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Australian Catholic University
A study of the effects of an intervention program incorporating aspects of Social Constructivist and Essentialist models of pedagogy on educational experiences of boys in Preliminary Year English classes at a Senior College
Submitted by
ANNA HILL
Cert. Primary Tch. (Mount St. Catholic Teachers College) Dip.Tch. (Mount St. Catholic Teachers College) B.A. (University New England) B.A. (Macquarie University, School of Slavonic Studies) Grad. Dip. Arts (Newcastle University) M.Ed. Studies (Newcastle University, School of Education) M.Ed. (Australian Catholic University, School of Religious Studies)
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Education
School of Education Faculty of Education
Australian Catholic University
Research services Locked Bag 2002
Strathfield NSW 2135 2010
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Statement of Authorship and Sources This thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or have been awarded another degree or diploma. No parts of this thesis have been submitted towards the award of any other degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution. No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis. All research procedures reported in the thesis received the approval of the relevant Ethics Committees.
Anna Hill 10.3.10
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Acknowledgements
I want to place on record my gratitude and appreciation to the following who
have contributed to the successful completion of this research project:
Professor Marea Nicholson and Associate Professor Paul White, my
Supervisors, for their attention to detail and steadfast guidance securing a
successful conclusion. I am privileged to have had the benefit of their
knowledge, experience and expertise. I am grateful for their many
kindnesses to me, their perseverance and commitment, their availability
despite demanding administrative schedules spending many hours in
discussion and meetings, in editing and reviewing. For their direction and
encouragement, I thank them sincerely.
Dr. John Hill, my husband, whose doctoral accomplishment became the
inspiration for me to begin my own research. I am grateful for his unfailing
support and loving encouragement, trusting that it is possible to achieve a
dream.
Participants - my students and my English Coordinator at the research site.
I am grateful for their generosity of spirit in agreeing to be involved in the
project.
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I am dedicating this to my parents, Stefania Lotocka and Ivan Pipinic, European immigrants whose own formal education was interrupted and who longed for their daughter to experience its value.
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Abstract:
The study evolved from a professional interest in the difficulties faced by
boys in an academically challenging school context. Existing research
evidence suggests that there is a link between performance at school and
specific pedagogical styles used within the teaching environment. This study
builds on this evidence-base with the implementation of an intervention
program incorporating aspects of Social Constructivist and Essentialist
models of pedagogy. The study was designed to monitor this
implementation. Students’ academic performance, behaviour, motivation
and attitude were explored in the context of this pedagogical intervention
using the lens of a two-part research question.
The research is informed by a pragmatic understanding of the epistemology
of constructivism and the principles associated with the theoretical
framework of symbolic interactionism. It is a case study of an intervention
program, supported by a combination of quantitative and qualitative
research methods.
The context is a Senior Catholic College catering for the final two years of
high school with a student population exceeding 1100. The school is a
receiver school for associated junior schools and caters for both males and
females. Students remain with the College for 18 months, the duration of
their studies in preparation for the New South Wales Higher School
Certificate.
The researcher is a teacher in the English Department. The interest in boys’
education stems from a longstanding association with students from a broad
spectrum of academic abilities, particularly in remedial and low-ability
classes. A review of literature served to identify three main groups of
influence on the education of boys: school context; student social-emotional
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well-being; and learning theory models. The literature review helped situate
the problem of boys’ academic experiences of underachievement more
firmly within the theoretical perspectives of pedagogy. Two models were
examined more closely: the Essentialist and the Social Constructivist.
Data in response to the Research Questions identified that:
Positive experiences at school and the subsequent changes in the patterns
of behaviour, attitude and motivation were aligned to a number of factors
including experiences within an intervention program using information
technology and audio-visual stimulus. Other positive factors included the
trialing of single-sex groupings in mixed-ability co-educational settings.
Self-reported negative experiences at school were not confined to gender
but aligned to the complexity and demands of the senior school English
curriculum; its perceived irrelevance and mismatch with post-school needs.
Similarly, the reported discrepancies between student and teacher
perception of social-emotional well-being problems among students and a
lack of decision-making opportunities may have further contributed to the
sense of alienation, stress and frustration.
Implications were drawn from the research and the study concludes with
recommendations which focus on creating more positive school experiences
for academically less capable students. First, it recommends the
implementation of aspects of Social Constructivist and Essentialist models
of pedagogical structures using information technology and audio-visual
stimulus. Second, it recommends the organization of single-sex groupings in
mixed-ability co-educational settings to assist in improving academic
experiences of low-ability boys in Year 11 English classes - both aspects of
the intervention program central to this study.
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Table of Contents:
Abstract CHAPTER ONE The Research Defined
1.1 Identification of the Research Problem 1.2 Research Purpose 1.3 Research Process 1.4 The Researcher 1.5 The Research Context 1.6 Significance of the Research 1.7 Explanation of Terminology
1.8 Organization of the Thesis CHAPTER TWO Review of Literature
2.1 Rationale for the Selection of Literature 2.2 Conceptual Framework 2.3 Structure of Literature Review Chapter 2.4 Section 1: Learning Theory Models 2.5 Social Constructivist Model 2.6 The Essentialist Model
2.7 Summary of Section 1: Learning Theory Models 2.8 Section 2: School Context
2.9 Social-Emotional Well-Being 2.10 Adolescent Male Perceptions of School 2.11 Motivation and Self-Esteem 2.12 School/Class Size 2.13 Teachers 2.14 Single-Sex Classes in Co-Educational Settings 2.15 Information Technology 2.16 Conclusion 2.17 Refining the Research Question 2.18 Summary of Chapter 2
