august 2012 supervisor: prof. kishore ragasupervisor: prof. kishore raga ii acknowledgements the...
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AN EVALUATION OF A POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMME: A CASE STUDY OF NDAKANA VILLAGE, DISTRICT OF NQAMAKWE
BY
FEZILE THEOPHILUS MAVUSO (STUDENT NO. 198158200)
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master’s In Public Administration at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
(NMMU)
August 2012
SUPERVISOR: Prof. Kishore Raga
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform (DRDAR) has
provided me with a platform to meet and interact with the communities of the
Eastern Cape Province. I saw their plight and poor living conditions under
which they live. This triggered off a need to conduct this research study
around their challenges. My sincere thanks go to all the employees of the
DRDAR and the rural communities of the Eastern Cape Province who
provided me with such wonderful opportunity to embark on this research
study.
A series of meetings and focus group interviews were held with the residents
of Ndakana Village and Extension Officers of the DRDAR, to help provide
information for this research project. My thanks go to all the residents of
Ndakana Village and the extension officers, in particular those who have
attended the interview sessions.
My sincere thanks also go to professors Raga and de Villiers for their
professional guidance and making it possible to produce this research work. I
also thank Dr Bain for his valuable services regarding the editing of the entire
script of this research project.
I must also thank the staff of the Policy and Legislation Development Support
Directorate of the DRDAR for their valuable support to this project.
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Lastly, my sincere thanks go to my family, friends and Comrades who
continued to be pillars of strength and support throughout the period of this
research project.
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DEDICATION
This research project is dedicated to the following offices which are charged
with the mandate to help improve the quality of life of rural communities of our
country and to overcome poverty, unemployment and underdevelopment:
• The Office of the Minister of Rural Development and Land Reform.
• The Office of the MEC for Rural Development and Agranian Reform.
• The Office of the Mayor of Amathole District Municipality.
• The Office of the Mayor of Mnquma Municipality.
• The Office of Superintendent General of the Department of Rural
Development and Agrarian Reform.
• The Office of the Senior Manager, Amathole District, Department of
Rural Development and Agrarian Reform.
• The Office of the Farmers Association of the Eastern Cape.
• The community of Ndakana Village.
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DECLARATION
I, Fezile Theophilus Mavuso do solemnly declare that this dissertation is my own work, and has not been submitted by me for evaluation at any other University. It is the product of my work throught the professional guidance of my supervisor, KISHORE RAGA. SIGNATURE ........................................ DATE ...................................................
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
Acknowledgement ii
Dedication iv
Declaration v
Page
CHAPTER 1 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION, BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE 1
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND ASSUMPTIONS 4
1.3.1 Problem Statement 4
1.3.2 Assumptions 4
1.4 STATEMENT OF BROAD RESEARCH GOAL 4
1.4.1 Research goals 4
1.4.2 Research objectives 5
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 5
1.6 DELIMITATION OF THE RESEARCH 6
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 6
1.7.1 Methodology approach 6
1.7.2 Qualitative research explained 8
1.7.3 Identification of target population/sample 9
1.7.4 Data collection methods 9
1.7.5 Data analysis 9
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1.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 10
1.9 CHAPTER OVERVIEW 10
1.10 CONCLUSION 10
CHAPTER 2 12
POLICY FRAMEWORK AND CHALLENGES FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT 12 2.1 INTRODUCTION 12
2.2 PUBLIC POLICY 13
2.2.1 Policy-making for rural development 15
2.2.2 Policy implementation 16
2.2.3 Planning 18
2.2.4 Programming 19
2.2.5 The need for evaluation of poverty alleviation programmes 20
2.3 RURAL DEVELOPMENT 22
2.3.1 Poverty defined 23
2.3.2 Efforts to promote rural development aimed at the alleviation of poverty 24
2.3.3 The extent of poverty facing the Amathole District 29
2.4 CONCLUSION 32
CHAPTER 3 34
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 34
3.1 INTRODUCTION 34
3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH 34
3.2.1 The quantitative approach 36
3.2.2 The qualitative approach 36
3.2.3 Selecting relevant information 37
3.3 IDENTIFICATION OF TARGET POPULATION 39
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3.4 FACILITATION PROCESS FOR THE FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS 41
3.5 UNITS OF ANALYSIS 41
3.6 CONCLUSION 41
CHAPTER 4 43
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 43
4.1 INTRODUCTION 43
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 44
4.2.1 Residents of Ndakana Village 44
4.3 SUMMARY OF RESPONSES OF FOCUS GROUPS AND EXTENSION
OFFICERS 59
4.3.1 Residents of Ndakana Village- Focus Groups 59
4.3.1.1 Livestock Improvement Programme 59
4.3.1.2 Infrastructural Programmes 59
4.3.1.3 Extent of participation in developmental programmes 60
4.3.1.4 Unemployment and HIV/Aids Programmes 60
4.3.1.5 Recreation 60
4.4 FOCUS GROUP QUESTIONS FOR EXTENSION OFFICERS 60
4.4.1 The need for planning of meetings by the Extension Officers 67
4.4.2 The importance of Extension Officers to meet with farmers 67
4.4.3 The need for Extension Officers to maintain a healthy relationship with farmers 68
4.4.4 Role of Extension Officers in poverty alleviation 68
4.5 CONCLUSION 69
CHAPTER 5 71
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 71
5.1 INTRODUCTION 71
5.2 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 71
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5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 73
BIBLIOGRAPHY 76
Annexures 82
Letter to the Headman soliciting his consent for the members 82 of the community to participate in the study
Letter to the Superintendent-General of DRDAR soliciting his consent 85 for the extension officers to participate in the study
List of the structured questions for the residents of Ndakana Village 89
List of the structure questions for the Extension Officers 90
Letter from the language practitioner 91
Ethics Clearance Certificate 92
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CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION, BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE The study sought to evaluate the extent to which poverty alleviation programmes of
the Eastern Cape Provincial Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform
(DRDAR) addressed the agricultural needs of the Ndakana community. The
emphasis had been on the effectiveness with which these programmes were
implemented. Ndakana Village is situated in the Nqamakwe District. The village
consists of Hili-hili, Mathafeni, Ncora and Diphini locations which are approximately
twenty kilometres from the rural town of Nqamakwe in Amathole District.
In the Eastern Cape, several poverty alleviation programmes are implemented which
should, inter alia, alleviate the phenomenon of poverty in the rural areas. Despite
these programmes it, however, appears that there is very little, if any, improvement
in the poverty situation. Against this background it is essential that the progress in
the alleviation of poverty be evaluated and if necessary, steps be taken to ensure
that the envisaged objectives be achieved.
On the importance of evaluating the program, Monette et al. (2011:5) write that in the
past few decades, many large, ambitious expensive programmes intended to cope
with social problems and to provide services to individuals have been developed.
Along with the growth of these programs has emerged an increasing concern over
their results: Do they achieve their intended goals? These programs are costly, and
some evaluation is needed to assess whether resources are, indeed, being used
effectively. Equally important, a program that fails to achieve its goals leave a
problem unresolved or a service undelivered. Monette et al. (2011:6) further regard
evaluation as a use of scientific research techniques to assess the result of a
program and evaluate whether the program, as currently designed, achieve its stated
goals
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In accordance with the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP)
(1994:20), a national land reform programme is the central driving force of rural
development. Such a programme aims to effectively address the injustices of the
forced removals and the historical denial of access to land. The RDP aims to ensure
security of tenure for rural dwellers in implementing the national land reform
programme, and through the provision of support services, the South African
government intends to build the economy by generating large-scale employment,
increasing rural income and endeavours to eliminate overcrowding.
According to the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), agricultural
activities will be the cornerstone for growth in Africa. Agricultural performance in
Africa can be achieved by encouraging Africans to utilise their own strengths,
capabilities, resources and political leadership to generate development and growth
in their own countries. Some of NEPAD’s pillars for priority investment are:
• Land and water management.
• Rural infrastructure and trade-related capacities for improved market access.
• Increased food supply and reducing hunger (http//www.nepad.org).
The research highlights the numerous challenges facing the community in the
various components of Ndakana Village, for example, high levels of unemployment,
poverty, and lack of educational opportunities and the scourge of HIV/AIDS.
Attention will also be given to the question whether the residents of Ndakana Village
are aware of the poverty alleviation programmes of the national and provincial
governments of South Africa, the DRDAR and NEPAD to maximize participation in
their development.
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW The literature is a valuable source of knowledge. The documentation utilised for this
study comprises, for example, research reports, theorising and reflections about the
topic or area, literature reviews on the topic and other documentary material.
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In accordance with the South African Government Programme of Action (SAGPA) –
2010, the Comprehensive Rural Development Programme (CRDP) is part of
government’s plan to increase the growth of rural areas. It essentially aims to enable
people living in rural areas to use natural resources at their disposal to become
economically active (http//www.info.gov.za).
The DRDAR has the following strategic goals in terms of which to drive development
for communities:
• A thriving farming sector and access to affordable food.
• Improved rural economic livelihoods and creation of employment
opportunities.
• A conducive environment to enhance service delivery (South Africa, 2010:20).
In accordance with the Land Redistribution for Agricultural Development (LRAD)
sub-programme of the DRDAR, it was designed to provide grants to black South
African citizens (Africans, Indians and Coloureds) to access land specifically for
agricultural purposes. The strategic objectives of the sub-programme include:
contributing to the redistribution of 30% of the country’s agricultural land over 15
years; improve nutrition and incomes of the rural poor who want to farm on any
scale; de-congesting overcrowded former homeland areas; and expanding
opportunities for women and young people who stay in rural areas. (Department of
Rural Development and Agrarian Reform, 2001:2).
From the official documents listed above, it appears that a number of role players
(portfolios) are in place to see to it that land is fairly distributed. The question is: what
has been done to achieve or promote the objectives? Furthermore, were the means
for promoting the objectives provided and effectively and efficiently utilized? The
evaluation of the poverty alleviation programme (programmes) ought to provide
reasonable responses.
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1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND ASSUMPTIONS
1.3.1 Problem statement The study premised that the members of the community of Ndakana Village were
experiencing high levels of poverty, unemployment and mortality. There were
insufficient grazing fields, as a result many families had limited livestock. No stock
water dams were available for livestock of the Ndakana Village community.
Ploughing fields were fallow and there was no mechanisation programme in place for
the community to plough the fields. No irrigation infrastructure was provided,
insufficient assistance provided for rain water harvesting and no soil conservation
programme exists. The Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform had
introduced poverty alleviation programmes such as Massive Food, Siyakhula and
Siyazondla for the community of Ndakana Village. These programmes were not
implemented effectively. Budgetary allocation for the implementation of these
programmes was not sufficient.
1.3.2 Assumptions It was assumed that the poverty alleviation programmes of the DRDAR were
inadequate to address the developmental needs of the community, were not properly
communicated to the members of the community of Ndakana; and the budget
allocation for this community was extremely low.
1.4 STATEMENT OF BROAD RESEARCH GOAL
1.4.1 Research goals In an endeavour to, inter alia, combat poverty (i.e. inadequate food, clothing, shelter)
various programmes were initiated. Although emphasis of these programmes falls
on development, it is clear that the implementation of such programmes should
provide job opportunities, food, clothing, shelter, etc. and in this way contribute
towards the alleviation of poverty.
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The research goals in broad outline were:
• To evaluate the perceived inadequacies of the poverty alleviation programme
of the DRDAR such as Massive Food, Siyakhula and Siyazondla.
• To evaluate whether the effectiveness with which the poverty alleviation
program of the DRDAR addressed the agricultural and rural development
needs of the community of Ndakana Village.
• To evaluate the extent to which the community of Ndakana Village
participated in the poverty alleviation programmes of the Department.
1.4.2 Research objectives The above broad research goals would be achieved by setting the following research
objectives:
• To evaluate the shortcomings associated with the programme (or
programmes) for poverty alleviation of the DRDAR.
• To evaluate the roles and responsibilities of the Agriculture Extension Officers
in the implementation of poverty alleviation programmes of the DRDAR.
• To evaluate methods to improve effectiveness of poverty alleviation
programmes of DRDAR.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Some of the questions to deal with were to ascertain what is being done by whom to
alleviate the poverty situation as well as how to evaluate the roles played by the
various participants (i.e. those who are hard hit by poverty, those who provide the
means to alleviate poverty and those who utilise the means to alleviate poverty). In
this study (an evaluation of a poverty alleviation programme) answers were sought to
questions such as:
• Did Ndakana Village participate in the Massive Food, Siyakhula and
Siyazondla poverty alleviation programmes of the DRDAR?
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• Was Ndakana Village involved in the promotion of the poverty alleviation
programmes of the DRDAR?
• Did members of the community of Ndakana Village experience any changes
in the rural livelihoods as a result of the implementation of the poverty
alleviation programmes of DRDAR?
1.6 DELIMITATION OF THE RESEARCH The study was limited to the evaluation of the extent to which a poverty alleviation
programme of the Eastern Cape Provincial Department of Rural Development and
Agrarian Reform addressed the agricultural needs of the Ndakana Village
community. Due to the extent of the Mnquma Local Municipality this study focused
on Hili-hili, Mathafeni, Ncora and Diphini villages. These villages form an integral
part of Mnquma Local Municipality. According to the Mnquma Municipality’s
intergrated development planning (IDP), this municipality has the highest levels of
poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment. An estimate of 17% unemployed, only 24%
employed, while 59% of the population is considered economically inactive (Mnquma
Local Municipality IDP, 2010/2011).
