Audience Theories

The Hypodermic model is also known as ‘the needle theory’ or ‘the magic bullet theory’. The theory was developed during the 1930’s-40’s and

implied that the media has a direct and powerful effect onto audiences. It suggests that the mass media could influence large amounts of people by directly ‘shooting’ or ‘injecting’ them with messages which are designed

to trigger direct responses.

Hypodermic Model

The diagram displays how mass media affects the public. It suggests

that a flow of information is given straight to passive/isolated

individuals who are then immediately effected by the

message. There is no escape from the message and people usually end up believing and thinking what they are told as there is no other source

of information telling them otherwise.

Factors which contributed to the strong effects of the theory:

• There was a rapid rise of media outlets, radios and television were becoming more accessible to the public, resulting in more individuals

being exposed to media messages.• Advertising and persuasion industries started to emerge and increase. •A study conducted within the 1930s, by Payne Fund discussed the effects

of the films on children.

This theory can be applied to the murder case of the 3 year old, Jamie Bulger (1993). The two ten year olds who had kidnapped and murdered the toddler, were said to have ’supposedly’ watched “Child’s Play 3” and

had been inspired. Even though this was not a proven fact, the accusation the lead to an uproar within the public, leading to the amendment to the

video recording act. This demonstrates how media outlets effects individuals perceptions and thinking, as many had believed that this

horror movie was one of the influences behind the murder.

However, this theory may be subjective as some people may not be influenced, whereas others may.

This theory was introduced by Professor George Gerber in the 1960’s and is the break down of the long-term effects of television. The cultivation

theory is based around the idea that watching excessive TV changes the viewers attitudes to certain issues. Over time, exposure to the viewer will

alter their perceptions of reality.

“The primary proposition of cultivation theory states that the more time people spend ’living’ in the television world, the more likely they are to

believe social reality portrayed on television.”

Cultivation Theory

The two order effects:

1. General beliefs about the world today.2. Specific attitudes and judgements.

Viewers are divided into two categories; light viewers (less than 4 hours of TV a day) and heavy viewers (more than 4 hours of TV a day).

Heavy viewers are likely to shape their concept of reality from TV.

The uses and gratification theory was created by Elihu Katz, Jay G. Blumer and Michael Gurevitch. This theory is based on psychological needs and includes the

idea that all media is constructed in a way that will fulfil these needs. It also aims to explain why an audience may consume a certain type of media.

Surveillance: This revolves around the idea of the viewer feeling safer and more secure through knowledge. This knowledge comes from the text and what

they witness while watching it. Personal identity: This is need for the audience to be able to relate to a

character and even develop themselves through adopting some of the characteristics.

Personal relationships: viewers are able to consume media as part of social activity. This gives them something to bond with peers over, as they have shared

the same experience. Escapism: Allows the audience to escape their day-to-day lives through text

consumption. Through viewing the media, the consumer is able to ignore and escape the real life issues they face by focusing on the lives of those, in a

fictional world.

Uses and Gratification Theory

Criticisms: It completely ignores unconscious control and implies free will. It also suggests that media consumers are able to choose the effects of media,

therefore, ignoring the manipulative nature of some types of media. Doesn’t recognise the power of media in current society.

It also assumes that media watchers take an active role in watching a text and aspire to be like characters that they have observed. This is a

criticism as some watchers are more passive, meaning they don’t fit the criteria of needs listed.

Theory suggests that as we get more exposure to violence within media, on a regular basis, there's no strong emotional impact on the audience

which makes them insensitive towards violence in everyday life.

• Films have less effect over audiences over time, due to repeated viewings.

• Viewers tolerance becomes higher – they need more shocking images to get an emotional response.

• Films get more violent – this links to the increase of social problems. • Films like ‘Nightmare on Elm Street’, ‘Friday the 13th’ and ‘Saw’ are some

examples.

Real Life Example: The Jamie Bulger Case: Some UK tabloid newspapers claimed that the attack on the toddler was inspired by the film, ‘Child’s Play 3’. After

watching this film, the two 10 year olds may have become desensitised to the action happening on screen, hence the murder.

Desensitisation Theory

Strengths Weaknesses

Pays attention to how much violence is being shown.

Can be unreliable as there may be other variables

involved.

Raises questions as to how much exposure of violence and

aggressive images/ scenes should be shown to the

audiences.

Everyone is affected by different factors as some people are more influenced than others (depends on how much violence

they’ve been exposed to.

The modelling theory refers to imitating what you see and it is also known as the copycat effect. Most behaviour is learnt from observation, hence

why it is later modelled. This theory usually relates to something publicised in the media, creating a lot of attention. This provokes others

to do the same, to gain attention of the same type.

This theory has huge emphasis on the importance of observation and imitation. Imitation is more likely to happen if the individual holds an admired status of any sort, for example observing a celebrity, as you

admire their status. This behaviour is then gradually reinforced and the individual starts to identify with the model and starts to try out the

behaviour.

Copycat/ Modelling Theory

Stages of the modelling theory:1. Seeing the action portrayed in the media

2. Individual identifies with the actor3. Individual imitates the actor

4. If the individual is rewarded, the behaviour is reinforced due to motivation.

Reception theory is a version of reader response; the theory sees that the audience actively engages in interpretations of the media. So overall, it is the idea of individuals interpreting texts in different ways, demonstrating

that even if one message is being sent out, people may have different understandings of it.

The reception theory is usually referred to as audience reception. Stuart Hall coined this theory during 1980, he claims that media texts go through stages of encoding and decoding. Media texts are usually

encoded by its creator. This means that only the creators ideologies are embedded within it. Decoding is when an audience views the text and

interprets it their own way.

Reception Theory

Hall included 3 different types of audience decoding of texts:

1. Dominant/preferred reading: This is how the creator wants the audience to view the media. The audience agree with the message

being conveyed. 2. Negotiated: A compromise between the dominant and oppositional

reading; the audience understand and agree with the text but they may disagree on certain aspects of it.

3. Oppositional: This is when the audience rejects the encoded meaning and then continue to create their own interpretation as they

fully disagree on the message being submitted.