might not genuinely reflect how much attachment types vary between cultures.

Applying Strange Situation procedures and behavioural categories is ethnocentric – Cross-cultural research using the Strange Situation judges and categorises infant behaviour according to behavioural categories that were developed following observations of middle-class American infants. This means that when researchers interpret non-American infant behaviour, it is being judged against an American standard. Eg. an infant exploring the playroom by themselves would be classed as avoidant based on American standards but is valued as reflecting independence in Germany



Takahashi (1990) replicated the Strange Situation with 60 middle

class Japanese infants & mothers using the same standardised

procedure and behavioural categories. Takahashi’s observation

revealed distinct cultural differences in how the infants responded to

the 8 stages of the procedure. The findings were as follows:

J 0% insecure-avoidant. Infants became severely distressed in the

“infant alone step”; this situation was quite unnatural and broke

cultural norms for the infants

J 32% insecure-resistant

J 68% secure

J 90% of infant-alone steps had to be stopped due to excessive

infant anxiety.

Evaluation of TakahashiA weakness of the research is that it could be seen as unethical – It

could be argued that Takahashi’s research was unethical as the harm

that the procedure caused exceeded what infants would be exposed

to in their day-to-day lives meaning that it exceeded undue risk. As

Japanese infants are rarely separated from their primary caregivers,

the infant-alone step induced stress that they would not normally

encounter and so the level of harm can be considered unjustifiable.

Despite this being the case, the researchers did stop infant-alone

steps prematurely in an attempt to protect infants from further harm.

J NOTES

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation. Romanian orphan studies: effects of institutionalisation.


As early as the 1930s, researchers were beginning to identify

the long-term damage associated with disrupted or limited

attachment opportunities. In Bowlby’s The Origins of Attachment

lecture he alluded to this:

“During the nineteen-thirties and forties a number of clinicians on

both sides of the Atlantic, mostly working independently of each

other, were making observations of the ill effects on

personality development of prolonged institutional care and/or

frequent changes of mother-figure during the early years of life.”

Bowlby’s (1953) Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis proposed

that a “warm, intimate & continuous relationship with a mother

(figure)” is necessary for healthy psychological/ emotional

development. “Mother-love in infancy/ childhood is as important

for mental health as are vitamins & proteins for physical health.”

Consequences of maternal deprivation include:

J An inability to form attachments in the future (see the Internal

Working Model)

J Affectionless Psychopathy (inability to feel remorse)

J Delinquency (behavioural problems in adolescence)

J Problems with Cognitive Development

Bowlby (1944) 44 Juvenile Thieves Study - 44 Thieves were

compared with 44 Non-thieves from a delinquency centre.

Bowlby collected data via interviews and questionnaires from the

88 juveniles and found that 17/ 44 thieves had experienced early

prolonged separation from their mothers before 5 years.

15/17 of these thieves were classed as affectionless psychopaths

(no guilt/ remorse), while only 2/44 non-thieves had experienced

such separation. Therefore these findings support the

MDH, as there appears to be a link between disruption to

attachments in the first 5 years and later maladjustment.

Bowlby’s subsequent research reported that 60 children who had

spent time apart from their mothers due to tuberculosis prior to

the age of 4, demonstrated lower achievement in school.

Bowlby’s findings indicate that experiencing disrupted

attachments early in life is linked to crime, emotional

maladjustment and lower academic achievement, lending strong

support for the MDH.

15/17 of these thieves were classed as affectionless psychopaths

(no guilt/ remorse), while only 2/44 non-thieves had experienced

such separation. Therefore these findings support the MDH, as

there appears to be a link between disruption to attachments in

the first 5 years and later maladjustment.

Bowlby’s subsequent research reported that 60 children who

had spent time apart from their mothers due to tuberculosis

prior to the age of 4, demonstrated lower achievement

in school. Bowlby’s findings indicate that experiencing

disrupted attachments early in life is linked to crime, emotional

maladjustment and lower academic achievement, lending strong

support for the MDH.