1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 1.7.1 Methodology approach The research design specifies the most adequate activities to be undertaken in order
to test specific hypothesis under given conditions and is different to research
management (Bless, Higson–Smith & Kagee, 2006:71). According to Mouton
(2001:55), it is a plan or blueprint of how one will conduct research. Huysamen
(1994:1630), however, maintains that there are three different levels of research
methodology:
• The creation and development of techniques and strategies to collect data.
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• The development of methods to investigate and improve the psychometric
properties, namely reliability and validity of data obtained by means of these
techniques.
• The statistical analysis of the data collected by means of such techniques.
Garbers (1996:288-289) states that one of three basic research designs can be
selected for a research study, namely:
• A survey.
• An experiment.
• Fieldwork.
Garbers (1996:283) further states that the objective of qualitative research is to
promote better self-understanding and increase insight into the human condition. He
further points out that in qualitative research the emphasis is on improved
understanding of human behaviour and experience. Those researchers try to
understand the ways in which different individuals make sense of their lives. In
qualitative research, empirical observation is important as researchers need to study
real cases of human behaviour if they are to be in a position to reflect on the human
condition meaningfully and with clarity.
The study employed the qualitative approach with face-to-face interviews to obtain
rich data. The qualitative approach was justified for this evaluation study on the
grounds that:
• It attempts to gain access to personal subjective experience while quantitative
approach by its very nature misses the important dimension of social reality.
• The participants would not be identified in the study.
• The data was to be collected through in-depth structured questions. The data
was analysed through emerging patterns, themes and content analysis. An
appropriate computer software programme for qualitative research was employed
for purposes of data analysis.
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1.7.2 Qualitative research explained According to Creswell (2003:18), a qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer
often makes knowledge claims based primarily on constructivist perspectives, or
advocacy/participatory perspectives or both. He further states that it also uses
strategies of inquiry such as narratives, phenomenologies, ethnographies, grounded
theory studies or case studies. Hair, Money, Page and Samouel (2007:193) state
that there are two broad approaches to qualitative data collection, namely:
observation and interviews.
According to the above mentioned authors, if the objective of the research is to
investigate the behaviour of people or events, then observation is the suitable
method, whereas, if the objective is to understand why something happens, the
appropriate approach is to interview people.
The qualitative research paradigm is described as the general research approach in
social research in terms of which research takes as its point of departure the insider
perspective on social action. It is further asserted that qualitative researchers always
attempt to examine human action from the perspective of the social actors
themselves, also referred to as the “emic” perspective by anthropologists. The basic
aim of these types of studies is describing and understanding (Verstehen) rather
than explaining human behaviour (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:270).
The qualitative research paradigm arises from an anti-positivistic interpretative
approach, is idiographic and holistic in nature and its goal is to understand social life
and the meaning that people attach to everyday life. It elicits participant accounts of
meaning, experience or perceptions and generates descriptive data in the
participant’s own written or spoken words. Participant’s beliefs and values that
underlie the phenomena are thus identified by the qualitative paradigm. The key
elements that a qualitative research is concerned with, understand rather than
explanation; naturalistic observation rather than controlled measurement; and the
subjective exploration of reality from the perspective of an insider as opposed to the
outsider perspective that dominates the quantitative paradigm (De Vos, 2002:79).
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It can be inferred from the above that qualitative approaches are those approaches
in which the approaches are not strictly formalised while scope is more likely to be
undefined and a more philosophical mode of operation is adopted.
1.7.3 Identification of target population/sample A random sample of 10 residents was selected from each of the four villages which
comprised approximately two hundred residents per village. This will be equal to a
total sample of 40 residents. Five Extension Officers of the Department of Rural
Development and Agrarian Reform were also interviewed. The focus group
interview method was utilized because it provides high levels of participation, and
thus, elicit reactions that interviewer might not have obtained in a one-on-one
interview setting.
1.7.4 Data collection methods Data was collected by using the primary and secondary data which was based on
interviews and relevant documents. The numeric and textual data, conversation
interviews and transcripts formed part of the data collecting methods.
1.7.5 Data analysis The data was analysed using the approach of Anderson and Poole (1998:27) that is
interpreting the reliability of the data and summarise the data. This process can
involve summarising the data to temporally manageable length to categorise, identify
themes, analyse and assess.
Fox and Bayat (2007:104-110) write that data analysis is not limited to the mass
media, but can also include, inter alia, transcription of personal interviews, political
documents and minutes of meetings.
According to Mouton (2003:108), analysis involves “breaking up” the data into
manageable themes, patterns, trends and relationships.
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1.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Mouton (2003:238-243) views ethics as concerning what is wrong and right in the
conduct of research. In this research project the following major principles of ethics
in social research were adhered to:
• Objectivity and integrity in research.
• No fabrication or falsification of data.
• Always reporting of the findings fully and not to misrepresent the result in any
manner.
• No secret or clandestine research.
• An obligation to the free and open dissemination of research results.
• The right to anonymity and confidentiality.
1.9 CHAPTER OVERVIEW Chapter 1
Background and rationale of the study
Chapter 2
Literature review
Chapter 3
Research Methodology
Chapter 4 Data analysis and interpretation
Chapter 5
Conclusion and Recommendations
1.10 CONCLUSION The challenges of poverty, unemployment and underdevelopment faced by the
Ndakana Village community were identified. By undertaking this study, the causes
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of deprivation of the Ndakana Village community were identified and
recommendations to mitigate these deprivations were made.
In the Chapter that follows, a literature review that was undertaken will be discussed.
It includes topics such as policy framework and challenges for rural development, the
importance of public policy, policy implementation and evaluation in addressing rural
development challenges such as the alleviation of poverty.
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CHAPTER 2
POLICY FRAMEWORK AND CHALLENGES FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION Any governmental authority exists primarily for the benefit of citizens. The citizens
form a team with the elected members of provincial legislature (MPL) and the
appointed officials and is part of a complementary triangular relationship. Who are
the participants in provincial government and administration? – MPLs, officials and
voters.
Provincial authorities have a link with communities. A community can be described
as a group of persons with more or less the same interests. The inhabitants of a
town or specific parts of a town form part of one or other community. In the majority
of communities there are specific needs which cannot, owing to their nature and
extent, be provided by individuals.
Every community ought to have broad objectives determined with due consideration
being given to community needs, desires and means. Such an objective is in fact a
reflection of what is in the “best interest” of the community concerned. The raison
d’etre of provincial government and administration revolves around determining and
promoting what is in the “best interest” of the communities.
One of the first obstacles to overcome is who must do what to determine and
promote the so-called “best interest”. Because communities differ, the “best interest”
will differ from community to community. It should also be borne in mind that the
“best interest” is influenced by various factors such as social, economic and
technological development. As the situation in these fields changes, it can be
expected that attitudes as far as the so-called “best interest” is concerned will also
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change. Even geographical and climatic conditions can affect the “best interest” of a
community.
As far as the question on what should be done to determine the “best interest” is
concerned, specific arrangements have been developed. The approach is to create
opportunities for the members of a community to determine the type of “best interest”
of which the majority of the community will approve. The community must also have
the opportunity to express itself on who must do what to promote the “best interest”
of the community. In the Republic of South Africa, opportunities have been created
to enable every voter to participate in determining and promoting the “best interest”
of his or her community.
In this chapter attention will, inter alia, be given to:
• Place of policy in government and administration.
• Policy-making and policy implementation for rural development.
• Planning.
• Programming.
• Need for evaluation of poverty alleviation programmes.
• Rural development.
• Definition of Poverty.
• Efforts to promote rural development.
• The extent of poverty facing the Amathole District Municipality.
2.2 PUBLIC POLICY One of the basic requirements of public administration is that each and every activity
should be directed specifically at achieving a set goal, that is, a clear objective
should be formulated and made public so that all interested parties know what the
end result will be. In a small community comprising approximately 100 members it
will be fairly easy for members to determine the objective, that is, the “best interest”
for the community as well as what should be done by whom to achieve the objective.
The composition of the community in a contemporary state like the Republic of South
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Africa is complex. In fact, a state consists of a number of small communities. This
phenomenon makes the determination of an overall objective (i.e. the “best interest”
of the inhabitants of the state) and sub-objectives (i.e. the “best interest” for each of
the various communities in the state) a complicated matter (Cloete, 1986:56).
For practical reasons it is impossible for a community as a whole to determine
community objectives or the steps that must be taken to achieve the objectives. The
system of representation would appear to have developed against this background.
Via the system of representation the interested parties can participate in the
formulation of an appropriate objective for the community concerned. In this way an
objective could be set for every public institution in the three spheres of government.
When an objective is laid down, Cloete (1986:56) maintains that an indication should
be given of what is intended, how to set about achieving the objective (i.e. what
procedures will be followed), who will take action to achieve the objective (i.e. which
political office-bearers and/or officials), the wherewithal to achieve the objective (i.e.
what resources and machinery will be used), and where and when to take action to
achieve the objective. When an objective in the public sector is made known it is
usually said that the policy has been set.
According to Hanekom (1987:5), the legislator is responsible for setting guidelines
for official action. These guidelines, or public policies, are future orientated and are
subject to continuous review by the legislator. It is the task of the legislator to
determine what ought to be an ideal situation or an ideal course of action, in other
words, the legislator should be creative when visualising courses of action for the
attainment of societal goals or the resolving of societal problems.
The aims and the functions of governments have their origin in the values, needs,
desires and demands of society or societal groups. Through the political process,
the values, needs, desires and demands are transformed and eventually crystallise
into policy decisions, i.e. legislation, which in turn leads to executive government
structures (public institutions) responsible for policy implementation. In the course of
the political process, constant attention must be paid to the nature of society and its
values, and to the nature of the power exercised by the government. These aspects
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are of cardinal importance to both elected political office-bearers and appointed
public officials in the effective government and administration of the state (Hanekom,
1987:5).
Clarity should be obtained on the direction in which the government-of-the-day wants
to proceed with society, which means visualising the future neither on grounds of
fiction or unachievable Utopian ideals, nor on the grounds of hearsay or hope, but on
factual evidence obtained through empirical research (Hanekom, 1987:5).
2.2.1 Policy-making for rural development For effective service delivery, it is necessary for institutions of government to develop
policies which guide governmental actions and authorise specific actions for the well-
being of its citizens. According to Meiring and Parsons (1994:5:1), policy making is
an enabling function aimed at providing personnel with the policy as well as the
means required to provide goods and services (i..e.implementing the policy) and to
regulate the behaviour of all people in order to promote the general welfare.
In support of the important role played by policy, Hanekom (1987:7) comments as
follows “…policy making by politicians, or for that matter the officials, is not exercised
in a vacuum but is in fact linked to the realities of providing goods and services to
members of a community or the inhabitants of a state”. Hanekom (1987:7) states
that “…policy is the activity preceding the publication of a goal, while a policy
statement is the making known, the formal articulation, the declaration of intent or
the publication of a goal to be pursued”. Public policy has been defined as:
(a) “…a kind of a guide that delimits action”.
(b) A mechanism employed to realise societal goals and to allocate resources.
(c) Whatever government chooses to do or not do.
(d) A desired course of action to achieve a particular objective or goal.
(e) The authoritative allocation through the political process, of values to groups
or individuals in the society (Hanekom, 1987:7).
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According to Cloete and Wissink (2000:27), policy-making since the mid-1990s
requires participation and public choice, which involve direct representation,
empowerment and active decision-making. Wissink, et al. (2000:27) in Hanekom
(1990:12) further elaborate that public policy can also be related to the opinion of
individuals or groups. Public policies can thus manifest in government actions that
are good or bad, adequate or inadequate, effective or ineffective, responsive or
unresponsive.
From the above it appears that all government institutions, without exception, are
required to have policies in place that will enable the officials to render government
services in an efficient and an effective manner. A policy development process
provides opportunities for consultation with key stakeholders and beneficiaries of the
government programmes. Community needs are diverse. The extent to which such
needs will be met depends on the availability of the required means. The resources
are limited and policies must, inter alia, ensure that the available resources for the
provision of the needs be allocated in a fair and reasonable manner to the various
communities. For the policy objectives to be effectively realised, it is of paramount
importance to ensure that community participation in policy making and
implementation are achieved.
2.2.2 Policy implementation Goal realisation can only take place through the actual implementation of a policy,
that is, when the declared intentions of the policy-maker are put into action and
implemented by the governmental institutions specifically established, and with the
authority, to do so.
Policy implementation forms an integral part of the policy making process which in
essence is a means through which policy objectives are achieved. Different views
have been expressed on the need for the effective implementation of a policy in
order to achieve the goals and objectives of a given organisation.
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According to Thornhill and Hanekom (1995:56), implementation of policy is a
translation of the objectives and ideas of the ruling party on how to govern the
country, into the setting of specific priorities which are usually reflected in the
national budget. Meiring et al. (1994:18) view policy implementation as a policy-
action continuum which takes place at a specific moment in time and results in an
interaction and consultation between the main groups of participants, i.e. the
politicians, officials and the inhabitants of a community as state. Policy
implementation is what happens after laws are passed authorising public action, i.e.
those activities that follow statements of intent about programme goals and desired
results by government officials (Meiring et al., 1994:18). Cloete et al. (in Van Meter
& Van Horn, 2000:166) state policy implementation is encompassing those actions
by public or private individuals (or groups) that are directed at the achievement of
objectives set forth in a prior policy decision. Colebatch (2002:52) states that when
the policy-makers’ intentions have been carried out, and the desired objective should
have been achieved, this is implementation. But if what we find on the ground is
significantly different from those goals, then the policy has not been implemented.