CHAPTER THREE Theoretical Perspectives on Research Design
3.1 Theoretical Framework 3.2 Research Paradigm: Pragmatic Constructivism 3.3 Epistemology 3.4 Theoretical Perspective 3.5 Research Methodology
3.5.1 Conducting the Research
5 18 20 20 20 21 22 22 22 30 33 35 36 36 39 40 43 47 48 48 50 51 55 56 57 60 61 62 64 66 66 67 68 68 71 71
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3.5.2 Research Design for the Study
3.6 Models for Intervention:
3.6.1 The NSW Model of Pedagogy 3.6.2 Moodle: Online Teaching and Learning Facility 3.6.3 Summary
3.7 Participant Selection 3.8 Data Gathering Strategies 3.9 Legitimization of Findings 3.10 Ethical Issues 3.11 Limitations and Delimitations 3.12 Summary of Chapter 3
CHAPTER FOUR Research Instrument Description
4.1 Data Collection Processes 4.2 Test of Reading Comprehension (TORCH Test) 4.3 ACER Social-Emotional Well-Being Surveys 4.4 Student Questionnaire 4.5 Evaluated Lessons 4.6 Focus Group Discussions
4.6.1 Discussion of Focus Group Interview Process
4.7 Student Focus Survey/Questionnaire on Reactions to Using Moodle Online Learning Program
4.8 Individual Student Interviews 4.9 Unit Summative Tasks
4.10 Summary of Chapter 4
CHAPTER FIVE Data Display
5.1 Test of Reading Comprehension (TORCH Test) Results 5.2 Australian Council for Educational Research
Social-Emotional Well-Being (ACER SEWB) Surveys 5.3 Social-Emotional Well-Being (a): Positive Statements
5.4 Social-Emotional Well-Being (b): Negative Statements
5.5 Part 11: Total Good Practices - Good Practices in Schools
5.6 Part 11 (b): Total Good School Practices
5.7 Part 111: Total Young People's Social-Emotional- Motivational Foundation
73 74 77 81 85 85 86 89 93 95 96 98 98 99 101 104 105 107
107
109 110 110 111 112 113 115 118 122 123 128
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5.8 Part 111: Total Positive Mindset (a): Positive Statements
5.9 Part 111: Total Positive Mindset (b): Negative Statements
5.10 Social-Emotional Well-Being (b): Problems Teacher/Student Surveys
5.10.1 Interpersonal Problems 5.10.2 Emotional Problems 5.10.3 Behavioural Problems 5.10.4 Educational Under-Achievement
5.11 Trends from ACER Social-Emotional Well-Being Surveys Results
5.12 Student Questionnaire based on Targeted Statements from ACER Survey
5.13 Focus Group Interviews: Results for Statements 5.14 Student Questionnaire on Reactions to Using the
Online Learning Program 5.15 Data Display for One-to-One Interview with Targeted
Students 5.16 Data Display for English Department Summative Tasks
5.17 Comments of Researcher as Teacher
5.17.1 Task 1: Film Study 5.17.2 Task 2: Novel 5.17.3 Task 3: Composing 5.17.4 Task 4: Area Of Study 5.17.5 Task 5: Drama
5.18 Summary of Chapter 5
CHAPTER SIX Analysis of Data in Response to the Research
Questions
6.1 Summary of Chapter 6
CHAPTER SEVEN Discussion of Findings
7.1 Summary of Chapter 7
130
132 133 134 134 135 136 137 139 148 151 155 155 158 158 159 162 163 165 166 168 186 189 216
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CHAPTER EIGHT Review and Synthesis
8.1 Purpose of the Research 8.2 Contributions to Educational Theory and Practice
8.2.1 Documentation of Students’ Academic
Experiences in Senior High School Preliminary English classes
8.2.2 Documentation of Students’ Responses to an Online Teaching and Learning Facility
8.3 Recommendations for Improved Pedagogical Practice for Boys’ Education
8.3.1 Academic Performance 8.3.2 Motivation 8.3.3 Attitude 8.3.4 Behaviour
8.4 Implications for Further Research 8.5 Limitations of Study 8.6 Concluding Remarks
REFERENCES: Appendix 1 - Context Appendix 3 - Ethics Appendix 4 - Research Instrument Description and Display Appendix 5 - Data Display
219 219 220
221 222 222 224 228 230 231 231 233 233 235 260 262 276 303
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LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 2.3.1 Conceptual Framework of Literature Review Figure 2.4.1 Expanded Conceptual Framework of Literature
Review Including Research Questions
Figure 3.6.2.1 Overview of the Research Context and the QTM Implementation: Levels of Emphases
Figure 5.3.2 Boys & Girls “I get along with most of my
classmates” Figure 5.3.3 Boys & Girls “I get along with most of my
teachers” Figure 5.3.4 Boys & Girls “I feel like I belong in my school” Figure 5.3.5 Boys & Girls “I am doing well at school”
Figure 5.4.2 Boys & Girls “I worry too much about my
schoolwork or what others think of me”
Figure 5.4.3 Boys & Girls “I could do a lot better in my
schoolwork” Figure 5.4.4 Boys & Girls “I get into too much trouble” Figure 5.4.5 Boys & Girls “I drink alcohol a lot.”
Figure 5.4.6 Boys & Girls “I use drugs” Figure 5.4.7 Boys & Girls “I feel very stressed” Figure 5.4.8 Boys & Girls “I am sometimes quite mean to other
people” Figure 5.5.1 Good Practices at School: Percentage of Students
Who Agree or Strongly Agree that Practice Exists Figure 5.6.1 Boys & Girls “I have a teacher who cares for me”.
37 65 84 115 116 116 117 119
119 120 120 121 121 122
123
124
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Figure 5.6.2 Boys & Girls “There are many activities to do at school that interest me”
Figure 5.6.3 Boys & Girls “There are many things that I study in
my classes that interest me” Figure 5.6.4 Boys & Girls “Most of my teachers help me believe
I can be successful” Figure 5.6.5 Boys & Girls “I have at least one teacher who
spends time talking with me about things other than schoolwork”
Figure 5.6.6 Boys & Girls “Most of my teachers say something
positive when I have done my very best”
Figure 5.6.7 Boys & Girls “My teachers try hard to help and be
nice to me” Figure 5.7.1 Boys & Girls “Academic confidence” Figure 5.7.2 Boys & Girls “Social Confidence” Figure 5.7.3 Boys & Girls “Friendship-making” Figure 5.8.1 Boys’ & Girls “I am confident when doing difficult
schoolwork” Figure 5.8.2 Boys & Girls “I am persistent and try very hard to
complete all my schoolwork” Figure 5.8.3 Boys’ & Girls “I want to do my very best in my
schoolwork” Figure 5.9.2 Boys’ & Girls “I am disorganized” Figure 5.9.3 Boys & Girls “I should not have to do schoolwork
that is boring” Figure 5.10.1.1 Representing graph of the percentage of students
reported to have high or very high levels of Interpersonal Problems
Figure 5.10.2.1 Percentage of Students Reported to Have High or
125 125 126 126 127 127 128 129 129 130 131 131 132 133 134
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Very High Levels of Emotional Problems Figure 5.10.3.1 Percentage of Students Reported to Have High or
Very High Levels of Behavioural Problems Figure 5.10.4.1 Percentage of Students Reported to Have High or Very High Levels of Under-Achievement Figure 5.12.6 Boys and Girls: Question 2 Statement : “How do you know a teacher cares for you?” Figure 5.16.1 Summative Task Results: Final Report Mark
Comparisons Figure 5.16.2 Task 3: Composing: Summative Task: Showing
Comparative Group Performance Levels
135 135 136 143 156 157
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LIST OF TABLES: Table 2.4.1 Clusters Identified in the Literature as Contributing
to Boys’ Academic Underachievement Table 2.5.1 Foundation Theorists Table 2.6.1 Constructivist Curriculum Theory - Tabular
Representation
Table 2.7 Essentialist Curriculum Theory Table 2.15.1 Researcher’s Comparative Summary Table: Boys’
