Attitudes and Consistency Theories

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What is an attitude?

Definition: An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating something with a degree of favor or disfavor”

Attitudes are:

◦ Learned or acquired

◦ Predispositions to respond

◦ Evaluative, e.g., favorable or unfavorable

◦ Directed toward something (attitude object)

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Self report scalesLikert scales Known as “equal appearing interval” scales 5-7 scale points Ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Uncertainty regarding the neutral point

Sample Likert-Type Scale Item

The death penalty should be abolished._____ _____ _____ _____ _____strongly moderately neutral/ moderately stronglyagree agree not sure disagree disagree

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Self report scales

Semantic Differential Scales

Based on the connotations of words

Relies on bipolar adjectives (antonyms)

5-7 scale points

Respondent checks the “semantic space” between the antonyms

Uncertainty regarding the neutral space

Sample scale items from McCroskey’s Ethos Scale

Kanye West

expert ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ inexpert

unselfish ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ selfish

timid ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ bold

tense ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ relaxed

trained ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ untrained

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Implicit Association Test

The IAT measures the strength of associations between concepts (e.g., black people, gay people) and positive or negative attitudes or stereotypes.

making a response is easier/faster when closely related items share the same response key.https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/

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Visual scales

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Visual analog scale

How much do you favor establishing a federal handgun registry?

strongly stronglyoppose favor

Attitude-Behavior Correlation

Attitude-Behavior Correlation (ABC) is stronger when:◦ A specific attitude is

being measured.

◦ Multiple measures of the attitude are made.

◦ The attitude is based on personal experience.

◦ The attitude was formed via central processing.

◦ Attitudes central to the belief system are involved.

◦ The respondents are low self-monitors.

◦ The attitude is accessible or can be activated.

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Pitfalls in Measuring Attitudes

Social Desirability Bias◦ Respondents may provide the “socially correct”

response.

Non-Attitudes◦ Respondents may make up opinions so as not to

appear uninformed.

Acquiescence Bias◦ Respondents may provide the answer they think

the investigator wants to hear.

Mindfulness◦ Respondents may not be aware of their own

attitudes.

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Other Ways of Inferring Attitudes Appearances

◦ Clothing, artifacts, and other appearance cues

Associations

◦ Memberships, affiliations, social networks

Behavior

◦ Actions, habits, lifestyles

Physiological measures

◦ Galvanic skin response, facial electromyography, fMRI

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Consistency Theories

Attitudes exist in associative networks.

Association are often unconscious or implicit.

Changes in one attitude may have a “ripple effect” elsewhere in a person’s cognitive system.

Persuaders seek to establish connections among attitudes.

The goal is to link their product, brand, idea to favorable attitudes.

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family values

school prayer

divorce

abortion

contraception

sex education

marital fidelity

family leave

premarital sex

child support

dead-beat dads

Manufacturing Positive Associations

Image-Oriented Advertising◦ brands are matched with

idealized lifestyles.

◦ Symbols are appropriated and paired with brands.

Brand Personality◦ Associations endow

brands with human qualities.

◦ fun, sophisticated, tough, youthful.

Sloganeering

◦ Slogans foster favorable associations.

◦ “Breakfast of Champions” (Wheaties)

◦ “Diamonds are forever” (DeBeers)

Sponsorship

◦ Brought to you by…

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Image-Oriented Advertising

A teen admires a particular brand, image, or lifestyle.

◦ For example, iPhones and iTunes

A new product is paired with that brand or lifestyle.

◦ Ads for a new energy drink show teens listening to their iPods while enjoying the drink.

The teen comes to equate the product with the brand.

◦ The energy drink seems to go with iPhones and iTunes.

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Psychological ConsistencyPeople desire consistency.

◦ People prefer a state of harmony among their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors.

Inconsistency causes psychological discomfort.

The magnitude of dissonance◦ The degree of psychological discomfort

depends on the centrality of the attitudes.