From the above it can be deduced that only through implementation can the goals
and objectives of an organisation be realised. As soon as the policy has been
endorsed, an implementation plan must be developed. Implementation must focus
first on short and medium term policy objectives in consultation with those who might
be affected by the implementation of the policy. When policy is implemented, the
intention is to cover all the interests of those members of communities identified as a
target of policy implementation. Policies are implemented by means of resources
availability and such resources are always limited in scope. Officials responsible for
policy implementation must always utilise resources efficiently. The efficient
utilisation of government resources, require an effective planning of all government
activities.
With the implementation of a public policy it is essential that the goal be achieved in
an effective and efficient manner and that accountability be maintained. This
research investigated the extent to which the members of the community of Ndakana
villages were involved in policy design, planning and implementation of the
programmes of the DRDAR. It is at this stage that planning should be undertaken.
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2.2.3 Planning
Political planning is usually long-term planning, normally aimed at the promotion of
the general welfare and is, therefore, to a certain extent of a general nature.
Administrative planning is often short term, more specific and of a practical nature. It
involves planning activities pertaining to the establishment of a public administration
capable of translating the visualised future political plan into feasible and practical
policy advice, and includes the various categories of activities of the administrative
process, especially the generic administrative functions (Hanekom, 1987:14).
According to Meiring et al. (1994:20), planning requires the determining of the “most”
effective and efficient ways of action, to obtain the objectives that have been in the
policy. During planning, an attempt is made to obtain the “best” possible or “most”
advantageous way of action, which is chosen from various alternatives. Planning is
reasoning about how an institution will get where it wants to go. Its essence is to see
opportunities and threats in the future and to use these as effectively as possible to
attain the set of objectives.
Gwanya (1987:5) argues that rural development planners and decision-makers need
to be aware that there are a number of actors in rural development. These actors
include government departments, para-statal organisations, non-governmental
organisations, the private sector, and most important of all, the rural people
themselves. Successful rural development takes place when the plans, policies,
programmes and projects of the various actors are co-ordinated at all levels.
Permanent and continuing rural development takes place where rural people are
involved in the planning, implementation and evaluation of their own development.
According to De Villiers (1981:19), planning has the following characteristics:
(a) It is the end result of a number of decisions.
(b) Comprising specific functions to determine and select the best available
alternative to achieve a specific goal.
19
(c) It is a neutral tool which could be used to implement policies should there be
alternative ways for implementing such policies, in other words planning is
optional.
(d) It follows on policy-making.
(e) It is focussed on the future.
From the above it appears that planning acts as a catalyst in bringing together the
role-players for effective development. Rural development is the outcome of different
role-players linked together, inter alia, through the planning function. The aim of
planning is for optimal utilisation of resources, that is, for effective and efficient
service delivery. Planning provides the opportunity for better choices and
alternatives. The extent to which planning activities are embarked upon in the
DRDAR will be the subject of inquiry, including the extent of the evaluation of policy
programmes.
2.2.4 Programming
Programming is used broadly to include both specific service delivery efforts as well
as social policies that may focus on broad categories of people rather that specific
clientele. In the past few decades, many large, ambitious and expensive programs
intended to cope with social problems and to provide services to individuals have
developed (Monette et al, 2011:5).
A programme can be described as a logic exposition of the activities to be executed
for the implementation of the selected plan to render a specific product or service
within a specific period of time. Programming comprises the functions to be
performed to compile a programme. De Villiers (1981:20) identified the following
functions:
(a) Taking cognisance of the objective. The particulars in this regard can usually
be obtained from the plan selected by the policy-makers.
(b) Determining the activities which must be performed to achieve the objective.
(c) Determining and allocation of the means e.g. money, personnel, and
implements required to execute every activity.
20
(d) Determining the time required to execute every activity, i.e. every activity will
have to be completed on or before a specific target date.
Decision-making should not be confused with policy-making, planning or
programming. In fact, decision-making comprises the building blocks for policy-
making, planning and programming. Each process in the sequence of the policy-
making processes, planning and programming should commence with a decision
and terminate with a decision (Cloete, 1975:30).
With the knowledge what policy embraces, the place of policy in government and
administration, the participants in policy-making, phases and processes in policy-
making, and policy implementation, attention is focussed on poverty alleviation with
specific reference to the Amathole District in the Eastern Cape Province.
2.2.5 The need for evaluation of poverty alleviation programmes After a public policy has been implemented it is necessary to determine whether the
policy has indeed had the effects intended by the policy-maker and also whether it
has had unintended effects, of a positive or negative nature. The evaluation of policy
impact is the concern of both those who formulated and implemented the policy and
those who are interested in public policies, such as economists, politicians,
journalists, jurists and sociologists. Public policies are evaluated with a view to
adjusting or terminating existing policies or devising new policies
(Hanekom,1987:88). Generally speaking, policy evaluation is concerned with the
estimation, assessment, or appraisal of policy, including its content, implementation,
and effects (Anderson, 1994:238).
According to Wickham (1992:1), in Pasavac and Carey (1998:1), programme
evaluation is defined as a collective of methods, skills and sensitivities necessary to
determine whether a human service is needed and likely to be used, whether it is
sufficiently intense to meet the unmet needs identified, whether the services are
offered as planned, and whether the human service actually helps people in need at
a reasonable cost without undesirable side effects. Wickham (1998:1) further defines
21
programme evaluation as the assessment of the value of a programme or an aspect
of the programme. Programme evaluation is ultimately a judgement of the value of a
programme.
When making a judgement, the evaluator answers one or more of the following
questions:
(a) Has the programme achieved its objectives and/or goals?
(b) Have the anticipated outcomes been reached without unreasonable costs or
undesirable side effects?
(c) What difficulties are being/were encountered and how are/were these dealt
with?
(d) What are/were its weaknesses or absences?
(e) What could have been done better or differently?
In answering the questions against how does one measure success or failure,
Wickham (1998:7) states that baseline data must be collected before the start of the
programme which provides a picture of the situation before the programme begins.
Baseline data are most likely to have been collected consciously if a needs analysis
or situation analysis is conducted before the programme is designed and
implemented. Such analyses, however, are not always conducted and, sometimes,
when they have been done, it is without sufficient rigour or thought being given to
how the data will be used in evaluation of the programme
Williams (1999:196) advises that evaluations of poverty-relief schemes need to move
beyond quantitative measures – such as the number of households raised above a
poverty line – to concern themselves with the qualitative shifts in social relations that
such schemes bring about. From the above it can be deduced that programme
evaluation occupies an important step in the policy development cycle. Policy areas
for development are predetermined and after those policy areas have been
implemented they need to be evaluated against planned objectives. In order to
provide a comprehensive evaluation of implemented projects, information gathering
of how the projects were planned and who were going to be responsible for certain
tasks, is important before the evaluation process can commence.
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2.3 RURAL DEVELOPMENT A prerequisite for the development of the “best interest” of a community in a
democracy is a well thought out policy. Such a policy must be determined,
implemented and maintained in consultation with and as far as possible to the
satisfaction of all the participants of the concerned community. According to Aziz
(1980:99), the basic objective of rural development is to organise, develop and utilise
the available resources of land, water and manpower in such a manner that the
entire rural population dependent on these resources has an equal (or at least
equitable) opportunity, to meet as a minimum, their basic needs of food, clothes and
shelter with reasonable facilities for education and health and can live together in a
positive and healthy social environment.
Common to the approaches to rural development between extended and integrated
rural development is participation by local people in their own rural development
(Gwanya, 1989:3). Local participation is a means of coping with the problem of
scale, resource scarcity and adaption of development efforts to local conditions.
Sound implementation of extended rural development must be intensive in the use of
resources, local information and local organisations if it is to succeed. Gwanya
(1989:4) further states that: “People’s involvement and high quality of life is
attainable only if integrated rural development is considered as a continuous
concern, commanding direct political support and day-to-day involvement of rural
people”. Gwanya (1989:5) writes that the policy and strategies must be agreed upon
at the national (Head office) level, but even more so at regional, districts and local
levels. The rural development actors must consider themselves “equal” and partners
in rural development at no stage must feel superior to the other. The central
objective must be the involvement of rural people in development and the approach
must be the one of self-help and self-reliance.
It can be inferred that for rural development role-players should be encouraged to
work together if objectives for rural development (such as a policy for poverty
alleviation) are to be achieved. There is a need for coordination of activities of
government and non-governmental organisations which are pursuing similar
23
objectives as a consequence of scarce resources. The nature of poverty often
affects rural communities, therefore, it has to be defined.
2.3.1 Poverty defined According to Sachs (2005:20), it is useful to distinguish between three degrees of
poverty: extreme (or absolute) poverty, moderate poverty, and relative poverty.
Sachs (2005:20) further writes that extreme poverty means that households cannot
meet basic needs for survival. They are chronically hungry, unable to access health
care, lack the amenities of safe drinking water and sanitation, cannot afford
education for some or all of the children, and perhaps lack rudimentary shelter - a
roof to keep the rain out of the hut, a chimney to remove the smoke from the cook
stove - and basic articles of clothing, such as shoes. Sachs (2005:20) finally refers to
moderate poverty as being general to conditions of life in which basic needs are met,
but just barely. Relative poverty is generally construed as a household income level
below a given proportion of average national income.
According to Kane and Kirby (2003:43), there are two main groups of definitions of
poverty: absolute poverty and relative poverty. A definition of absolute poverty
assumes that it is possible to define a minimum standard of living, based on a
person’s biological needs for food, water, clothing and shelter.
Absolute poverty is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human
needs including food, safe drinking water, sanitation, facilities, health, shelter,
education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to
services (UNDP, 1998:167).
The definition of absolute poverty is based on the fact that all human beings require
adequate food, clothing and shelter in order to sustain life, or in other words, to
subsist. Poverty also exists when total earnings are insufficient to obtain the
minimum necessities for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency. Physical
efficiency refers to the ability of being able to carry out the daily demands expected
of you, for example being able to do your job to your employer’s satisfaction without
being ill (Kane et al, 2003:44).
24
The views on poverty are summarised by Kane et al (2003:52-53) as follows:
Poverty is not only about shortage of money, it is about rights and relationships;
about how people are treated and how they regard themselves; about
powerlessness; exclusions and loss of dignity. Yet the lack of an adequate income
is at its heart. Poverty means not having what you need. One can distinguish
between outer needs and inner needs, such as your body needs a house and food
and your soul needs friendship and happiness. Families and groups in a population
can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the type of diet;
to participate in the activities; have the living conditions and amenities that are
customary in the societies to which they belong.
From the above it can be deduced that poverty manifests itself in different forms.
Lack of resources on the part of an individual or community in order to participate in
the social life of a given community can be regarded as poverty. The absence of the
basic necessities of life such as adequate food, clothing and shelter can also be
regarded as absolute poverty that requires an appropriate policy to be implemented
to alleviate it. Poverty is a manifestation of how resources in a given society are
distributed. Poverty, whether absolute or relative, goes hand in hand with
underdevelopment which requires adequate resources to defeat it. Where poverty
prevails in a particular community, it is the responsibility of a government to
intervene with anti-poverty measures.
2.3.2 Efforts to promote rural development aimed at the alleviation of poverty An analysis of the relevant legislation and pronouncements shows that the South
African government is aware of the circumstances in rural areas. In the White Paper
for Rural Development, the rationale for rural development is, inter alia, as follows:
(a) The installation of satisfactory, social and economic infrastructure and the
extension of quality government services to rural areas, particularly in health
and education.
25
(b) Ensuring fundamental changes in land ownership patterns through the
redistribution of 30% of agricultural land by 2014, including comprehensive
agrarian support services.
(c) Promoting agrarian change to support subsistence food production through
expanding the role and productivity of modern small holder farming and
maintaining a vibrant and competitive agricultural sector – thus ensuring food
security for all (South Africa, 2010:6).
Section 2 of the Agricultural Development Act, 1991 stipulates, inter alia, the areas in
which support is provided for farmers:
(a) Provision of on-farm and off-farm infrastructure.
(b) Provision of advisory services to the farmers.
(c) Support agricultural production and agro processing.
(d) Promote viable commercialisation of irrigation schemes.
(e) Promote and facilitate the implementation of the six-peg policy (i.e. provision
of tractors, infrastructure, irrigation, fencing, stock-water dams and massive
food). (South Africa. Agricultural Development Act, 1991:4).
The Member of the Executive Council (MEC) has the authority to assist farmers with
agricultural development programmes in the Eastern Cape (South Africa, 1999:3). In
terms of Chapter 11, Section 4(1) of the Extension of Security of Tenure Act 1997,
the Minister may facilitate the planning and implementation of on-site and off-site
development and enable farm occupiers and other persons who need long-term
security of tenure to acquire land or rights in land.
In terms of Section 20(1) of the Animal Improvement Act 1998, the Minister may
assist with the establishment of a scheme for animals with the objective of improving
the genetic production potential of such animals, provided that a cost benefit analysis
of such a scheme has been carried out.
In the same spirit, provision is made in other legislation that promotes rural
development in some or other way. For example:
(a) Animal diseases or parasites (Animal Health Act, 2002).
26
(b) Mobilising financial resources (Eastern Cape Rural Finance Corporation Act,
1999).
(c) Physical and economic infrastructure (Eastern Cape Rural Development
Strategy, 2010).
According to the African National Congress (ANC) 52nd National Conference
Resolutions (2007:26), it was resolved to embark on an integrated programme of
rural development. Land reform and agrarian change of this programme should be
based on the following pillars:
(a) The provision of social and economic infrastructure and the extension of
quality government services particularly health and education to rural areas.
(b) Agrarian change with a view to supporting the production of food, expanding
the role and productivity of modern small-holder farming and maintain a
vibrant and competitive agricultural sector.