and Girls’ Use of Computers in Education Table 3.1.1 Summary of Design Elements of Research Table 3.4.1 Current Research Design and Symbolic
Interactionist Framework Table 3.6.1.1 Essentialist and Social Constructivist Curriculum
Theory Model Comparisons Table 3.6.1.2 The Dimensions and Elements of the NSW Model
of Pedagogy
Table 3.6.1.3 Tabular Comparative Representation of Social Constructivist Curriculum Theory and
Quality Teaching Model
Table 3.8.1 Illustration of Alignment of Research Question with Quantitative and Qualitative Data Gathering Strategies
Table 3.9.1 Summary of Strategies for Establishing Rigour Table 4.1.1 Data Collecting Sequences Showing the
Pre-Intervention, Intervention and Post-Intervention Stages
Table 4.3.1 Positive and Negative Characteristics of
Social-Emotional Well-Being Table 4.3.2 Identification of Groupings for Survey Statements
38 39 43 46 61 67 70 76 78 80 88 91 99 102 103
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Table 4.3.2.2 Identification of Teacher Survey Statement Groupings
Table 4.5.1 Syllabus Outline for Preliminary Year Standard
English Course Showing Sequences of Evaluated Lessons
Table 4.9.1 Teaching Program/Syllabus Outline for Preliminary
Year Standard English Course Summative Tasks Table 5.1.1 Summary of Pre-Intervention (Year 10) and Post
Intervention (Year 11) TORCH Test Results by Gender
Table 5.2.1 Student/Teacher Survey Details
Table 5.3.1 Statements and Calculated Percentages for Student Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Part 1 a): Positive Statements
Table 5.4.1 Statements and Calculated Percentages for Student
Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Part 1 (b): Negative Statements
Table 5.6.1 Statements and Calculated Percentages for Student
Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Part 11 (b): Total Good School Practices
Table 5.8.1 Statements and Calculated Percentages for Student
Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Total Positive Mindset (a): Positive Statements
Table 5.9.1 Statements and Calculated Percentages for Student
Responses Across Three Parallel Surveys for Part 111 (b): Negative Statements
Table 5.12.1 Targeted Focus Group Statement 1: “In English what
particularly do you like doing?”
Table 5.12. 2 Summary of Order of Preference for Targeted Focus Group Statement 1: “In English, what particularly do you like doing?”
Table 5.12.5 Targeted Focus Group Statement 2: “How do you know a teacher cares for you?”
104 106 110 112 114 115 118 124 130 132 140
141 141
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Table 5.12.7 Targeted Focus Group Statement 3: “I am doing well at school - What sort of things are you basing this decision on?”
Table 5.12.9 Targeted Focus Group Statement 4: “I am not doing as well as I think I can in my schoolwork”
Table 5.12.10 Targeted Focus Group Statement 4: “What happens in class for you to say that you get into too much trouble?”
Table 5.12.13 Targeted Focus Group Statement 6: “High expectations from school”
Table 5.13.1 Rank Order Listing of Boys’ Responses from Focus Group Discussions
Table 5.14.1 Questions for Online Learning Questionnaire Table 5.14.2 Summary of Boys’ & Girls’ Responses to Question 2 Table 5.14.3 Summary of Boys’ & Girls’ Responses to Question 3 Table 6.1 Research Question Part A : Academic Experiences:
Tabular Representation of Emerging Positive and Negative Thematic Trends Aligned to Research Instruments
Table 6.2 Research Question Part A: Academic Experiences:
Tabular Representation of Positive Trends with Reference to Gender
Table 6.3 Research Question Part A: Academic Experiences:
Tabular Representation of Negative Trends with Reference to Gender
Table 6.4 Research Question Part B: Behaviour, Motivation
and Attitude: Tabular Representation of Positive Trends with Reference to Gender
Table 6.5 Research Question Part B: Behaviour, Motivation
and Attitude: Tabular Representation of Negative Trends with Reference to Gender
143 144 145 146 149 151 152 153 170 171 173 177 179
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Table 7.1 Gender Comparisons of Student Responses with
Theoretical Assumptions About Teaching and Learning Styles Suited for Boys.
191
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Chapter 1
THE RESEARCH DEFINED
Over thirty years as a professional educator have resulted in observations to
confirm many boys’ academic achievement as less than optimal and have
prompted this investigation into male students’ experiences of schooling,
particularly at the Senior School level.
Prominent educators and commentators have established that compared to
girls, many boys are not achieving at an optimum level either socially or
academically during their years at school. However, it should be noted that
not all boys are underachieving, and the underachievement of some boys is
not a new problem (Alloway & Gilbert, 1997; Lingard & Douglas, 1999).
Commentators agree that the situation with respect to boys and schooling
should not be presented in terms of a homogeneous gender category, but
should rather be put in terms of which boys (Teese et al. 1995; Gilbert
& Gilbert, 1998). Gill, (2004) as others, is in support of this viewpoint and
affirms with the question,
“Does ‘boys’ mean all boys, some boys, and a few boys - which
boys?” (Gill, 2004 p.70).
Nevertheless, persistent comparative differences remain in the levels of
achievement between boys and girls during their years at school (Younger
& Warrington, 2003; West, 1999, 2000, 2002; Lillico, 2001; Gilbert & Gilbert,
1998); boys’ failure in reading, (Flynn & Rahbar, 1994) and declining
retention rates in school, (Trent & Slade, 2001). Girls’ academic
out-performance of boys is well documented. Equally well documented, are
the complex factors influencing the integration of male students to school
(Browne & Fletcher, 1995); mixed gender classes, (Blair & Sanford, 1999);
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 19
the framing of attitudes to subject choices (Martino, 1995; Martin, 2002;
Biddulph, 1995); expressions of masculinity (Connell, 1989, 1997, 2000; Mac
an Ghail, 1996; Epstein, 1997, 1998; White, 2004); motivation and
behaviour (Rowe, 2000c; Carr-Gregg, 2004; Munns, 2006).
It becomes evident that the pedagogical discourse on boys’ academic
achievement articulates fundamental complexities from the standpoint of
gender equity and educational reforms. It is acknowledged that the most
debatable aspect of boys’ under-achievement is that of the cause of the
problem (Noble, Brown & Murphy, 2003). Prominent and equally significant
discourses support the possible impact of other influences on boys’
academic performance. These include such factors as socio-environmental
influences, biological makeup and psychological perspectives (James, 2007;
Fausto-Sterling, 1985; Carr-Gregg, 2004). Gilbert & Gilbert, (1998) add
geography, location, ethnicity and ‘race’ as critical in isolating the groups of
boys who are potentially more at risk of school failure,
“ … particularly in literacy results … gender remains a key predictor
of success” (Gilbert & Gilbert, 1998. p. 9).
This is supported by Gill, (2004),
“These boys correctly read the school situation as one in which they
are destined to be unsuccessful. Then disruptive behaviour and
refusal to conform to standard academic expectation can only be
seen as a product of the situation not a simple result of their being
male” (Gill, 2004, p. 71).