For this section you need to describe and evaluate the maternal deprivaton hypothesis,

the Romanian orphan studies and the effects of institutionalisation

Pro

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Thieves Controls

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80

60

40

20

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Affectionless Psychopathy

Early Separation





Evaluation


Practical applications – The MDH and accompanying research has significant real world applications, as they highlight the importance of positive attachment experiences and maintaining a monotropic bond in the first five years, which have been instrumental in the developments of good childcare practices. Greater stability in childcare practice has been developed through daycare centres assigning caregivers to children and hospital visiting hours have been reviewed so that children can maintain contact with their parents. Some national governments offer more financial support for young families in terms of maternity and paternity leave. For instance, Sweden offers 480 days parental leave, clearly highlighting its commitment to support children’s early attachment experiences.

Bowlby summarised some of the key applications that stemmed from the research in the 1950s, pointing to implications for those “working in child psychiatry and psychology and in social work, and some also of those in paediatrics and sick children’s nursing,” (Bowlby 1988).

Retrospective recall might be inaccurate - As Bowlby was asking the adolescent participants to recall separations that they had experienced years earlier, their responses would have been subject to inaccuracies/ distortions. .

Investigator effects - Bowlby designed and conducted the self-reports himself and as a result, his presence and interpretation might have influenced the outcome of the research. Bowlby’s diagnosis of affectionless psychopathy might have been distorted by researcher confirmation bias.

Conclusions are correlational - Bowlby found a relationship between early separation and delinquency/ affectionless psychopathy but we cannot definitively conclude that the separation was the cause. There may have been a third unidentified variable that accounted for the delinquency/ affectionless psychopathy. For example, the immediate cause of the separation (such as neglect or abuse) might have been the direct cause of problems experienced at adolescence rather than the separation itself. it is being judged against an American standard. Eg. an infant exploring the playroom by themselves would be classed as avoidant based on American standards but is valued as reflecting independence in Germany

Oversimplified concept - Michael Rutter’s (72) Maternal Deprivation Re-assessed critiqued Bowlby’s concept of the Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis. Rutter argues that Bowlby failed to distinguish between separation from an attachment figure, loss of an attachment figure and a complete lack of attachment (privation). Rutter argues that the three circumstances have different long-term effects on which Bowlby overlooked.



Privation - Institutionalisation Hodges & Tizard (1989) conducted a longitudinal natural

experiment using 65 children had been placed into institutional care

before the age of 4 months, where there was a no-attachment

policy. By 4 years, 24 had been adopted, 15 returned home & the

remaining 26 were still in the institution. Assessments were taken

at ages 8 & 16 years. Data was obtained through interviews with

the adolescents and their mothers (and sometimes fathers). A

self-report questionnaire on social difficulties was completed by

adolescents and finally, teachers completed a postal questionnaire,

focusing on the adolescents’ relationships with teachers and peers.

The findings revealed that maternal deprivation was overcome to

a large extent by adopted children, with them going on to develop

strong and lasting attachments to parents once placed in families

in comparison to restored and institutionalised groups who made

limited recoveries. However all three groups were more oriented

towards adult attention, and had more difficulties with peers

and fewer close relationships than a matched control group of

adolescents, suggesting that early institutional experience had

damaging long-term effects.


Ethical due to there being no experimental manipulation – Hodges and Tizard’s research can be seen to be ethical, as it used a natural experiment meaning that the independent variable was naturally occurring, rather than being deliberately manipulated by a researcher..

Lacks random allocation – As children were already placed in the institution, participants were not randomly allocated to conditions, which means that individual differences between the children could influence the findings in unanticipated ways. The research appears to suggest that positive subsequent care can minimise the harmful effects of privation, however, the adopted children might have been adopted because of personal characteristics such as apparent resilience or being more attractive in some way. These characteristics might explain why they made a partial recovery rather than the fact that they were adopted, which lowers the internal validity of the research.

Romanian orphan studies Rutter et al. (1998) studied 111 Romanian orphans adopted before

2 years and found that the sooner the children were adopted, the

faster their developmental progress.