(c) Strengthen the voice of rural South Africans, empower poor communities and
build the momentum behind agrarian change and land reform by supporting
the self-organisation of rural people, working together with progressive
movements, and organisation and building of forums and structures through
which rural people can articulate their demands and interests.
From the above it can be inferred that there are specific programmes for rural
development of long-term nature. These programmes should be analysed to
ascertain which are suitable for a particular environment. A significant part of these
rural developmental programmes have been adopted as a strategy to pursue a rural
development agenda for the Eastern Cape Province. Rural development is the
result of the coordination of resources and programmes of government departments
that have a common objective of improving livelihoods of the rural people.
According to the election manifesto of the ANC (2009:11), the government will
intensify the land reform programme to ensure that more land is availed to the rural
poor. The poor will be provided with technical skills and financial resources to use
the land productively to create sustainable livelihoods and decent work in the rural
areas. As a consequence of the above, the ANC directs government departments to
27
implement appropriate programmes and establish a conducive environment for the
creation of decent and sustainable jobs in as many areas as possible. Furthermore,
the government has always maintained that the restoration of land to the rightful
owners has always been an integral part of the struggle for freedom.
In order to avail land for land reform and restitution, the government is looking at
three forms of land holding. These are state land that can be held through
leasehold; freehold with limited extent of private land; and land which foreigners will
be allowed to lease, but ownership will revert to South Africa (ANC, 2011:7).
With regard to the rural development policy for the poorest regions of the country,
the Government, inter alia, stated that the areas considered rural today were
developed historically as impoverished labour reserves for the urban economy and
not as viable economic zones. However, the Government still maintains that the
agricultural value-chain offers major opportunities in these areas for the creation of
employment through small holder schemes and processing and sale of agricultural
products. Improvement in livelihood for rural dwellers is possible by upgrading
farmers’ conditions and organisations and helping rural households increase
production (http://www.info.gov.za).
From the official documents listed above, it appears that a number of role-players
(portfolios) are involved. The statements are, however, about who must do what,
where and when. The question is what has been done to enable the role-players to
achieve or promote the objectives listed in these documents? In other words, were
the means for promoting the objectives provided and were such means effectively
and efficiently utilised? The evaluation of the poverty alleviation programmes ought
to provide the required answers, including sharing light on how policy formulation
was undertaken in order to effectively meet the needs of the poor.
Over a period of many years, numerous policy programmes for rural development
were developed and carried out in several countries. According to Gwanya
(1987:19), there are five types of rural developmental programmes, namely; the
minimum package programmes (MPP), the comprehensive programme, area
28
development schemes, special programmes and job/employment creation
programmes.
The minimum package programme (MPP) entails provision of minimum package
requirements for a large rural population for increasing e.g. agricultural production
(e.g. the MPP of Ethiopia in 1971 provided agricultural production, credit, extension
services, co-operative development and construction of feeder roads).
The comprehensive programme is characterised by clearly defined needs and
resources for a specific rural population, detailed planning for preparation and
implementation, phasing out or restructuring of existing institutions (e.g. Taiwanese
multi-purpose farmer’s associations of the 1970s which increased agricultural
productivity mainly because of the use of better inputs as well as adoption of new
production techniques by small farmers).
Area development schemes involves schemes which operate through well-funded,
well-equipped, and well-staffed institutions such as a corporation, often with little
community involvement (for example, the groundnut and tobacco project of
Tanzania, the tea project of Kenya, Magwa tea project in the Transkei).
Special programmes are usually organised by government departments to provide
infrastructure. Although this type of programme is not performed to meet any
specific need of the rural poor, it is helping them indirectly by creating jobs and
promoting economic growth. Such programmes are often costly and poorly
structured in terms of overall priority needs of the rural people, for example, the
construction of roads in rural areas to enable tourists to travel through the country.
Job/employment creation programmes provide direct income to the unemployed
by creating productive infrastructural development, for example, the road
maintenance programme of the Department of Works and Energy.
A programme, as explained earlier in this chapter, is utilised for the implementation
of a policy. Before any of these programmes can be considered, the policy-makers
are required to determine an appropriate policy and allocate the required means to
execute the programme(s).
29
2.3.3 The extent of poverty facing the Amathole District An in-depth analysis of poverty facing the communities of the Amathole District, of
which Ndakana Village is part, is explained in detail in the Provincial Government
Development Plan (PGDP). According to the PGDP (2004:37), insufficient
resources have been made available to address infrastructure and services
backlogs, particularly in the former homeland areas. As a result, poverty and
inequality in the Eastern Cape Province is severe and widespread. Low levels of
productive asset ownership accompanied by high levels of economics, services,
resources and food poverty exist in the Province. The high poverty level in the
Province is also indicated by the proportion of households living below the poverty
line (R800.00 or less a month). Almost 64% of households in the Province live in
poverty. The high poverty level in the Province also reflects the rural nature of the
Province (PGDP, 2004:37). Poverty indicators between 1996 and 2001 suggest
significant growth in the number of the people in the Eastern Cape who fall below the
poverty line. The distribution of the poor in the Eastern Cape is a stark reminder of a
history of institutionalised racism with the overwhelming majority of poor people in
2001 being black (97%) (PGDP, 2004:40). According to PGDP (2004:38), access to
water, electricity and sanitation has a direct impact on the quality of life. Clean water
and sanitation are necessary for reducing mortality and poor health and for
increasing the productivity of capacity of the poor.
According to the PGDP (2004:41), HIV/AIDS continues to pose a major challenge for
the people of South Africa and the Eastern Cape Province. The Province has seen
an expansion of the HIV and AIDS pandemic which calls for multi-sectoral response
across government departments, civil society and other sectors in the Province.
HIV/AIDS has social, economic and developmental consequences and these will
increase as more people become infected, get ill and die due to AIDS-related
illnesses. The HIV/AIDS directorate estimated the HIV prevalence in the Eastern
Cape to be 8.3 % of the whole population. This means that there are about an
estimated 534 251 HIV positive individuals in the Eastern Cape Province and about
30
534 251 patients needing anti-retroviral therapy in the Province (PGDP, 2004:45).
The homeland system had contributed to wide-spread poverty. The system was
characterised by the absence of infrastructure such as provision of water, sanitation
and roads. The majority of the people in the homeland lived below the poverty
datum line. The absence of clean water and sanitation and the scourge of HIV/AIDS
contributed to the high level of poverty in the community of the Amathole district of
which Ndakana Village is part. It is only when there are programmes of rural
development that the economy can grow and create more jobs.
In the case of the Eastern Cape Province, the strategic approach for programmes for
rural development is found in the PGDP. According to the PGDP (2004:60), the
agriculture sector has high growth potential in the former homelands as a source of
income and employment. Provincial agricultural resources have to be mobilised to:
(a) Improve the food security of poor households.
(b) Promote agricultural growth for employment and to provide raw material for
agro-processing and natural resources based industries.
(c) Lay the foundation for economic growth in the rural parts of the Province and
change the spatial inequality of growth and development.
(d) The PGDP (2004:64) further stipulates that a key to poverty eradication lies in
the rapid transformation of the agricultural sector.
(e) The challenge of poverty requires a focus on the growth of the agrarian
economy in the former homeland through:
I. A programme to promote household food security by expanded small-
holder production.
II. Development of commercial agriculture through optimum use of the
highest potential agricultural land in the former homelands.
III. A focus on land redistribution and, in the longer term, land tenure
reform to release land for poor households and for new commercial
farming enterprises.
IV. Consolidating the value chain and supply chain in existing markets by
identifying inputs that can be supplied and higher value products linked
to existing production.
31
V. The development of agro-industries based upon expanded agricultural
production in the former homelands.
VI. The development of infrastructure especially in the former homelands
is a necessary condition to eradicate poverty by for example, the
elimination of social backlogs, access roads, schools, clinics, water for
human consumption and sanitation.
The PGDP (2004:87) has listed, inter alia, the following programmes in terms of
which the rural development programmes should be driven:
(a) Massive food programme.
(b) Siyazondla homestead food production programme.
(c) Comprehensive nutritional programme.
(d) Integrated agricultural infrastructure programme.
(e) Expanded public works programme.
(f) Water and Sanitation programme.
(g) Housing programme.
(h) HIV/AIDS and TB programmes.
In support of rural development in the Province, the National Department of Rural
Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) has listed, inter alia, the following
challenges facing rural areas:
(a) Under-utilisation and/or unsustainable use of natural resources.
(b) Poor or lack of access to socio-economic infrastructure and services, public
amenities and government services.
(c) Lack of access to water.
(d) Lack of water resources for both households and agricultural development.
(e) Low literacy, lack of suitable skills, and migratory labour practices.
(f) Decay of the social fabric (child/woman-headed households, family disputes
and lack of Ubuntu – human solidarity).
(g) Unexploited opportunities in agriculture, tourism, mining and manufacturing.
32
The PGDP of 2004 should serve as an information document for the policy-makers
to determine a proper policy for the development of the Amathole District. It seems
that communities in the Amathole district are still faced with challenges of poverty,
unemployment and under-development. From the documentation on rural
development it appears that the rural areas, especially the former Bantustans (that is
the self-governing states before 1994) are regarded as the poorest regions in the
country.
2.4 CONCLUSION In public administration every activity should be directed at achieving a set goal. It is
of paramount importance that a clear objective be formulated and made public to
ensure that all interested parties know what to expect. The system of representation
enables the participants to make a contribution to the formulation of an appropriate
objective for the community concerned. Such an objective should give an indication
of what is intended, how it is envisaged to achieve the objective, who will take
action to achieve the objective, as well as with what, where and when action will
take place.
Policy-making is a complex and often tedious process. One should always
remember that the legislator is responsible for setting the guidelines, i.e. policies, for
official action. The interested parties sometimes expect results while the policy-
making process is still in progress.
Once the policy is set, the implementation of the policy can be initiated. Due to the
fact that there are usually many ways to achieve an objective, it is essential that the
available alternatives be analysed and the best alternative be selected. In other
words, the planning process must be performed.
To ensure that the implemented policy has indeed had the effects intended,
evaluation of poverty alleviation programmes must be performed on a continuous
basis.
33
From the available literature on poverty, poverty alleviation and rural development, it
appears that the authorities are aware of the circumstances in the rural regions. In
the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), poverty is considered the
greatest burden of South Africa’s people. The DRDAR is responsible, since 1994,
for the implementation of national poverty-relief programmes as well as rural
development initiatives.
A number of public institutions are involved in the implementation of a variety of
legislation that could in a way bring relief to the poor in the rural areas.
It is, however, observed that in spite of the opportunities for relief created in
legislation, the White Paper for Rural Development (WPRD) (2010), the Green Paper
on Land Reform (GPLR) (2011), and statements by political parties, the poverty
situation is deteriorating. According to the PGDP, the resources made available to
address infrastructure and service backlogs, particularly in the former homeland
areas, are insufficient. Poverty indicators between 1996 and 2001 show a significant
growth in the number of people in the Eastern Cape Province who fall below the
poverty line. The reason for this phenomenon will have to be investigated. At this
point in time it is unclear whether the means to enable the various public institutions
to implement the policies regarding poverty alleviation, were provided.
In the next Chapter, a research methodology will be discussed which includes
quantitative and qualitative approaches. The identification of a target population,
units of analysis of the study and the facilitation process undertaken for focus group
interviews will also be discussed.
34
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION Circumstances such as communication, infrastructure and availability of relevant
participants often dictate what will be the best research method to follow.
In this chapter the research approach, identification of the target groups for the
sample, and the interviews by using structured questions to perform the empirical
survey is explained.
3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH In order to ensure that a sustainable policy is maintained it is essential that
information be obtained on a continuous basis. In other words, knowledge about the
objective to be achieved must be acquired or derived. Knowledge implies information
or understanding, in fact all that the mind knows, from whatever source derived or
obtained by whatever process. Social research is a process for producing
knowledge. It is a more structured, organised, and systematic process than the
alternatives. Knowledge from the alternatives is often correct, but knowledge based
on research is more likely to be true and has few errors (Nueman, 2006:2).
In a contemporary society, information can be obtained from a variety of sources.
The computer can yield reams and reams of data relating to products, services,
costs, and prices. Libraries and the internet are fruitful sources. Trade associations
offer industrial statistics, and from the government, numerous studies, reports, and
booklets on a variety of subjects. Volume alone is, however, not satisfactory. The
key consideration is to acquire information that is useful to decision making and
problem solving.
35
According to Neuman (2006:2), social research is a collection of methods people
used systematically to produce knowledge. It is an existing process of discovery, but
it requires persistence, personal integrity, tolerance for ambiguity, interaction with
others and pride in doing quality work. To conduct social research means among
other things, to perform the systematic examination of imperial data, collected by
someone firsthand, concerning the social or psychological forces operating in a
situation (Monette et al, 2011:3).
Social sciences research is a collaborative human activity in which social reality is
studied objectively with the aim of gaining a valid understanding of it. Mouton et al.
(1990:7) emphasise the following dimensions of research in this definition:
(a) the sociological dimension: scientific research is a joint or collaborative
activity;
(b) the ontological dimension: research in the social sciences is always
directed at an aspect or aspects of social reality;
(c) the teleological dimension: as a human activity, research in the social
sciences is intentional and goal-directed, its main aim being the
understanding of phenomena;
(d) the epistemological dimension: the aim is not merely to understand
phenomena, but rather to provide a valid and reliable understanding of
reality; and
(e) the methodological dimension: research in the social sciences may be
regarded as objective by virtue of its being critical, balanced, unbiased,
systematic, and controllable.
The methodological dimension concerns what may be called the how of social
sciences research. In other words, how should research be planned, structured, and
executed to comply with the criteria of science? Methodology is defined as the logic
of the application of scientific methods to the investigation of phenomena. Kaufman
in Mouton et al. (1990:16) maintains that research methodology is the theory of
correct scientific decisions.