The issues being addressed as part of the current study move beyond boys’
difficulty with regulatory male behavior, uses of language skills and learning
progress to the gaining of a clearer understanding of the complexities that
play upon the male students’ experiences of school.
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 20
Three main influences - school context, student social-emotional well-being
and learning theory models, are established to investigate these
experiences.
1.1 Identification of the Research Problem
The research problem is the investigation of appropriate pedagogical
structures to facilitate boys’ learning experiences in Stage 6, (Year 11).
1.2 Research Purpose
The purpose of this study is threefold. It is to:
1 Analyze the literature on boys’ education relating to academic
performance and pedagogical structures.
2) Implement and monitor the effects of an intervention program on the
educational experiences of students in three Preliminary Year English
classes at senior school
3) Interpret the results and identify implications for the education of boys at
the senior level.
1.3 Research Process
This is a professional-based study within an educational context. The
research is a mixed method approach, a case study of an intervention
program supported by quantitative and qualitative data. Instruments of
measurement were implemented at the pre-intervention, the intervention and
the post-intervention stages. The study encompassed a cohort of 57
students (38 boys and 19 girls) from three targeted Year 11 English classes
for the duration of the nine months of the Preliminary Year.
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 21
1.4 The Researcher
The researcher is a teacher in the English Department of a Senior Catholic
College. The interest in boys’ education stems from a longstanding
association with students from a broad spectrum of academic abilities,
particularly in remedial and low-ability classes. The study evolved from a
professional interest to address, if only in part, the difficulties faced by boys
in an academically challenging and uncompromising school context.
Results of studies indicating differing boys’ and girls’ educational
achievements and the ensuing theories about this, reflect teaching
experiences of the researcher and have awakened an academic interest in
this field. From this area of interest and the debate on differing approaches
to learning, the research focus emerged to explore ways of addressing boys’
negative experiences of schooling.
The Doctor of Education Research Program provided the opportunity for the
researcher to combine teaching experience with educational research to
inform professional practice and respond to the following lacunae identified
in the field of boys’ education:
1. Research on boys’ educational experiences in Senior High School
Preliminary English classes.
2. Recommendations for changes to pedagogical practice in boys’
education.
3. Adaptation of an online teaching and learning facility to address boys’
educational needs in the classroom.
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 22
1.5 The Research Context
The research context is a Senior Catholic College catering for the final two
years of high school with a student population exceeding 1100 with more
than 600 Year 11 and 500 Year 12 students. There are 25 Year 11 English
classes - 13 Standard English and 12 Advanced English classes. The
school is a receiver school for associated junior schools and caters for both
males and females. Students remain with the College for 18 months, the
duration of their studies in preparation for the New South Wales Higher
School Certificate. Further details are outlined in Appendix 1: Context
Concept Maps.
1.6 Significance of the Research
This study is important because it contributes to the body of knowledge
about how boys learn and, through its application, how boys’ experiences of
schooling can be made more positive. Of further significance is that there is
no current study being conducted using an online teaching and learning
facility with students in Stage 6 (Year 11).
1.7 Explanation of Terminology
Underachievement:
At the simplest level underachievement can be defined as unfulfilled
potential (Moltzen, 1998 p. 41).
“ … a discrepancy between the child’s school performance and some
index of his or her actual ability, such as intelligence, or creative
scores or observational data” (Davis & Rimm, 1998 p. 279).
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 23
Gifted underachiever:
“Someone who has shown exceptional performance on the measure
of intelligence and who, nevertheless, does not perform as well as
expected for students of the same age on school-related tasks”
(Davis & Rimm, 1998, p. 279).
Literacy: Literacy is measured on standardized tests in schools; applicable
in this context and defined by the Commonwealth Department of Education,
Training and Youth Affairs as the ability to,
“ … read, write and spell at the appropriate level.”
(Masters & Forster, 1997:3).
The definition of literacy has evolved past the dictionary definition of literacy
as the ability to read and write. The definition can be expanded to the ability
to locate, evaluate, manipulate and communicate using a wide range of
resources, apart from text, such as visual, audio and video sources.
“Traditionally literacy has been commonly defined as the ability to
read and write at an adequate level of proficiency that is necessary
for communication. More recently however, literacy has taken on
several meanings. Technological literacy, mathematical literacy, and
visual literacy are just a few examples. While it may be difficult to
gauge the degree to which literacy has an impact on an individual’s
overall happiness, one can easily infer that an increase in literacy will
lead to the improvement of an individual’s life and the development of
societies.”
http://issues.tigweb.org/literacy?gclid=CKbfoMrUx5oCFYItpAodL1uU2Q
http://issues.tigweb.org/literacy?gclid=CKbfoMrUx5oCFYItpAodL1uU2Q
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 24
The NSW Department of Education and Training defines literacy as,
“To be literate within contemporary society requires students to read,
write, talk, listen and think critically in order to understand written,
visual and technologically based information.”
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/policies/litrracy/index.htm
Reading: Reading is seen by Masters & Forster (1997) as a person’s:
1. Ability to read and interpret a range of fiction and non-fiction texts with
a degree of critical awareness.
2. Ability to understand main themes, ideas and points of view.
3. Appreciation of the writer’s craft.
4. Awareness of the relationship between communication medium and
the message in the written texts.
(Masters & Forster, 1997:3).
Writing: Writing is characterised by:
1. Quality of thought (eg. Cohesiveness and creativity).
2. Language control (eg. Spelling and grammar).
3. Sense of purpose and audience.
(Masters & Forster, 1997:3).
The appropriate level of literacy demonstrated by students is determined
by the school year. The National School English Literacy Survey (NSELS) in
1996 assessed reading and writing by the following criteria:
English performance is understood as students’ results in either public or
school-assessed examinations of the high-school subject of English. The
curriculum of English is determined by the Boards of Studies in the relevant
States, and is generally a study of English Literature with the more recent
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/policies/litrracy/index.htm
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 25
emphasis adopting a Modernist approach to interpretation and analysis,
specifically dealing with composer’s context, purpose, use of features and
the effects these have on the responder.
Higher School Certificate: The New South Wales Public Examination at the end of Year 12, the final
year at High School. The Higher School Certificate (HSC) is a locally,
nationally and internationally recognized qualification for students who
successfully complete secondary education in New South Wales.
The Preliminary (Year 11) and HSC (Year 12) are the two final years in high
school (Stage 6).
English Stage 6 Competencies:
“In Stage 6, as students explore more complex texts, as well as
simple texts in more complex ways, they refine their knowledge of
language forms, features and of the structure of texts” (NSW Board
of Studies English Syllabus Stage 6, 1999, p. 12).