In Rutter’s subsequent research in 2007, he assessed children

reared in profoundly depriving institutions in Romania and

subsequently adopted into UK families. Institutionally deprived

adoptees were compared at 11 years with children who had not

experienced institutional deprivation and who had been adopted

within the UK before the age of 6 months. Parental reports,

a modified Strange Situation and investigator ratings of the

children’s behaviour were all assessed.

Results revealed that disinhibited attachment was strongly

associated with institutional rearing but there was not a significant

increase in relation to duration of institutional deprivation beyond

the age of 6 months. In contrast only mild disinhibited attachment

was more frequent in non-institutionalised adopted children.

Chugani et al. (2001) administered PET scans to a sample

of 10 children adopted from Romanian orphanages and

compared them with 17 normal adults and a group of 7

children. Assessments showed mild neurocognitive impairment,

impulsivity, and attention and social deficits. Specifically, the

Romanian orphans showed significantly decreased activity in the

orbital frontal gyrus, parts of the prefrontal cortex/hippocampus,

the amygdala and the brain stem. Chugani concluded that the

dysfunction in these brain regions may have resulted from the

stress of early deprivation and might be linked to the long-term

cognitive and behavioural deficits.

Research support – There is a large body of evidence which

supports the concept of the critical period and the importance

of early intervention where children are being privated. Rutter’s

research is consistent with Bowlby and Harlow (1958). More

recent neurological evidence supports the damaging effects that

privation can have on specific brain structures (Chugani 2001).

Conclusions A review of research would suggest that there is mixed support

for Bowlby’s MDH, as in some instances children that have

endured privation have gone on to make either partial or

complete recoveries from their lack of attachment in the sensitive

period. It would seem that there are noteworthy factors that

increase/ decrease the risk of adverse development, including:

J Extent of privation (eg. alone or with other children)

J Age of discovery/ intervention (see the sensitive period)

J Subsequent care in childhood following privation

The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model.


We have already seen in the section on Bowlby’s Maternal

Deprivation Hypothesis, that early experiences with a caregiver can

have a significant long-term impact on people’s well-being and ability

to form subsequent relationships. This idea is closely linked with the

concept of the Internal Working Model (IWM). According to Bowlby

(1953), by maintaining a “warm and intimate relationship” with the

primary caregiver in the first 5 years of life, the child learns how to be

warm and intimate with other people in the future.

Bowlby (1988) suggests that the IWM starts to form at the age

of 1-2 years enabling the infant to understand themselves and

their mother, through “acquiring a considerable knowledge of his

immediate world and that during subsequent years this knowledge is

best regarded as becoming organized in the form of internal working

models,” Bowlby (1988).

It is the IWM which provides an explanation of how attachment

experiences & infant care can influence subsequent development

and relationships. Bowlby suggests that the nature of the template

for attachment and intimate social behaviour that infants experience

predict how individuals will behave in the future and ultimately how

they will form attachments in the future. Bowlby (1988) stated that,

“The function of these models is to simulate happenings in the real

world, thereby enabling the individual to plan his behaviour with all

the advantages of insight and foresight.”

The child will eventually model the caregiving behaviour of their

attachment figure. Bowlby suggests that knowledge relating to how

to care for people is acquired through their relationship with this

figure. The link between the nature of parent-child relationships and

future relationships is referred to as the continuity hypothesis. An

infant with a positive, trusting and affectionate bond will develop

the necessary beliefs and skills to develop positive, trusting and

affectionate adult relationships.

Describe the internal working model and evaluate the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships. You must know some research to support your evaluation.

J NOTES






Page 16 AQA AS Psychology Course Companion


There is a body of evidence to support the role of the IWM in predicting the quality of subsequent relationships:

Sroufe et al (1999): Longitudinal study revealed that infants rated as securely attached were rated as more socially competent in adolescence (e.g. popular/ more initiative).

McCarthy (1999): Bowlby’s continuity hypothesis has also received support from developmental trends in women classed as avoidant & resistant.

Hazan & Shaver (1987) Love Quiz: Volunteer participants responding to ads in a national newspaper completing questionnaires on their early attachment experiences and their adult relationships. Secure infants later displayed optimism/ rewarding intimate relationships.