36
Mouton et al. (1990:156) writes that research may, as mentioned earlier, be defined
as a collaborative activity by means of which a given phenomenon in reality is
studied in an objective manner, with a view to establishing a valid understanding of
that phenomenon. They further state that it is possible to distinguish between two
approaches to research the social sciences, namely, the quantitative approach on
the one hand and various qualitative approaches on the other hand.
3.2.1 The quantitative approach Punch (2005:237) states that the qualitative approach conceptualizes reality in terms
of variables, and relationships between them. It rests on measurement and therefore
pre-structures data, and usually research questions, conceptual framework and
design as well. Samples are typically larger that in qualitative studies and
generalization through sampling is usually important.
3.2.2 The qualitative approach The qualitative approach according to Punch (2005:238), deals more with cases. It
is sensitive to context and process, to lived experience and to local groundedness,
and the researcher tries to get closer to what is being studied. It aims for in-depth
and holistic understanding, in order to do justice to the complexity of social life.
Samples are usually small, and its sampling is guided by theoretical rather than
probabilistic consideration.
Against the exposition above and in view of the fact that the boundaries in the social
sciences are less clearly drawn, it is difficult (almost impossible) to define all
phenomena in exact terms (as is done in the physical sciences). It is, therefore,
considered that a qualitative approach of the methodological dimension be followed
for this study. Data was collected by using focus group interviews and the study of
relevant documentation. A schedule with structured questions was also used during
the interviews.
According to Babbie and Mouton (2001:270), the following characteristics are
peculiar to the qualitative research approach:
37
(a) research is conducted in a natural setting of social actors;
(b) emphasis is on processes rather than outcome;
(c) the actor’s perspective is emphasised;
(d) the primary aim is in-depth descriptions and understanding of actions and
events;
(e) the main concern is to understand social action in terms of its specific
context rather than attempting to generalise to some theoretical
population;
(f) the research process is often inductive in its approach, resulting in the
generation of new hypotheses and theories; and
(g) the qualitative researcher is seen as the “main instrument” in the research
process.
Neuman (2006:151) regards the following facts as strengths offered by the
qualitative research approach:
(a) qualitative researchers often rely on interpretative or critical social science;
(b) qualitative researchers apply “logic in practice” and follow a non-linear
research path;
(c) qualitative researchers emphasise conducting detailed examinations of
cases that arise in the natural flow of social life; and
(d) qualitative researchers try to present authentic interpretations that are
sensitive to specific social-historical contexts.
It is maintained that the qualitative research methodology engaged for this study is
appropriate as it enabled the researcher to interact closely with the subjects in their
natural settings.
3.2.3 Selecting relevant information Whether one uses information to describe a situation or to make a general
deduction, the figures must have been obtained in some way. Such information
38
needs to be relevant, up-to-date and typical (Edwards, 1980:305). Due to the nature
and extent of the services rendered by the public sector, it is obvious that samples
will be used because it is impossible to test the whole population as it is too
expensive to do so.
For a meaningful discussion of the target population sample, it is essential to get
clarity of the terms “population” and “random sample”. The use of the word
“population” further on in this chapter simply means the entire group (extension
officers or inhabitants of a village) from which the sample is chosen.
Monette et al. (2011:136) explain that a sample is drawn from a population, which
refers to all possible cases of what we are interested in studying. A sample consists
of one or more elements selected from a population. The manner in which we select
elements for the sample has enormous implication for the scientific utility of the
research based on that sample.
According to Punch (2005:101), all research, including qualitative research, involves
sampling. This is because no study, whether quantitative, qualitative or both, can
include everything: You cannot study everyone everywhere doing everything.
Simple random sampling treats the target population as a unitary whole. We might
begin with sampling frame containing a list of the entire population – or as complete
a list as we can obtain. If we computerized the sampling frame, we could
accomplish random selection merely by programming the computer to select
randomly a sample of whatever size we decided (Monette et al, 2011: 139-140).
Research implies a systematic investigation of a phenomenon such as rural
development. Over the years, specific procedures were developed to obtain the
information for such an investigation. According to Punch (2000:58), procedures
refer to the actual process of data collection over and above any instruments
proposed if field work is involved, and how it will be carried out. The procedure
followed to obtain the required information for this study comprised a literature
review covering the government policy framework, documents, publications, books,
and journals on rural development. Official public speeches provided useful
information that has been utilised in this research study. The participants directly
39
involved or affected by the policy for rural development were approached for
applicable information by using the available facilities such as focus group
interviews. The information obtained in this way helped to understand the policy
areas as well as the government’s focus on rural development that constituted the
theoretical basis of this research project.
A fifty percent (50%) response rate of focus group attendees is regarded as
adequate for purposes of this study. An anticipated response rate of a minimum of
fifty percent (50%) was expected from the empirical survey which would adequately
justify any conclusions or recommendations made in terms of the population
selected for the purposes of the study.
The qualitative research method selected, made it possible to cover the vast
geographical area to be studied.
3.3 IDENTIFICATION OF TARGET POPULATION Punch (2000:54) maintains that empirical research involves sampling. Miles and
Huberman (1994:27) earlier on also confirm this statement as follows: “You cannot
study everyone everywhere doing everything.” Punch (2000:55) further points out
that qualitative sample sizes tend to be small, often with no statistical grounds for
guidance.
Ndakana Village comprises four components namely (Hili-hili, Matafeni, Ncora and
Diphini). The population in each component is approximately 200. According to
Anderson et al (1998:24), care must be taken to describe the method of choosing a
sample for a study and to ensure its appropriateness. A basic concern in most
studies is to guard against a biased sample. Considerable care needs to be
exercised (and shown to be exercised) to guard against such a phenomenon. In fact,
one of the advantages of a random sample is that it is free from partiality. A random
sample implies a sample selected on the basis of pure chance in situations that are
free from any inherent bias (http//www.business dictionary com/definition/random-
sample html). Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each
40
member of the population must, however, have an equal and known chance of being
selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to
identify every member of the population with the result that the pool of available
subjects becomes biased. In collaboration with the supervisor of the four
components of Ndakana Village it was agreed that 10 respondents per component
should be an appropriate sample. The participants involved with the selection of the
representatives for the sample were satisfied that it was a random selection.
The percentage of respondents who responded to a survey is called the response
rate. This rate is important, and should not be left to chance. Response results
must be representative of the population. A survey must have a good response rate
in order to produce accurate and useful results. Acceptable response rates vary by
how the survey is administered:
(i) Mail: 50% adequate, 60% good, 70% very good; and
(ii) Face-to-face 80%-85% good.
(http:www.utexas.edu/academic/ctl/assessment/iar/teaching/gather
method/survey)
Against the background explained above, the study focused on a scientifically
random sample of 10 target respondents for each village of Ndakana. The target
respondents were drawn from the latest available voter’s roll and five officials
selected from the extension officers. In other words, the target respondents
comprised:
(i) 40 members of the village who derive their livelihood from farming; and
(ii) five extension officers.
A set of relevant structured questions had been developed for the participants. The
acceptable response rate is 50% since the structured questions were conducted
through focus groups and the information obtained was subjected to the procedures
of validation and reliability. The interviews were concluded during November 2011.
The information was collected by taking detailed field notes from the respondents. A
tape recorder was used as a supplement to ensure that the information was properly
41
documented. The identity of the respondents will not be revealed to the public in line
with the ethical principles of anonymity of the respondents.
3.4 FACILITATION PROCESS FOR FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS According to Neuman (2006:412), the focus group is a special qualitative research
technique in which people are formally “interviewed” in a group-discussion setting.
The procedure is that a researcher gathers together 6 to 12 people in a room with a
moderator to discuss a few issues. The moderator is trained to be nondirective and
to facilitate free, open discussion by all group members (that is, not let one person
dominate the discussion), group members should be homogeneous, but not include
close friends or relatives.
3.5 UNITS OF ANALYSIS According to Mouton (2001:51), the units of analysis refer to what of the study: i.e.
what object, phenomenon, entity, process or event will be investigated.
The number of residents expected to attend the focus group interviews amounted to
40. Only 38 were present which constituted a 95% response rate. Regarding the
five extension officers expected to join the focus group interviews, all five were
present which constituted a 100% response rate. Each member was interviewed
and requested to respond to structured questions. The questions and answers were
discussed and detailed field notes were taken.
3.6 CONCLUSION For an evaluation of a programme for the alleviation of poverty, one needs
meaningful information. In this chapter various approaches and techniques to obtain
the required information for the evaluation of the mentioned programme were
considered. In the social sciences it is not always possible to explain phenomena
such as poverty in exact terms as in the exact sciences. For instance, the causes for
poverty or remedies to alleviate or eradicate poverty are extensively remote. It is,
42
however, common knowledge that the inhabitants in poverty stricken areas are
seriously affected by this phenomenon. At the same time it is a fact that the
government employed officials to bring relief to people living in these areas.
Against this background and after considering the suitability, advantages and
disadvantages of the various approaches and techniques, it was concluded that:
(a) the required information for the investigation would be obtained via the
qualitative approach;
(b) members of Ndakana Village were selected in an endeavour to source
information from the people directly affected by poverty; and
(c) extension officers appointed to alleviate poverty were selected to obtain
their views regarding the implementation of programmes to alleviate
poverty.
To ensure that the information obtained would be reliable, it was decided that:
(a) random sampling be applied;
(b) focus groups be utilised to interview the target respondents through
structured questions, and
(c) the information obtained be properly documented.
In the chapter that follows, data analysis and interpretation of the detailed field notes
taken during focus groups discussions will be summarised into themes. The
responses of the participants in each village are also summarised and analysed.
43
CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION In Chapter 3 it was stated that 10 respondents from each village of Ndakana were
interviewed through focus groups. The respondents were also given structured
questions to provide answers individually to ensure that detailed information was
obtained. When the information through focus groups and responses to the
questions were obtained, they were analysed using Mouton and Punch’s
approaches. According to Mouton (2001:108), analysis involves “...breaking up the
data into manageable themes, patterns, trends and relationships”. The aim of
analysis is to understand the various constitutive elements of data through an
inspection of the relationships between concepts, constructs or variables and to see
whether there are any patterns or trends that can be identified or isolated or
established themes in the data. Punch (2005:197) defines qualitative data analysis
as a comprehensive source book, describing analysis which is directed at tracing out
lawful and stable relationship among social phenomena, based on the regularities
and sequences that link these phenomena.
The detailed field notes taken during the focus group discussions was summarised
into themes in order to get the essence and meaning of the information. According
to Anderson and Poole (2001:27), once data are collected, it must be summarised
into temporarily manageable length to categorize, identify themes, analyse and
assess. The researcher interpreted the data by analysing each answer provided by
the respondents. All aspects of information for interpretation (in order to be reliable)
were taken into account. Mouton (2001:109) is of the view that interpretation involves
the synthesis of one’s data into larger coherent wholes. One interprets (and explains)
observation or data by formulating hypotheses or theories that account for observed
patterns and trends in the data. Mouton (2001:109) further writes, interpretation
44
means relating one’s results and findings to existing theoretical frameworks or
models, and showing whether these are supported or falsified by the new
interpretation.
The analysis of data obtained from the fieldwork through the presentation of graphs
is one of the important tools for analysis of data that was utilised in this chapter. In
this regard, Punch (2005:197) maintains that analysis has three main components:
• Data reduction.
• Data display.
• Drawing and verifying conclusion.
The data obtained through focus groups and responses from the structured
questions by the respondents were subjected to a detailed analysis and
interpretation.
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
The responses to the structured questions provided by the respondents from four
villages of Ndakana are reflected below.
4.2.1 Residents of Ndakana Village Question: Analysis
1. Do the Extension Officers meet with the residents of Ndakana Village to perform their advisory services?
Village Responses No. Of respondents
Percentage
Hili-Hili
Never
Rare occasion
9
1
90%
10%
Mathafe
ni
Never
Rare occasion
8
2
80%
20%
Ncora Never
Rare occasion
9
1
90%
10%
Diphini Never
Rare occasion
9
1
90%
10%
Total 40 400%
45
Figure 4.1 Hili-hili Village The majority of respondents, 90%, stated that the Extension Officers had
failed to visit Ndakana village to perform advisory services and 10% of the
respondents stated that the Extension Officers met with them once a quarter.
Mathafeni Village At this village, 80% of the respondents stated that the Extension Officers
never visited them to undertake advisory services while 20% of the
respondents said the Extension Officers visited the village of Ndakana on rare
occasions.
Ncora Village As reflected in figure 4.1, 90% of the respondents stated that the Extension
Officers never visited the village of Ndakana to perform advisory services
while 10% stated that the Extension Officers had visited the Village of
Ndakana to perform advisory services on rare occation.
Diphini Village As indicated in figure 4.1 above, 90% of the respondents stated that they had
never seen Extension Officers in the village of Ndakana performing advisory
services while 10% stated that Extension Officers met the residents of
Ndakana Village only if there was a sheep scab problem.
46
The analysis of this question clearly indicates that the Extension Officers did not
visit the Ndakana Village on a regular basis to perform extension services.
2. Are the information days organised by the extension officers attended by the residents (farmers) of the community of Ndakana? Please explain, amongst other, the rate of attendance?
Village Responses No. Of respondents
Percentage
Hili-Hili Never
once
8
2
80%
20%
Mathafeni Never
once
7
3
70%
30%
Ncora Never
once
9
1
90%
10%
Diphini Never
once
9
1
90%
10%
Total 40 400%
Figure 4.2
47
Hili-hili Village 20% of the respondents stated that the residents of the community of
Ndakana Village had not attended the information days while 20% stated that
the residents of the community of Ndakana Village had on one occasion
attended the information days. 40% of the respondents stated that the
residents of the community of Ndakana Village heard about the information
day while 20% stated that they had never heard of it.