“Students:
• engage in responding to and composing texts, and consider the
diverse processes involved in this through their wide reading, and
through close analysis of texts
• develop knowledge and understanding of the ways that the
linguistic, structural, contextual and thematic interrelationships
among texts shape meaning
• develop and apply a knowledge and understanding of the role and
function of literary conventions and devices
• analyse the relationships between texts and technologies of
production and evaluate the ways in which the medium itself
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 26
influences the shape and nature of meaning” (NSW Board of
Studies English Syllabus Stage 6, 1999, p. 12).
Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA):
is responsible for the development of Australia’s national curriculum from
Kindergarten to Year 12, starting with the learning areas of English,
Mathematics, the Sciences and History, for implementation from 2011. The
development of continua for literacy and numeracy skills and ICT will be the
foundation of the curriculum.
http://www/acara.edu.au/curriculum.html
ACARA Projections of Curriculum Framework: “Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) skills and understanding are required for
all learning areas. Some aspects of ICT competence are as much about
information management as about the use of technology, so an important
aspect of the competence is the ability to evaluate the source, reliability,
accuracy and validity of information that abounds in cyberspace. New digital
technologies are used in creative and artistic pursuits, and in civic and
political activities. These opportunities for private and public expression,
unimagined half a generation ago, will make up important elements of the
national curriculum.”
(National Curriculum Board, The Shape of the Australian Curriculum, May,
2009, p. 12).
M.O.O.D.L.E:
An acronym for Modular Object-Orientated Dynamic Learning Environment,
It is a course management system (CMS) – a software package designed to
help educators create online courses in the style of WebCT and Blackboard.
Martin Dougiamas, Western Australia, (2002), developed this system as a
free alternative, which people could use to help them move their teaching
http://www/acara.edu.au/curriculum.html
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 27
skills into the online environment. One of the main advantages of MOODLE
over other systems and consequently suitable for this study, is its strong
grounding in Social Constructivist Pedagogy.
Retrieved from http://docs.moodle.org/en/Background
The Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) defines
Social-Emotional Well-Being (SEWB) as:
“ … the general state of being happy, feeling safe, having positive
relationships with other, being interested in the welfare of others, and
being involved in the striving to do one’s best in a wide range of
activities (e.g., art, music, sport, exercise). Social-emotional
well-being also exists when there is an absence of extreme and
long-standing negative emotions (anger, anxiety, depression,
general stress) anti-social behaviors (e.g., bullying, isolation),
unhealthy behaviours (e.g., alcohol, drugs, poor diet) and
under-achievement/poor motivation in different areas” (Bernard,
2002, p. 8).
The definition includes both positive and negative dimensions of
Social-Emotional Well-Being.
The (TORCH) Test:
“The Australian Council for Educational Research Test of Reading
Comprehension (TORCH) are un-timed reading tests for use with
students in Years 3 to 11. They aim at assessing the extent to which
readers are able to obtain meaning from text. The location of
students’ scores on the TORCH scale will indicate those reading
tasks they are likely to be able to do and the tasks for which they will
require assistance. Such an analysis will have a direct bearing on
http://docs.moodle.org/en/Background
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 28
classroom teaching strategies” (Mossenson, Hill & Masters, 1996,
p. 2).
NSW Quality Teaching Model: The Model, based on Newmann’s Authentic Pedagogy, outlines three
dimensions that represent classroom practices that have been linked to
improved student outcomes. These three dimensions are:
1. intellectual quality
2. quality learning environment
3. significance
Dimensions of the NSW Model:
� Each dimension is described in terms of six elements.
� Elements draw from research that links quality pedagogy to
improved student outcomes.
� Elements are observable characteristics of pedagogy within
classroom practice and written tasks.
Retrieved from http://www.curriculumsupport.nsw.edu.au/qualityteaching/
MySpace:
An international site that offers email, a forum, communities, videos and
weblog space.
http://www.curriculumsupport.nsw.edu.au/qualityteaching/
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 29
Social Constructivist Curriculum Theory:
(Student-centred learning with emphasis on its collaborative nature: Refer to
Table 2.4.2.1).
Social Constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in
understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on
this understanding. This perspective is closely associated with many
contemporary theories, most notably the developmental theories of Vygotsky
and Bruner, and Bandura's social cognitive theory (Shunk, 2000). The
fundamental challenge of Constructivism is in its repositioning of control over
learning from teacher to student.
Essentialist Curriculum Theory:
(Teacher-centred learning with emphasis on the basics: Refer to Table
2.5.1).
Education Essentialism is a theory that states that children should learn the
traditional basic subjects - the essentials of academic knowledge - and that
these should be learnt thoroughly and rigorously (Bagley, 1941).
Essentialism is a practical, factual approach to education which includes
methods such as drill and practice, study, books, texts and memorization.
An Essentialist program normally teaches children progressively, from less
complex skills to more complex.
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 30
1.8 Organization of the Thesis
Chapter 1:
In its introduction to the study, Chapter One provides a FRAMEWORK for
the choice of topic and situates it in the concerns of educators and
commentators on boys’ education. The chapter describes the purpose of the
study and outlines the research process. This first chapter continues with a
description of the research context and some details about the researcher’s
motivations for pursuing the study. The final section of this first chapter,
traces the thesis structure by outlining the proposed content of each chapter.
Chapter 2:
Presents a REVIEW OF LITERATURE to help position the research problem
and identify the research questions directing the study. The conceptual
framework of the literature review is framed in the light of cognitive gains and
affective gains. The overview helps to identify three main groups of influence
on the education of boys: school context, student social-emotional well-being
and learning theory models. The literature review situates the problem of
boys’ academic experiences of underachievement more firmly within the
theoretical perspectives of pedagogy. Two models are examined more
closely: the Essentialist and the Social Constructivist. This chapter
concludes by defining the research questions which guide the study and its
design.
Chapter 3:
This chapter details the RESEARCH DESIGN and provides the rationale for
grounding this study within the research paradigm of Pragmatic
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 31
Constructivism. The study is largely informed by the theoretical perspective
of Symbolic Interactionism. The study is identified as having a
phenomenological approach within a Social/Constructivist framework. The
research project employs mixed methods of research. It is a case study of an
intervention program, supported by quantitative and qualitative research
methods. The chapter presents an overview of the three divisions within the
research design. The choice to highlight the information in separate
sections, attests to the complexity of the data collection process with the
ensuing treatment of both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis.
The chapter also includes an overview of the data collection and analysis
strategies, participant selection, strategies for establishing rigour and validity,
details of ethics procedures, limitations, delimitations and an outline
proposing procedures for overcoming limitations of the study.
Chapter 4:
The chapter presents a description of the full range of RESEARCH
INSTRUMENTS used in the three levels of investigation: Pre-Intervention,
Intervention and Post-Intervention stages.
Chapter 5:
The chapter presents a DATA REPORT with a data display for each
research instrument used in the experiment. The outline follows a similar
format to that used in the previous chapter with reference to the three levels
of investigation within the chronological listing of research instrument
administration.