Simpson et al.’s (2007): longitudinal study followed participants from childhood into their 20s, collecting data at 1, 8, 16 years and early adulthood. Securely attached people were reported as being more socially competent, had securer friendships and had more positive emotional experiences.

Beta bias - Gender differences between how males and females are influenced by parents in future relationships are not considered. The concept of the IWM acting as a template for future attachments assumes that male and females develop and respond to these in the same way which is not necessarily the case.

Research Support - There is strong evidence that the IWM is formed by 5 years as Bowlby’s sensitive period suggested as a majority of children have developed a sophisticated working model of the mother which includes knowledge of her interests, moods and intentions (Light 1979).

Mixed Evidence - Fraley (1998) conducted a meta-analysis and correlations between early attachment types and later relationships ranged from 0.1 to 0.5. Even though there is variability in the correlations, this is likely to be caused by the insecure anxious attachment type, bringing about unstable behaviour, making it more difficult to record accurately.

IWM Therapeutic Application – The concept of the IWM is central to therapeutic interventions, as a person’s sense of self/ others and the origins of this can shape normal and abnormal behaviour and relationships.

Overemphasis on early experiences - Kirkpatrick and Hazan (1994) showed that adult experiences such as relationship break-ups are associated with a shift from secure to insecure attachments with significant relationship experiences affecting current attachment types. This suggests that the emphasis on the first 5 years of life might be misplaced.

Overlooks innate traits - Kagan’s (1982) temperament hypothesis suggests that attachment and relationship types are influenced by a person’s innate personality, which would explain the consistency between childhood and adulthood, rather than it being a consequence of experiences with a primary caregiver.



KEY TERMS

Affectionless psychopathy A term used by Bowlby to describe people who don’t show concern or affection for other people and show no or very little remorse or guilt

Asocial stage Stage from 0-6 weeks where infant may respond to faces or voices but an attachment has not been formed

Attachment Two-way enduring emotional tie to another person

Contact comfort The physical and emotional comfort that an infant receives from being close to its mother

Continuity Hypothesis The idea that early relationships with caregivers predict later relationships in adulthood

Critical period A time period where an attachment has to form or it never will

Disinhibited attachment Child shows equal affection to strangers as they do people they know well

Evolutionary explanation Explanation for behaviour such as attachment that views it as increasing survival chances

Imprinting Where offspring follow the first large-moving object they see

Indiscriminate attachment Infants aged 2-7 months can discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people but does not show stranger anxiety

Innate behaviour A behaviour that is instinctive and does not need to be learned

Insecure avoidant attachment

Attachment classification in Strange Situation where child shows low stranger and separation anxiety and little response to reunion

Insecure resistant attachment

Attachment classification in Strange Situation where child shoes high stranger and separation anxiety and resists comfort at reunion

Institutionalisation The effects of growing up in an institution, such as a children’s home or orphanage

Interactional synchrony Infant and caregiver reflect each other’s actions and emotions in a coordinated manner

Internal working model Mental representation of our relationship with our primary caregiver that becomes a template for future relationships

Learning theory Explanations that emphasise the role of learning in acquiring behaviours such as attachment

Maternal deprivation hypothesis

Separation from the mother figure in early childhood has serious consequences

Monotropy A unique and close attachment to one person - the primary attachment figure

Multiple attachments Formation of emotional bonds with more than one carer

Privation Failure to form an attachment in early childhood

proximity seeking The way that infants try to maintain physical contact or be close to their attachment figure

Reciprocity Infant and caregiver match each other’s responses

Secure attachment Most desirable attachment classification in Strange Situation where child shows separation anxiety, stranger anxiety and joy on reunion

Sensitive period The best time period over which attachments can form

Separation anxiety Degree of distress shown by the child when separated from the caregiver

Social releasers Innate behaviours shown by an infant that lead to a caregiving response

Specific attachment Infants aged 7 months tend to show a strong attachment to one particular person and are wary of strangers

Strange Situation A controlled observation used to test children’s attachment patterns

Stranger anxiety Degree of distress shown by an infant when with unfamiliar people

Temperament The characteristics and aspects of personality an infant is born with and that might impact on its attachment type

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