Mathafeni Village As reflected in figure 4.2, 30% of the respondents stated that the residents of
the community of Ndakana Village attended the information days. 40% of the
respondents said that the residents of the community of Ndkakana Village did
not attend the information days while 30% respondents said that they had
heard of it.
Ncora Village Regarding this village, 90% of the respondents indicated that the respondents
of Ndakana Village did not attend the information days while 10% said that
they had attended the information day session on one occasion.
Diphini Village Figure 4.2 reflected that 90% of the respondents indicated that the residents
of the village of Ndakana never attended the information days while only 10%
said that the residents of the community of Ndakana Village had last
attended the information days during the 1960s. They said they were never
invited to any information days by the Extension Officers.
The above analysis indicates that the overwhelming majority (90%) of the
residents of Ndakana Village had not attended the information day sessions
where skills which are required be demonstrated regarding agricultural
matters.
3. Do you have healthy working relationship with the Extension Officers?
48
Village Responses No. Of respondents
Percentage
Hili-Hili Non-existent
Poor
8
2
80%
20%
Mathafeni Non-existent
Poor
9
1
90%
10%
Ncora Non-existent
Poor
9
1
90%
10%
Diphini Non-existent
Poor
9
1
90%
10%
Total 40 400
Figure 4.3 Hili-hili Village Figure 4.3 indicates that 20% of the respondents stated the working
relationship between Extension Officers and the residents of Ndakana Village
as very poor while 80% said that it was non-existent.
Mathafeni Village As reflected in figure 4.3, 90% of the respondents said the working
relationship between the Extension Officers and the residents of Ndakana
Village were non-existent while 10% said that it was very poor.
49
Ncora Village The majority of the respondents (90%) said that the working relationship
between the Extension Officers and the residents of Ndakana Village was
non-existent while 10% said that it was very poor.
Diphini Village Figure 4.3 reflects 90% of the respondents said that the working relationship
between the Extension Officers and the residents of Ndakana Village were
non-existent while 10% said that it was very poor.
From the above analysis it can be inferred that the relationship between the
Extension Officers and the residents of Ndakana Village is non-existent.
4. Do you experience challenges as farmers of Ndakana Village?
Hili-hili Village 80% of the respondents stated that the challenges they experienced as
farmers of Ndakana Village relate to ploughing and grazing fields which were
not fenced while 30% said their ploughing fields were fallow. 70% of the
respondents said that there were no mechanisation programmes in place
while 50% pointed out the non-availability of Extension Officers for advisory
services. 20% of the respondents cited unemployment as a challenge
experienced by the farmers of Ndakana Village while 60% indicated non-
provision of water as a challenge experienced by the farmers of Ndakana
Village. 10% of the respondents cited the absence of skills as a challenge of
the residents of Ndakana Village while 50% mentioned invader plants in their
ploughing fields as a major challenge. 40% of the respondents stated that
their soil had not been tested in order to determine whether the crops are
suitable for the soil. 20% of the respondents cited the absence of
infrastructure as a challenge experienced by the farmers of Ndakana Village
while 10% stated the absence of a shearing shed as a major challenge for the
community of Ndakana Village. The absence of a market where the
50
community of Ndakana Village could sell its produce was cited by 10% of the
respondents as a major challenge.
Mathafeni Village 30% of the respondents stated that the challenge experienced by the farmers
of Ndakana Village was the non-cultivation of ploughing fields and absence of
a fencing programme for ploughing and grazing fields. 40% of the
respondents cited a shearing shed as a challenge experienced by the farmers
of Ndakana Village. 30% of the respondents complained about the non-
availability of extension officers to provide advisory services to the community
of Ndakana Village while 50% stated that there was no shearing shed for the
community.
Ncora Village At this village 50% of the respondents indicated the the absence of a fencing
programme for ploughing fields and grazing camps, mechanization and
HIV/Aids as a serious problem facing the community of Ndakana Village. 30%
of the respondents stated the major challenge experienced was
unemployment and non-provision of water both for drinking and irrigation of
ploughing fields. 30% of the respondents cited the problem of invader plants
that were widespread in the ploughing fields, non-provision of electricity, poor
condition of roads, no sports fields for the youth and environmental
awareness programmes.
Diphini Village All respondents cited the absence of clean, running drinking water and stock
water-dams as a major problem while 60% stated that their livestock were
dying as a result of drought. 90% of the respondents stated that the ploughing
fields are fallow and there is no fencing programme for both ploughing and
grazing fields. 80% residents stated that there was no shearing shed for the
community while 70% stated that there was no mechanisation programme nor
irrigation infrastructure provided for the community of Ndakana Village.
51
The analysis above reflects the absence of developmental programmes for
the community of Ndakana village. This finding correlates with the hypothesis
of this study.
5. Do you have remedial strategies in place in order to overcome challenges relating to rural development in Ndakana village?
Hili-hili Village The majority of the respondents (90%) stated that the Extension Officers
should be available to the communities of Ndakana Village for advisory
services while 70% stated that there should be provision of water for human
and livestock consumption. 20% of the respondents stated that a farmer’s
association should be established for the community while 10% said that the
soil should be tested in order to determine the soil type for cultivation of crops.
20% of the respondents suggested that youth should be involved in the
development programmes of government while 30% stated that there should
be mechanization programmes in place for the community of Ndakana
Village. 80% of the respondents stated that there should be a fencing
programme of ploughing and grazing fields while 70% wanted provision of
stock water dams. 60% of the respondents of Ndakana Vvillage requested for
assistance to plough their fields from the DRDAR.
Mathafeni Village Only 50% of the respondents stated that extension officers should be
available for advisory services while 30% said that a farmers association
should be established for the community of Ndakana Village. 60% stated that
a mechanization programme should be initiated while 40% supported the
introduction of the fencing programmes. 50% of the respondents stated that
there should be provision of electricity for the community. 50% stated that the
invader plants should be removed and 30% suggested that information days
should be held in Mnquma Local Municipality.
52
Ncora Village The majority of the respondents (80%), suggested that extension officers
should be available for advisory services while 70% wanted the elimination of
invader plants from their ploughing fields. 90% of the respondents wanted
fencing of ploughing fields while 80% suggested an implementation of a
mechanisation programme for the inhabitants of Ndakana Village. 50% of the
respondents suggested that a community hall should be built, 40% suggested
that there should be a Day Care Centre, while 60% strongly suggested that
there should be a mobile clinic available for the Ndakana Village community.
Diphini Village All the respondents stated that the Extension Officers should be available for
advisory services while 90% supported the introduction of a mechanisation
programme. 80% of the respondents cited the importance of the introduction
of a fencing programme for ploughing fields, 50% suggested that job
opportunities should be created while 80% suggested provision of a shearing
shed for the community.
It can be inferred from the above that there is an urgent need for the provision
of extension services, water provision, introduction of a mechanisation
programme and the fencing of ploughing and grazing fields for the community
of Ndakana village.
6. As a resident of Ndakana Village, do you understand what is expected of you?
Village Responses No. Of respondents
Percentage
Hili-Hili Yes
No
8
2
80%
20%
Mathafeni Yes
No
7
3
70%
30%
Ncora Yes
No
6
4
60%
40%
Diphini Yes
No
8
2
80%
20%
Total 40
53
Figure 4.4 Hili-hili Village As reflected in figure 4.4, 80% of the respondents said they understood what
was expected of them in order to perform their farming responsibilities.
According to these respondents, the responsibilities include forming a farmers
association, full participation in the developmental programmes of the
DRDAR, inculcate good relationships with the extension officers and
encourage the residents of Ndakana village to participate in ploughing their
fields. 20% of the respondents stated that they did not understand what was
expected of them.
Mathafeni Village At this village, 70% of the respondents stated that they understood what was
expected of them and strongly recommended that the DRDAR should create
job opportunities for the youth and scooping of water dams for the live-stock.
Only 30% stated that they did not understand what was expected of them.
Ncora Village The above analysis indicates that 60% of the respondents understood what
was expected of them and expect the DRDAR to introduce, inter alia, youth
development programmes, sewing, sanititation and tree planting programmes,
54
and that the government provides electricity, and mechanisms to reduce
crime in their village. Furthermore, an HIV/Aids awareness programme must
be introduced with regular visits by medical practitioners, social workers and
senior nurses, and services of a mobile clinic be availed. 40% of the
respondents stated that they did not understand what was expected of them.
Diphini Village Figure 4.4 reflects 80% of the respondents stated that they knew what was
expected of them in order to execute their farming responsibilities. They
stated that they were prevented from performing their farming responsibilities
by the non- provision of water and non-assistance from Extension Officers.
20% of the respondents indicated that they did not know what was expected
of them.
The analysis above indicates that a farmers association through which
developmental programmes are driven should be established and a good
relationship should be inculcated with the Extension Officers.
7. Do you think the Extension Officers are providing adequate advice with regard to farming in general?
Village Responses No. Of
respondents Percentage
Hili-Hili Yes
No
3
7
30%
70%
Mathafeni Yes
No
1
9
10%
90%
Ncora Yes
No
1
9
10%
90%
Diphini Yes
No
1
9
10%
90%
Total 40
55
Figure 4.5
Hili-hili Village Only 30% of the respondents stated that the Extension Officers were
providing limited advice while 70% stated that the Extension Officers were not
providing adequate advice and cited the following reasons (summarized):
• The community of Ndakana Village had not been visited by the
extension officers.
• The respondents did not know that the extension officers had been
deployed to their village.
• The respondents were ignorant when it came to rural and agricultural
activities of the DRDAR.
• The youth was disinterested in the DRDAR programmes because the
extension officers had failed to visit their village.
• The respondents said that they were in the current state of poverty
because of the absence of extension advisory services at Ndakana
Village.
Mathafeni Village Figure 4.4 indicates that 90% of the respondents stated that the Extension
Officers were not providing advice with regard to farming in general. They
stated that the Extension Officers did not provide advisory services to the
community of Ndakana village even when the invitation was extended to them
to visit the village. 10% said that the extension officers provided limited
advisory services.
56
Ncora Village The majority of respondents (90%), stated that the Extension Officers were
not providing adequate advice with regard to farming in general. The
respondents stated that even when they requested the extension officers to
visit Ndakana Village, their request was ignored. 10% stated that the
extension officers provided poor advisory services to the farming community
in general.
Diphini Village At this village, 90% of the respondents stated that the Extension Officers were
not providing adequate advice while 10% said that the Extension Officers only
came to assist when the advice was related to sheep scab.
The analysis above indicates that the overwhelming majority of the
respondents are not being provided adequate advice by the Extension
Officers.
8. Do you know what the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform should do to improve participation of the residents of Ndakana Village in its developmental programme?
Hili-hili Village 60% of the respondents stated that the DRDAR should ensure deployment of
the Extension Officers to the village of Ndakana in order to provide extension
services and dams. 30% of the respondents stated that the DRDAR should
ensure testing of soil in order to determine which crops were suitable for
ploughing and provision of a mechanisation programme. 20% stated that the
Department should assist in securing markets for their produce while 10% did
not respond. 30% of the respondents cited the involvement of traditional
leaders in the development of Ndakana Village as an important aspect that
could improve their participation in the developmental programmes. 50%
stated that the community should be informed of the budget allocation of the
DRDAR. All the respondents stated that food security programmes of the
57
DRDAR such as Massive food, Siyakhula and Siyazondla programmes should
be introduced to the community of Ndakana Village.
Mathafeni Village All the respondents expected the DRDAR to deploy Extension Officers to the
village of Ndakana to provide extension services to the farmers, while 70%
wanted the Department to introduce a mechanisation programme. 40% stated
that the Department should assist with the removal of the invader plants in
their ploughing fields while 80% wanted the Department to fence ploughing
and grazing fields. 30% of the respondents wanted the Department to conduct
agricultural local shows to share information with the community of
Nqamakwe.
Ncora Village All the respondents expect the DRDAR to ensure that the Extension Officers
visit their community regularly to provide advisory services, while 50% wanted
the Department to assist with the irrigation system. 40% requested an urgent
need for the Department to assist in securing a market for their produce.
Diphini Village All respondents suggested that the DRDAR should ensure that Extension
Officers are deployed in their village for advisory services. 70% expect the
Department to provide fencing for their ploughing and grazing fields while
80% wanted the Department to provide drinking water for the residents of
Ndakana Village.
The analysis above reflects the need for the DRDAR to introduce Massive
Food, Siyakhula and Siyazondla programmes to the community of Ndakana
Village. This finding correlates with the hypothesis of the study.
9. As residents of Ndakana Village, Do you know what should be done to improve rural livelihood of the community of Ndakana Village?
58
Hili-hili Village At this village 80% of the respondents suggested the deployment of the
extension officers to the village of Ndakana, while 100% expected the
provision of electricity for the entire village of Ndakana. 30% of the
respondents stated that the senior officials of the DRDAR should visit the
community of Ndakana Village in order to listen to their concerns.
Mathafeni Village 60% of the respondents expected the DRDAR to provide the community of
Ndakana Village with an irrigation system while 40% stated that scooping of
stock water-dams would help improve their livelihood. 70% of the
respondents wanted the Department to create job opportunities for the
community of Ndakana Village.
Ncora Village 60% of the respondents suggested the introduction of youth development
programmes for the community of Ndakana Village, while 50% supported the
introduction of seed sowing programmes. 70% of the respondents suggested
the introduction of a tree planting programme which would assist in creating
job opportunities for the residents of Ndakana Village.