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CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH DEFINED 32
Chapter 6:
The chapter presents an ANALYSIS OF DATA IN RESPONSE TO THE
RESEARCH QUESTIONS.
Chapter 7:
The DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS in the chapter concentrates on the
thematic concerns arising from the research questions. Data in response to
the research questions explored how students articulate their academic
experiences. The chapter describes the regimes put in place at the College
to address these needs. Also identified, are areas where it has been
possible to facilitate changes in academic performance, attitude, behaviour
and motivation of boys in the Preliminary Year English classes through the
implementation of teaching and learning processes based on aspects of the
Social Constructivist and Essentialist Models.
Chapter 8:
REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS. The final chapter presents the conclusions
and recommendations. The aim of the recommendations is to provide
direction for the implementation of more effective learning and teaching
strategies at the College to cater for boys’ educational needs.
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 33
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The purpose of this chapter is to present a review of literature on boys’
education relating to academic performance and pedagogical structures.
Literature on boys’ education is both extensive and diverse. Reasons for the
decline in boys’ academic results and ways to address this decline have
been a strong feature of public debate. The 1994 O’Doherty Report was in
response to early concerns about boys’ performance; followed by
Parliamentary Inquiries, Submissions, Australian Bureau of Statistics Public
examination comparative results and a series of case studies of boys’
education strategies. The main contributors responding to these early
concerns were educationalists and commentators such as Creswell, Rowe
& Withers, (2002); West, (2002); Martino, (1995); Hawkes, (2001); Lillico,
(2001); Gurian, (1999); and Biddulph, (1997). Pedagogical, environmental,
social, biological and psychological influences have been cited as
contributing to boys’ academic underachievement. The following discussion
provides a summary of these perspectives within the present school context
of the researcher.
Educationalists and practitioners such as Martino, (1995, 2004, 2005); Flynn
& Rahbar, (1994); West, (2002); Lillico, (2001); Gurian, (2001); Hawkes,
(2001); Biddulph, (1997); Pitman & Gray, (1997); Clay, (2008); Hartman,
(2006); Blair & Sandford, (2003); and Moss, (2000) support pedagogical
foundations for boys’ academic underachievement relating to a mismatch
between teaching styles and boys’ learning needs. Lillico (2001); West
(2002); and Biddulph, (1997) emphasize the negative impact of a
compulsory English course taught from a post-modernist perspective.
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 34
Environmentally and socially determined factors such as socio-economic
position, geographic location and ethnicity have their advocates in Nielsen
(1991); Wood, (1994); Connell, (1995); Davies, (1997); and Cole, (1996)
who identify that social constructs ascribe specific ways of behaving to each
social position or group. Martino, (1995); Phillips, (1993); Biddulph, (1997);
and Wood, (1994) elaborate on how socially encouraged patterns of
behaviour can result in ‘scripted behaviour’ for men to follow. Brown &
Fletcher, (1995); Martino, (1995); and Flynn & Rahbar, (1994) attribute some
influence on boys’ underachievement to boys self-handicapping their
academic progress to gain acceptance. Other influences have been
identified, such as the feminisation of schooling; primary schools and single
parent families dominated by females (Gurian, 1999; Biddulph, 1995;
Fletcher, 1997). Given the allocation of public funding along gender lines,
and, demands for equal opportunity for girls and women, education interest
centred on girls and neglect of boys has remained disputed by the
anti-feminist movement (Gurian, 1999).
Suggestions for redress concentrate on the establishment of male role
models for boys (Biddulph, 1997; Fletcher, 1997), tapping into male energy
to ensure a male self-image (Gurian, 1999) and channelling aggressive
behaviour in positive ways (Ykema, 2000; Carr-Gregg, 2004).
Biologically determined advocates such as Moir and Jessel, (1989) identify
genetic influences in determining styles of learning and subject preferences.
Gardner, (1983); and Moir & Jessel, (1989) acknowledge that gender
responses are predetermined. Biddulph, (1997); Gurian, (1999); Neilsen,
(1991); and Carr-Gregg, (2007) cite the impact of sex hormone activity on
behaviour, particularly in boys with reference to aggression control and
emotional response.
Advocates of psychologically determined influences on academic progress,
such as Haralambos et al. (1996); and Fast, (1993) identify the impact of
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 35
childhood experiences in determining levels of progress and coping
strategies. Fletcher, (2000); Erikson, (1968) and again, Fast, (1993) with
Marcia, (1980) stress the importance of relationships in creating individual
and masculine identity and the impact of the mother, father and siblings,
Christenson et al. (1992).
The research literature demonstrates, therefore, that boys’ academic
performance needs to be viewed in concert with a range of factors
interacting in complex ways to contribute to boys’ experiences at school and
their learning processes.
2.1 Rationale for the Selection of Literature
Given the complexities inherent within the research context of issues
relating to the problem of boys’ academic underachievement and the
ensuing considerations, it becomes essential to narrow the focus. The
present study has sought to develop some perspective on this expanse of
literature by identifying pedagogical foundations for boys’ academic
underachievement as influential and convincing. In addition, since the
researcher is positioned within a school, it is also natural to assume that this
context will be the choice of lens for review.
While acknowledging the contributions to educational reform in areas such
as vocational policies, gender equity and the emphases on social and
cultural inclusiveness within an evolving education system, the philosophical
perspectives of theorists such as post-modernists, Stronach & MacLure,
(1997) and the post-structural advocate, Scheurich, (1997), move beyond
the scope of the present study.
For the purposes of this research, one specific section concentrating on
pedagogical theoretical foundations indicating that boys respond to different
teaching styles and adopt equally different strategies for learning, compared
to girls, is examined more closely. The study aims to move beyond boys’
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 36
difficulty with regulatory behaviour and uses of language skills, to a better
understanding of the complexities that play on the male students’
experiences of school as well as their academic performance (Martin, 2002;
2003). Both of these are seen as ultimately affecting how boys feel about
themselves and how they react to the world around them.
2.2 Conceptual Framework
The research literature demonstrates that influences relating to boys’
academic performance are complex and remain open to debate. None the
less, pedagogical foundations for boys’ academic achievement remain
influential and convincing. The contribution of the pedagogical discourse lies
not only in the analysis it offers for why boys are having difficulties but also
the practical responses offered for teachers and school leaders. Effective
pedagogies improve the educational environment of all students, both boys
and girls.
The expanded Conceptual Framework of the Literature Review situates the
problem of boys’ academic experiences of underachievement more firmly
within the theoretical foundations of pedagogy. Two models are examined
more closely - the Social Constructivist and the Essentialist.
2.3 Structure of Literature Review Chapter Using the structure composed by the researcher in Figure 2.3.1 Conceptual
Framework: Theoretical Foundations of Pedagogy to Boys’ Academic
Performance, cognitive and effective gains are examined with reference to
two clusters identified in the literature as contributing to boys’ academic
performance.