◦ Greater attitude salience results in greater dissonance.

People are motivated to restore consistency.

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Parenting and Consistency Theory

A child admires Popeye.

The child doesn’t like to eat spinach.

Popeye is positively associated with spinach.

This is a cognitively imbalanced state, which should motivate the child to change one of the associations.

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Balanced Vs. Imbalanced States

Balanced psychological statesAny combination of even minus signs, or all plus signs is psychologically comfortable.

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Unbalanced psychological statesAny combination of odd minus signs, or all minus signs is psychologically uncomfortable.

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Methods of Maintaining Consistency

Denial: ignoring the inconsistency

Bolstering: adding rationalizations

Differentiation: distinguishing between the conflicting and non-conflicting elements

Transcendence: looking at the larger picture

Modifying attitudes: changing one or more associations

Communicating: convincing others one is being consistent

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Cognitive Dissonance

People seek to maintain a stable, positive, self-concept .

People rationalize their choices and actions in light of their self-concept.

Behavior that contradicts one’s beliefs or self-concept causes dissonance.

Making a decision produces dissonance or “buyer’s remorse.”

The more important the decision, the greater the dissonance.

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Dissonance in Action

Lyle, a commuter, buys a large, 4 X 4, SUV.

Soon afterward, the price of gasoline soars.

Every time he fills up the tank, he experiences dissonance.

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Dissonance in Action

Some ways Lyle could reduce his dissonance include:

◦Convince himself the “gas guzzler” would also be safer in a crash.

◦Take up off-road sports to justify the vehicle’s other capabilities.

◦Coach a soccer team or little league team to justify having all those seats.

◦Sell or trade-in the car at a loss and chalk it up to “experience.”

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The Magnitude of DissonanceFree choice

paradigm◦ the more free choice

one has in making a decision, the more dissonance one will suffer.

Belief disconfirmation◦ Exposure to information

contrary to strongly held beliefs may increase adherence to those beliefs (e.g., stubbornness).

Induced compliance◦ When a person is forced

to do something, little dissonance is aroused.

◦ The person can rationalize the action by saying “I had no choice.”

Effort justification◦ The greater the effort or

sacrifice involved, the greater the dissonance.

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Ways of Reducing Dissonance

Rationalizing

◦ which is not the same as being rational.

Selective exposure

◦ Paying attention only to information that supports the choice made.

◦ Avoiding information that is inconsistent with the choice made.

Polarization of alternatives

◦ Exaggerating the differences between the alternatives once the choice is made.

Any of the strategies for maintaining cognitive consistency

◦ Denial

◦ Bolstering

◦ Differentiation

◦ Transcendence

◦ Modifying one or more cognitions

◦ Communicating

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Psychological Reactance

Also known as “reverse psychology” Backlash: A perceived threat to one’s freedom

produces a defensive reaction. Forbidden fruit: Outlawing something may make

it even more attractive. Examples:

◦ A pushy salesperson may drive customers away.

◦ When restrictions are placed on firearms, firearm sales increase dramatically before the ban takes effect.

◦ A parent who criticizes a daughter’s boyfriend may drive the daughter into the boyfriend’s arms.

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Counterattitudinal Advocacy

Playing “Devil’s Advocate”: Advocating a contrary position shifts one’s attitudes toward the contrary position.

No external incentives should be present.

◦ The advocacy should be volitional (not compelled).

◦ The advocacy should be public (in writing or out loud).

The person will internalize the choice to advocate the contrary position.

The person’s attitudes will shift (partially) toward the contrary position.

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Commitment

Once we are committed to a course of action, it is hard to turn back.

◦ A car owner may “throw good money after bad” making one repair after another.

◦ Gamblers may double their bets every time they lose.

Social customs are designed to increase commitments.

◦ Wedding customs

◦ Initiation rituals

Commitments can grow legs.

◦ People add additional justifications for their original decision.

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