Diphini Village All the respondents expected the provision of electricity, while 80% supported
provision of sanitation. 50% of the respondents expected the government to
assist the community of Ndakana Village in the fight against crime, while 80%
supported an HIV/Aids awareness programme to be conducted on a regular
basis by qualified medical personnel.
The analysis above indicates that there was a dire need of extension services
and the necessity of job creation for the community members of Ndakana
Village.
59
4.3 SUMMARY OF RESPONSES OF FOCUS GROUPS AND EXTENSION OFFICERS
The information gathered by means of structured interviews from the focus
groups of the villages and Extension Officers is summarised in the paragraphs
below.
4.3.1 Residents of Ndakana Village- Focus Groups
4.3.1.1 Livestock Improvement Programme The DRDAR has a programme for animal care to assist village farmers. The survey
conducted at Ndakana Village revealed that the community is experiencing high
levels of poverty, unemployment and mortality. The community has been faced with
severe drought which resulted in a considerable loss of livestock. Insufficient
grazing fields was listed as the major reason for the limited livestock. The study
revealed that there are no demarcated fenced-in camps for the livestock. It is,
therefore, difficult to improve the livestock development programme in Ndakana
Village. It can be inferred that the community of Ndakana Village had not benefited
from the DRDAR’s animal improvement programme which, inter alia, provides bulls
for the communities in order to improve the quality of livestock. Furthermore, a
shearing shed had also not been provided.
4.3.1.2 Infrastructural Programmes The DRDAR provides infrastructural development for the farmers in the Province of
the Eastern Cape. The study revealed that ploughing fields are fallow and there is
no mechanization programme in place for the community to till the fields. No
irrigation infrastructure is provided in order to maximize production. Except for one
village, no assistance is provided for rain water harvesting and no soil conservation
programme exists. The invasion of ploughing fields by invader plants is wide-
spread. The study revealed that there are insufficient water dams available for
livestock. The existing stock water dams need upgrading and scooping. The
implementation of an electrification programme, water provision and sanitation
60
services required by the community for its development had been ignored despite
numerous requests over the past seventeen years.
4.3.1.3 Extent of participation in poverty alleviation programmes The DRDAR has introduced the following poverty alleviation programmes for
communities: Massive Food programme: Siyakhula and Siyazondla.
The study revealed the participation of the Ndakana Village in these programmes as
insignificant. The reason is attributed to poor advisory services by the Extension
Officers. No meetings have been held between the community of Ndakana Village
and the Extension Officers for the provision of advisory services. The study revealed
that the budgetary allocations made for the implementation of these anti-poverty
measures at Ndakana Village were insignificant.
4.3.1.4 Unemployment and HIV/Aids Programmes Various government departments provide assistance to communities with regard to
employment and HIV/Aids. The study revealed that the rate of unemployment at
Ndakana Village is very high. The community has a large number of HIV/Aids
infected patients. The major concern is that the village has no access to medical
care with the closest clinic being a three hour walk.
4.3.1.5 Recreation The study revealed that no recreation facilities, such as sports fields, community
halls and development programmes existed for the youth.
4.4 FOCUS GROUP QUESTIONS FOR EXTENSION OFFICERS
Questions: Analysis
1. Do Extension Officers meet on a regular basis to discuss planning
pertaining to farming and advisory services?
61
Extension officers
Responses No. Of respondents
Percentage
5 Yes
No
4
1
80%
20%
FIGURE 4.6 Figure 4.6 indicates that 80% of the respondents stated that they meet
regularly to discuss, plan and execute duties relating to farming as well
as solve problems encountered by the farmers. 20% of the
respondents confirm that the Extension Officers did not meet regularly
and only met if there were new innovations.
The analysis above shows that the Extension Officers met on a regular
basis to plan their farming activity.
2. Do you meet regularly with the residents (farmers) of Ndakana Village?
Extension officers
Responses No. Of respondents
Percentage
5 Yes
No
2
3
40%
60%
62
FIGURE 4.7
The majority of respondents (60%) indicated that they did not meet with
the residents regularly. According to the respondents, the extension
officers met the farmers of Ndakana Village only if there was a
necessity. A vast area serviced by one Extension Officer was also
cited as a reason why the extension officers could not meet regularly
with the residents of Ndakana Village. 40% of the respondents stated
that the extension officers met regularly with the residents of Ndakana
Village.
From the above it is inferred that the respondents did not meet with the
residents of Ndakana Village on a regular basis to provide extendsion
services.
3. Do you have a healthy working relationship with the residents (farmers) of Ndakana Village?
Extension officers
Responses No. Of respondents
Percentage
5 Good
Poor
4
1
80%
20%
63
FIGURE 4.8 Figure 4.8 indicates that 80% of the respondents stated that their
working relationship with the residents (farmers) of Ndakana Village
was good while 20% said that their relationship was poor.
The analysis above indicates that the relationship between the
Extension Officers and the residents of Ndakana Village is good.
4. Do you have remedial strategies in place to overcome the challenges mentioned above? Only 40% of the respondents stated that they advised the farmers to
work as a group so that they could be assisted by the financial
providers. 60% were of the opinion that the farmers should be taught
to be pro-active on all matters relating to farming. Communicating with
farmers was viewed to be important towards problem solving. The
farmers had been advised to undertake various farming activities by
using their own resources.
The analysis above reflects the need for open communication between
the Extension Officers and the residents of Ndakana Village.
64
5. As an Extension Officer, do you understand what is expected of you in order to perform your duties properly? Please explain.
Extension officers
Responses No. Of respondents
Percentage
5 Yes
No
5
0
100%
0%
FIGURE 4.9
All the respondents stated that they knew what was expected of them.
They were expected to visit farmers on a regular basis; give advice to
the farmers where required; assist the farmers in marketing their
produce; advise farmers on how to form co-operatives; group farmers
according to their interests; develop a working plan for the
implementation and evaluation of projects; advise farmers on the
development of new policies; interact regularly with farmers and
provide information that will help them to farm positively.
The analysis above shows that all the Extension Officers understood
what was expected of them.
65
6. As an Extension Officer, do you think you are doing enough to facilitate participation of the residents (farmers) of Ndakana in Poverty Alleviation Programmes of the Department?
Extension officers
Responses
No. Of respondents
Percentage
5 Enough
Not
enough
3
2
60%
40%
FIGURE 4.10 In figure 4.10, 60% of the respondents stated that they were doing
enough to facilitate participation of the residents (farmers) of Ndakana
Village in poverty alleviation programmes of the Department by
advising them to participate in the Siyazondla programmes. 40% of the
respondents said they were not doing enough to facilitate participation
of the residents (farmers) of Ndakana Village. Only one Extension
Officer was deployed to vast wards which were made up of 10 to 15
villages which was equal to 1 Extension Officer per 1500 farmers.
Responses provided by the respondents included the following:
• Lack of transport and the absence of a budget were cited as
limiting factors for carrying out extension services.
66
• The absence of commitment on the part of farmers was stated
as a major problem to facilitate participation of the residents of
Ndakana Village.
The above analysis indicates that the extension officers were not
doing enough to facilitate participation of the residents of Ndakana
Village in poverty alleviation programmes of the Department. This
finding correlates with the hypothesis of the study.
7. Do you know what the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform should do to improve participation of the residents of Ndakana Village? The majority of respondents (60%) suggested that the DRDAR should
provide sufficient transport and an adequate budget to Extension
Officers while 40% stated that the Department should support the
provision of tractors during the ploughing season.
The analysis above indicates that the DRDAR did not provide an
adequate budget nor transport to the Extension Officers in order for
them to execute their services effectively and efficiently.
8. As an Extension Officer, do you know what should be done to improve advisory services and participation of the residents of Ndakana Village in the poverty alleviation programmes of the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform? 60% of the respondents made the following comments related to
advisory services and participation of the residents of Ndakana Village
in the developmental programmes of the DRDAR:
• The farmers should take up farming as a business and not as a
hobby.
67
• The farmers should use their indigenous technical knowledge to
increase their yields.
• Abolish the tender system and provide the work to communities on
a successful output basis.
• Before any project is handed to the communities, Extension Officers
should be informed so that they can provide advice on the projects.
• 40% of the respondents stated that the Department should employ
more Extension Officers so that farmers could be advised on a daily
basis.
From the above analysis it can be inferred that the farmers of Ndakana
Village should be pro-active and more Extension Officers should be
deployed to the wards to give advice to the farmers on a regular basis.
The responses of the Extension Officers during the focus group
discussion were aggregated around the following themes.
4.4.1 The need for planning of meetings by the Extension Officers
Planned meetings by Extension Officers are important for effective service delivery.
The survey conducted with the Extension Officers at Nqamakwe offices revealed that
planning meetings were held monthly. At these meetings, programmes of the
Department were discussed and the information was communicated to the farmers.
4.4.2 The importance of Extension Officers to meet with farmers To be able to deliver effective advisory services it is important that the Extension
Officers meet regularly with the farmers to evaluate performance. The study
conducted, revealed that Extension Officers were unable to meet regularly with the
farmers of Ndakana Village because of the vastness of the areas for which they are
responsible. The study revealed that the Extension Officers met with the Ndakana
Village once in three months. This was due to the lack of transport. One car was
allocated among eight (8) Extension Officers. The study revealed that the Massive
68
food, Siyakhula and Siyazondla programmes had not been implemented for the
community of Ndakana Village and only one shearing shed had been built at
Mathafeni Village by the farmers. The study revealed that there was a problem with
the Massive Food programme in that farmers in Nqamakwe were not provided with
the necessary equipment to initiate the programme.
4.4.3 The need for Extension Officers to maintain a healthy relationship with farmers.
A healthy relationship should exist between Extension Officers and the farmers for
effective service delivery. The study revealed that although the Extension Officers
were working together with the farmers of Ndakana Village, there was a lack of
communication between them. It was stated that the farmers did not follow up on
issues and when Extension Officers met them they merely complained.
Ocassionally, government departments issued farming equipment to farmers without
informing the Extension Officers. The study revealed that the farmers did not consult
with the extension officers for advisory services. The study revealed that Extension
Officers encouraged farmers to solicit financial assistance from other government
departments and financial institutions. The Extension Officers did hold meetings with
the farmers to perform advisory services despite of not being provided with
adequate budget. The Extension Officers taught the farmers to understand the
farming requirements. The study revealed that, despite the farmers being promised
services without a budget, the farmers were advised to consult other institutions for
financial assistance. The youth had distanced itself from farming activities and only
the elderly showed an interest. Furthermore, the Extension Officers lacked skills.
Farmers had been advised of policies and marketing their goods. Unfortunately, the
farmers’ produce could not be taken to the market due to budgetary constraints.
4.4.4 Role of Extension Officers in poverty alleviation The Extension Officers are responsible for providing advisory services to the
farmers. The study revealed that the Extension Officers did not have a budget in
order to perform their advisory services effectively and efficiently. In order for the
69
Department to improve participation by the residents of Ndakana Village, meetings
should be held between the Extension Officers and the farmers on a regular basis.
4.5 CONCLUSION
In this chapter it was established that the community of Ndakana Village faced
extreme poverty. In other words, the households were unable to meet the basic
needs for survival; there was chronical hunger; no access to health care; and a lack
of safe drinking water and sanitation. The DRDAR over the past 17 years has been
responsible for the implementation of the national poverty relief programmes as well
as rural development initiatives.
Participants (residents as farmers and Extension Officers as advisors) directly
involved with the measures for the alleviation of poverty in Ndakana Village, were
approached for their views.
According to the residents, the relationship between them and the extension officers
is extremely poor. On numerous occasions the officers were called by the farmers
for advisory services, but the officers did not avail themselves.
The residents also complained about the lack of essential infrastructure such as
upgrading and maintenance of stock water dams, mechanisation programmes for the
cultivation of ploughing fields, and the installation of irrigation schemes.
Despite numerous requests for the provision of electricity, water and sanitation and a
shearing-shed for Ndakana Village, no action has been taken. There is also a need
for soil conservation programmes. The following sentence summarises the plight of
the farmers: “We should be ploughing our fields but lack of resources and extension
advisory services have prevented us from embarking on such activity”.
In the next and final Chapter, the findings and conclusion of the study will be
presented. The recommendations on the best practices of ensuring that the needs
70
of the community of Ndakana Village are effectively addressed will also be
discussed.
71
CHAPTER 5 ___________________________________________________________________
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The study evaluated the extent to which a poverty alleviation programme of the
Eastern Cape Provincial Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform
(DRDAR) addressed the agricultural needs of the community of Ndakana Village.
In this chapter:
• the place of phenomena such as policy, planning and programming in the
administrative process,
• the causes of poverty as well as the effects of poverty on a community,
• the research approach for this survey,
• the views and experiences of the participants affected by poverty in the
community of the Ndakana Village or involved in the poverty alleviation
programme for this community, and finally
• recommendations in an endeavour to find solutions for the problems
experienced, will be highlighted.
5.2 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
The study revealed numerous challenges facing the community in various
components of Ndakana Village despite of the existence of poverty alleviation
programme. These challenges included high levels of unemployment, poverty, and
the scourge of HIV/Aids. Rural development seeks to address poverty facing the
communities. The types of poverty facing various communities need to be
investigated in order to develop appropriate intervention programmes / strategies.
The various types of poverty found in communities are:
72
• Extreme poverty.
• Moderate poverty.
• Relative poverty.
Extreme poverty means that households cannot meet basic needs for survival; they
are chronically hungry, unable to access health care, lack the amenities of safe
drinking water and sanitation, and can, among others, not afford education.