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 37
# Intervention model and Intervention tool are discussed in Chapter 3.
Figure 2.3.1 Conceptual Framework of Literature Review
Current Research Literature
Cognitive gains THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY
SCHOOL CONTEXT
LEARNING THEORY MODELS
Social Constructivist Essentialist
Academic Performance
Affective gains
Self-worth and Social Interaction
Research Question s
Intervention model: Quality Learning Environment Dimension from NSW QTM #
Intervention tool: Moodle - School-Based On-Line Teaching and Learning Facility #
STUDENT-CENTRED LEARNING
Intervention program incorporated into existing formal school classroom structures
TEACHER-CENTRED LEARNING
Intervention program incorporated into existing traditional teaching structures dictated by syllabus rubric and HSC preparation
Recommendations for pedagogical practice for boys’ education
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 38
Table 2.4.1 Clusters Identified in the Literature a s Contributing to Boys’ Academic Underachievement.
Section 1:
Section 2:
Learning Theory Models: I Social Constructivist ii Essentialist
School Context:
i. School/class size ii. Teachers
iii. Single-sex classes in co-educational settings
iv. Information technology
Perspectives of boys on learning and school experiences:
i. Social-Emotional Well-Being ii. Adolescent male perceptions of school iii. Motivation and self-esteem
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 39
2.4 Section 1: Learning Theory Models
i. Social Constructivist Curriculum Theory
ii. Essentialist Curriculum Theory Table 2.5.1 Foundational Theorists: Social Constructivist Theorists
Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Von Glasserfeld, Bloom
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books.
Piaget, J. (1953). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. London: Harvard University Press.
Von Glasserfeld, E. (1993). Questions and answers about radical constructivism. In K. Tobin (Ed.), The practice of constructivism in science education (pp. 23-38). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bloom, B. (1977). Human Characteristics and School Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Essentialist Theorists Bagley, Aitken
Bagley, W.C. (1941). The Case for Essentialism in Education. NEA Journal, 30, No. 7,
(p. 201-202) Aitken, J. (1999.) The Achievement of Boys.
Education Review Office, No. 3.
It is acknowledged that the establishment of a binary framework in the
targeted selection of only two models for consideration and analysis limits
the scope for comparison. Nevertheless, literature supports that the Social
Constructivist and Essentialist theories emerge as significant discourses
relevant to boys’ education and underachievement. These theories frame
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 40
this exploration of gender differences in academic performance in the face of
social and pedagogical influences. Social constructivist theory suggests that
knowledge is socially constructed through reflection on students’ own ideas
and other learners’ ideas (Von Glasserfeld, 1990).
Social Constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in
understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on
this understanding. This perspective is closely associated with many
contemporary theories, most notably the developmental theories of Vygotsky
(1978) and Bruner (1990) and the social cognitive theory of Bandura (1965).
The fundamental challenge of Constructivism is in its repositioning of control
over learning from teacher to student (Shunk, 1996).
Education Essentialism first emerged in the 1940s with a prescriptive that
children should be taught the traditional basic subjects and that these should
be learnt thoroughly and rigorously (Bagley, 1941). An Essentialist program
normally teaches children progressively, from less complex skills to more
complex. Control over learning remains with the teacher.
Theories identifying reasons for boys’ underachievement being
pedagogically determined concentrate on meaningful learning and practical
strategies for teaching and curricula planning. One response to boys’
underachievement is the application of Social Constructivist pedagogy i.e.
student-centred learning processes in the classroom (Hawkes, 2001; Lillico,
2001; Rowe, 2000a, 2000c). Yet opinion remains divided as to the most
appropriate styles of teaching for boys. We need to examine why.
2.5 Social Constructivist Model
The important epistemological assumption of constructivism is that
knowledge is a function of how the individual creates meaning from their
experiences. Learning is an internal process, rather than something that a
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 41
teacher can impose on students. Constructivist learning theory places
importance on the learners’ point of view. Illustration of the individual
components is presented in Table 2.4.2.1. Crotty, (1998) provides further
clarification,
“Constructivist educators strive to create environments where learners
are required to examine thinking and learning processes, collect,
record and analyze data, formulate and test hypotheses - reflect on
previous understandings: and construct their own meaning” (p. 31).
Social Constructivist teaching and learning processes to address boys’
learning difficulties at school have their advocates in Lillico, (2001); Hawkes,
(2001); Gurian, (1999); Hartman, (2006); West, (2002); Biddulph, (1997);
and Clay, (2008). The strategies include development of opportunities for
boys’ involvement in negotiating their learning environment and remain a
significant part of the solution to the problem (West, 2002; Martin, 2002;
Carr-Gregg, 2004). The aim is to teach students to think constructively
rather than analytically, focusing on depth and perception, organization of
thinking, interaction, creativity, information, feeling and action (De Bono,
1996).
Killen, (2003) on the other hand, is more cautious, suggesting that this
approach to teaching and learning relies on the learners being able to think
for themselves and to solve problems - both academic problems and
interpersonal problems – something we can’t assume will happen. Bidduph,
(1997); and West, (2000) concur with the constructivist premise that
masculinity is a natural reality and that boys will be helped to overcome their
difficulties with learning if they are provided with opportunities allowing them
to exercise that masculinity. Kenway & Fitzclarence, (1997) emphasise
strong discipline, competition, sport and cultural pursuits. Pitman & Gray,
(1997); Blair & Sandford, (2003) suggest literature with appropriate male
themes of adventure and action.
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 42
Boys’ academic underachievement compared to girls can be attributed to
mechanistic tendencies which preclude their capacities in emotive subjects
such as English (Logan, 2001, Hawkes, 2001). This view is supported by
Biddulph, (1997) and Gurian, (1999) who attribute biological reasons for
boys’ preference for analytical subjects such as Science and Mathematics,
rather than the demands of the post modernist approach to synthesis and
interpretive work required in the English curriculum. Work by Fletcher,
(1995); and Carr-Gregg, (2004), also attribute the specific needs in boys to
their biological makeup which they claim, along with others such as, Barash,
(1979) and much more recently Ykema, (2000), that boys’ biological makeup
makes them more aggressive and in need of physical activity. Specific
programmes targeting boys’ coping strategies for non-aggressive conflict
resolution have been trialled with reported success (Ykema, 2000; Fletcher,
2000).
An overview of the Constructivist teaching and learning processes can be
identified in the individual components of the Social Constructivist
Curriculum Theory represented in Table 2.6.1
As can be gleaned from the individual characteristics outlined in the Social
Constructivist Curriculum Theory model, the emphasis remains with the
learner in a student-centred learning environment with opportunities for
physical interaction outside classroom restrictions as well as cognitive
flexibility and active involvement with feedback opportunities; features which
remain central to teaching and learning styles advocated in serving to
address boys’ learning needs.