The interviews conducted in November 2011 at Ndakana Village revealed that the
community of Ndakana Village was faced with extreme poverty. The developmental
challenges facing the community of Ndakana Village need to be reported to the
relevant government institutions in the form of recommendations for intervention.
After considering the suitability, advantages and disadvantages of the various
approaches and techniques, it was concluded that:
• the required information for the investigation will be obtained via the
qualitative approach,
• on the one hand, members of the community of Ndakana Village be selected
in an endeavour to get information from the people directly affected by
poverty, and
• on the other hand, members of staff of DRDAR appointed to alleviate poverty,
be selected to get their views regarding the implementation of the programme
for the alleviation of poverty.
To ensure that the information obtained was reliable it was decided that
• random sampling be applied,
• focus groups be utilised to interview the target respondents with the
assistance of questionnaires, and
• the information obtained be properly documented.
73
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
When a policy for a specific community is considered, opportunities ought to be
created for the members of such a community to participate in the processes. They
have a right to a role in the policy-making because they are usually most affected by
the policy. It is essential that the policy be made public so that all interested parties
will know what the end result will be. It is, therefore, recommended that whenever
policies are determined communities must be involved or consulted.
The study showed that all the public institutions as well as the private sector are
involved in rural development. It is recommended that the rural people must be
involved in the planning, implementation and evaluation of their own development to
ensure that the rural development programme of government succeeds.
Government policies are implemented through programmes. Programmes follow on
planning. The role of a programme is, among others, to determine the activities to be
performed in order to achieve the objectives. Determining and allocation of the
means required to execute an activity, are important for implementing a programme.
It is recommended that programmes be developed for all the policies to be
implemented by the DRDAR. The allocation of resources (i.e money, personnel,
auxiliaries required to execute government activities) should be fairly and equitably
distributed to all communities of the Province of the Eastern Cape).
As regards the nature of the poverty alleviation programme, it was learnt that by its
nature it cannot be a permanent arrangement. It is recommended that policies and
poverty alleviation programmes of the DRDAR be subjected to a process of
evaluation in order to determine the effectiveness of a policy or programme.
Communities are faced by different forms of poverty characterised by severe
deprivation of basic human needs which include food, safe drinking water and
sanitation facilities. It is recommended that an investigation be undertaken in the
community of Ndakana Village to determine the form of poverty facing the
community in order to provide an appropriate intervention strategy. It is further
74
recommended that the DRDAR steps up its intervention in Ndakana Village to
alleviate
• high levels of poverty;
• unemployment; and
take the necessary steps to meet the deficiencies highlighted in the following
paragraphs.
The DRDAR has a programme for livestock improvement to assist village farmers.
According to the survey conducted at Ndakana Village, it was revealed that the
community was faced with severe drought which resulted in a considerable loss of
livestock.
Insufficient grazing fields are regarded as a major contributor for the limited livestock
of the farmers of Ndakana Village. Since there are no demarcated fenced-in camps
for the livestock in order to improve the livestock development, an irrigation plan has
to be developed for the Ndakana Village community to improve the water supply,
establish ponds for the watering of livestock and establish boreholes for human
consumption.
The community of Ndakana Village did not benefit from the animal improvement
programme of the DRDAR which, inter alia, provides bulls for the communities in
order to improve the quality of livestock of the farmers. There is no shearing sheds
provided for the community of Ndakana Village. A feasibility study should be
undertaken to determine how the Ndakana Village community can benefit from the
Animal Improvement Programme.
The DRDAR provides infrastructure development for the farmers in the Province of
the Eastern Cape. It was revealed that ploughing fields are fallow and there was no
mechanisation programme in place for the community to till the fields. No irrigation
infrastructure is provided in order to maximize production. Except for one village, no
assistance is provided for rainwater harvesting and no soil conservation programme
75
exists. The invasion of their ploughing fields by invader plants is widespread. The
study revealed that there were insufficient dams available for livestock. The existing
stock water dams need upgrading and scooping.
The role and responsibilities of the Extension Officers ought to be clarified and made
available to the community of the Amathole District as a whole.
It is recommended that the Ndakana Village community be mobilised to:
• identify appropriate land for recreational activities; and
• establish a Youth Development Programme and a community hall.
Against the findings above and the lack of coordinated effort, the concerned policy-
makers ought to seriously consider the establishment of community action
programmes for the alleviation of poverty, with the maximum feasible participation of
residents and members of the groups that they are serving. Such programmes
should be the result of a clear policy for the elimination of poverty determined in
consultation with all the relevant participants and the allocation of the means
required for executing these programmes.
76
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ANNEXURES
LETTER TO THE HEADMAN SOLICITING HIS CONSENT FOR THE MEMBERS OF THE COMMUNITY TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY 63 Joubert Street
KING WILLIAM’S TOWN 5600
14 April 2011
The Headman
Ndakana Village
Nqamakwe District
An evaluation of a poverty alleviation programme: A case study of Ndakana Village.
Project Information Statement
My name is Fezile Theophilus Mavuso, and I am a Masters student at the Nelson
Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU). I am conducting research on evaluation
of a poverty alleviation programme: A case study of Ndakana Village, under the
supervision of Prof. Raga Kishore. This study will meet the requirements of the
Research Ethics Committee (Human) of the NMMU.
Among others, this research aims to examine the shortcomings associated with the
programmes for poverty alleviation programmes of the Department of Rural
Development and Agrarian Reform, as well as the steps to ensure the maintenance
of public accountability. Furthermore, the study seeks to investigate the best
methods of improving productivity, livestock development and the role of institutional
arrangements to support the community of Ndakana Village.
The study is significant in that it envisages establishing from the selected
respondents of the residents of Ndakana Village the affectivity of the developmental
programmes of the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform, and
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encourage both the communities and farming community of Ndakana Village to
participate in the developmental programmes of the Department.
Research Plan and Method
The sample size will be 40 participants, made up 10 participants from each of the
following villages: Hili hili, Mathafeni, Ncora and Dipini. This sample will be divided
into 4 focus groups, with each group consisting of 10 participants. It is envisaged
that the interviews will take approximately two hours per focus group. 5 Extension
officers of the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform will also be
interviewed. The information collected will be treated in the strictest of confidence
and participants will not be identifiable in the data collection process. Participants
may withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Participation is entirely
voluntary.
Invitation to participate
If you permit some of the members of the communities to take part in this research, please
indicate on the attached form marked “A”
Researcher: Mr Fezile Theophilus Mavuso
University: Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
Supervisor: Prof. Kishore Raga
University: Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
Kind Regards,
__________________
MR FEZILE MAVUSO
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63 Joubert Street KING WILLIAM’S TOWN
5600 12 April 2011 Mr Glen Thomas The Superintendent-General The Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform Private Bag X0040 Bhisho 5605 AN EVALUATION OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES: NDAKANA VILLAGE, DISTRICT OF NGQAMAKWE Project Information Statement My name is Fezile Theophilus Mavuso, and I am a Masters student at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU). I am conducting research on poverty alleviation programmes of the Eastern Cape Provincial Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform (DoRDAR), under the supervision of Prof. Raga Kishore. This study will meet the requirements of the Research Ethics Committee (Human) of the NMMU. Aims of the Research The research aims to:
• Assess the inadequacies of the developmental programmes of the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform, such as Massive Food, Siyakhula, Siyazondla programmes etc. to adequately address the agricultural and rural developmental needs of the community of Ndakana village.
• Develop programmes that will ensure maximum participation of the communities in local affairs.
• Examine the shortcomings associated with the programmes for poverty alleviation
programmes of the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform, as well as the steps to ensure the maintenance of public accountability.
• Investigate the best methods to improve productivity, livestock development and the
role of institutional arrangements to support the community of Ndakana Village.
• Examine the roles and responsibilities of the Agriculture Extension Officers in the implementation of these poverty alleviation programmes of the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform.
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Significance of the Research Project The research is significant in four ways
1. It will provide information about how the residents of Ndakana village think about the
developmental programmes of the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform in terms of their effectiveness.
2. It will provide the Department/Extension officers with greater understanding of how best to go about with the development of the community of Ndakana Village.
3. The research findings and recommendations will be of great benefit for other villages in the Province and they will also be made available to your office.
4. Literature review of this study will expose some of the developmental programmes utilized by the advanced and third world countries in addressing Rural Development and Agrarian Reform.
Benefits of the Research to the community of Ndakana Village
• It will provide information about the developmental programmes of the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform to the members of the village of Ndakana.
• Both communities and farming community of Ndakana Village will be conscious of the developmental programmes of the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform and thereby improve their participation in development.
• The Department will be aware of the inadequacies of its current programmes to address rural development needs and agrarian reform of Ndakana village.
Research Plan and Method Data will be collect by use of the primary and secondary data which will be based on interviews and relevant documents. The numeric and textual data, conversation interviews and transcripts will form part of the data collection methods. Permission will be sought from the community members and departmental officials for their participation in the research. Only those who consent will participate. The researcher will interview a sample of 50 participants from each of the four villages. This sample will then be divided into focus groups of 5 with each group consisting of 10 participants. It is envisaged that the interviews will take approximately two hours each focus group. All information collected will be treated in strictest confidentiality and participants will not be identifiable in any reports that are written. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. The role of participants is entirely voluntary.
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Invitation to participate If you would like the Extension officers stationed in Nqamakwe offices to participate in this research, please indicate in the attached form Mark “A”. Once I have received your consent to approach the Agriculture Extension officers to participate in the study, I will:
• Arrange for informed consent to be obtained from participants.
• Arrange time with the Agriculture Extension officers for data collection to take place. Researcher: Mr Fezile Theophilus Mavuso University: Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Supervisor: Prof. Raga Kishore University: Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Kind Regards, --------------------------- MR FEZILE MAVUSO
Cc: MR GCASAMBA SENIOR MANAGER: AMATHOLE DISTRICT MR SILEVU MUNICIPAL CONTROLLER: MNQUMA MUNICIPALITY
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SECTION 1: FOCUS GROUP QUESTIONS FOR THE RESIDENTS (FARMERS) OF NDAKANA VILLAGE ________________________________________________
1. Do the Extension Officers meet with the residents of Ndakana Village to
conduct advisory services?
2. Are the information days organized by the Extension Officers attended by the
residents (farmers) of the Community of Ndakana? Please explain.
3. Do you have a healthy relationship with the Extension Officers?
4. Do you experience challenges as farmers of Ndakana Village?
5. Do you have remedial strategies in place in order to overcome challenges
relating to rural development in Ndakana Village?
6. As residents (farmers) of Ndakana Village do you understand what is
expected of you in order to perform your farming responsibilities?
7. Do you think that the Extension Officers are providing adequate advice with
regard to farming in general? Please explain.
8. Do you know what the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian
Reform should do to improve participation of the residents of Ndakana in its
development programmes?
9. As residents of the Ndakana Village do you know what should be done to
improve rural livelihood of the community of Ndakana Village?
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SECTION 2: FOCUS GROUP QUESTIONS FOR THE EXTENSION OFFICERS
1. Do Extension Officers meet on a regular basis to discuss planning pertaining
to farming advisory services?
2. Do you meet regularly with the residents (farmers) of Ndakana Village?
3. Do you have a healthy working relationship with the residents (farmers) of
Ndakana Village?
4. Do you have remedial strategies in place to overcome the challenges you
mentioned above?
5. As an Extension Officer do you understand what is expected of you in order to
perform your duties properly? Please explain.
6. Do you think as an Extension Officer you are doing enough to facilitate
participation of the residents (farmers) of Ndakana in Poverty Alleviation of the
Department?
7. Do you know what the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian reform
should do to improve participation of the residents of Ndakana Village?
8. As an Extension Officers do you know what should be done to improve
advisory services and participation of the residents of Ndakana Village in
poverty alleviation programme of the Department?
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Professional Assignment Techniques (CC) PO Box 70036 Mieder Park Potchefstroom 2527 15 July 2012 Tel/Fax: 018 293 0136 Mobile: 0824905009 E-mail: [email protected] TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN This is to certify that I have language edited the dissertation script of Mr Fezile Theophilus Mavuso entitled “AN EVALUATION OF A POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMME: A CASE STUDY OF NDAKANA VILLAGE, DISTRICT OF NQAMAKWE” and that I am satisfied that, provided the changes I have made and suggested, are effected to the text, the language is of an acceptable standard. Dr EG Bain D.Litt et Phil (Unisa) SATI Member No: 1002582
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SOUTH CAMPUS FACULTY OF ARTS
Tel . +27 (0)41 5042855 Fax. +27 (0)41 5041661 [email protected]
Ref: H/11/ART/PGS-0016 03 October 2011 198158200 Mr F Mavuso 20 Nederburg Crescent Tulburg Port Elizabeth 6001 Dear Mr Mavuso AN EVALUATION OF THE POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES: NDAKANA VILLAGE, DISTRICT OF NQAMAKWE Your above-entitled application for ethics approval served at the RTI Higher Degrees sub-committee of the Faculty of Arts Research, Technology and Innovation Committee.
We take pleasure in informing you that the application was approved by the Committee.
The Ethics clearance reference number is H/11/ART/PGS-0016, and is valid for three years, from 28 September 2011 – 28 September 2014. Please inform the RTI-HDC, via your supervisor, if any changes (particularly in the methodology) occur during this time. An annual affirmation to the effect that the protocols in use are still those, for which approval was granted, will be required from you. You will be reminded timeously of this responsibility.
We wish you well with the project.
Yours sincerely Mrs N Mngonyama FACULTADMINISTRATOR cc: Promoter/Supervisor HoD School Representative: Faculty RTI
• PO Box 77000 • Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University • Port Elizabeth • 6031 • South Africa • www.nmmu.ac.za