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 43
Table 2.6.1 Tabular Representation of Constructivis t Curriculum Theory
�
Authentic, relevant contexts are important
� Knowledge needs to be relevant and meaningful
� Processes need to be more analytical and less reflective
� Learner control of problem solving
� Learner manipulation of information
� Problem-solving opportunities
� Information organization
� Tapping into prior knowledge base
� Utilizing space outside classroom restrictions
� Learning to transfer knowledge in different contexts
� Social negotiation
� Collaborative work
� Learning which promotes physical interaction
� Practice and feedback opportunities
� Cognitive flexibility
� Building on past experiences
�
Active involvement
2.6 The Essentialist Model
The teacher-centred, Essentialist model of teaching and learning with
advocates such as Bagley, (1941) was made popular by trends for greater
adaptability to more rational approaches to learning. A ‘back to basics’
approach, which requires, as Arnot, David & Weiner, (1996) indicate,
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 44
“… memorizing abstract, unambiguous facts and rules that have to be
acquired quickly” (p. 7).
The Essentialist discourse elaborates on boys’ disadvantaged position
within an unsuitable and uncompromising school curriculum (Biddulph, 1997;
Lillico, 2001; Beatson, 2003). The Essentialist response to the problem of
boys’ underachievement is a call to the return to traditional educational
practices, which some argue caters more for the needs of boys (Aitken,
1999). There is, for example, some evidence that a more structured
approach to literacy teaching has beneficial effects on boys’ performance
(West, 1999).
Aitken, (1999) states that,
“Girls tend to prefer narrative reading, while boys prefer non-fiction.
Given a writing task girls tend to be better able to produce what the
teacher had in mind, while the boys tend to need more help with
structuring and they benefit from more short term goals” (p. 7).
The gender considerations in educational discourse assert that ‘teacher
effects’ are more important than gender (Rowe and Rowe, 2000a; Noble &
Bradford, 2000). The importance of classroom interaction, teacher/student
relationship and in particular, constructivist teaching and learning practices
need to be addressed in order to improve the education of boys (Rowe &
Rowe, 1999; Martin, 2002; Carr-Gregg, 2004).
Arnot, David & Weiner, (1996) in their review on gender research, offered
the following summaries of research findings:
“Girls are more attentive in class and more willing to learn. They do
better on sustained tasks that are open-ended, process-based,
related to realistic situations, and require thinking for oneself. Many
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 45
girls overrate the difficulty of particular subjects” (Arnot, David &
Weiner, 1996, p.7).
“Boys show greater adaptability to traditional approaches which
require memorizing abstract, unambiguous facts which have to be
acquired quickly. They are willing to sacrifice deep understanding of
correct answers achieved at speed. Boys do better at multiple choice
papers, whatever the subject” (Arnot, David & Weiner, 1996, p. 7).
The Essentialist discourse would agree with the premise by West, (1999);
Carr-Gregg, (2004) and the findings of the Boys: Getting it right. Report on
the inquiry into the education of boys House of Representatives Standing
Committee on Education and Training, Canberra, (2002), that boys perform
better in literacy when their instruction and assessment is more highly
structured - being told what is expected and how their work will be assessed
creates safe parameters for effective learning. Boys’ writing style in general
is more economical and less flamboyant (West, 1999b). It is unclear
whether this is due to innate biological gender differences, or is a result of
their preference for reading material of the same nature (West, 1999b).
Boys do not view reading as masculine and opt for physical activities and
prefer magazines and manuals. The emotional element of English at school
is viewed as being in direct conflict with masculinity, and is therefore,
regarded as unacceptable to most boys (Martino, 1995; Blair & Sandford,
2003; Clay, 2008).
Specific features of the teacher-centred model of learning highlights the
emphasis on teacher control and the assimilation of prescribed subject
matter. A number of studies have revealed that successful teachers maintain
a strong academic focus and spend less time in non-academic activities
(Gibson & Dembo, 1984, p. 577).
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 46
Details of the Essentialist teaching and learning processes are identified in
the Essentialist Curriculum Theory represented in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Essentialist Curriculum Theory Model
� Traditional classroom formation
� Cloze passages and paragraphs used for consolidation
� Scaffolds provided by teacher
� The school retains traditional methods of mental discipline
� Model answers and work samples used as exemplars
� Rote learning and repetition is used
� The initiative in education lies with the teacher rather than with the pupil
� Learning, of its very nature, involves hard work and often-unwilling application
� Teacher-centred learning
� The core of the learning process is the assimilation of prescribed subject matter
� Teacher presents background knowledge structures
�
The initiative in education lies with the teacher rather than with the pupil
As a theory, education Essentialism states that children should learn the
traditional basic subjects - the essentials of academic knowledge - and that
these should be learnt thoroughly and rigorously. Evaluation is framed by
performance-based competency tests. Essentialism is a practical, factual
approach to education, which includes methods such as drill and practice,
study, books, texts and memorization and where the emphasis in classroom
management is on regularity and order. An Essentialist program normally
teaches children progressively, from less complex skills to more complex.
-
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 47
2.7 Summary of Section 1: Learning Theory Models
The review of relevant literature so far illustrates perspectives of the
Essentialist and Social Constructivist curriculum theories with reference to
boys’ problematic academic performance. Each of these theories operates
on the premise that boys will be helped, in part, to overcome their difficulties
with learning if they are provided with opportunities to learn in environments
which are framed by dimensions of the theory in question.
The debate is divided between those promoting the Social Constructivist
Model and those whose preference is for aspects of the Essentialist Model.
While there is a danger of being too simplistic in this categorization, the
discussion so far, lends itself to the following grouping with regard to
addressing the issue of boys’ academic underachievement.
Support for Social Constructivist learning processes is provided by
researchers and commentators including Lillico, (2001); Hawkes, (2001);
Rowe, (2000c); Biddulph, (1997); Fletcher, (2000); Gardner, (1983); Bloom
& Krathworhl, (1956); Gore & Ladwig, (2003).
Other researchers and commentators including, West, (2000; 2002);
Beatson, (2003); Buckingham, (1975; 2000); O’Doherty, (2002) provide
support for Essentialist learning processes.
Therefore, in addressing boys’ educational needs, incorporating aspects
from both models makes sense and has support from literature.
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 48
2.8 Section 2: School Context
Having discussed the Social Constructivist and Essentialist Learning Theory
Models, the focus of the review moves to the second of the two specific
clusters identified as contributing to boys’ academic achievement.
This section, Section 2, reviews literature that investigates perspectives of
boys on learning and school experiences in senior school and includes the
following considerations:
Social-Emotional Well-Being
Adolescent male perceptions of school
Motivation and self-esteem
School/class size
Teachers
Single-sex classes in co-educational settings
Information technology
2. 9 Social-Emotional Well-Being
The Australian Scholarships Group funded a recent report recording the
emotional and social well-being of students from pre-school to Year 12. Key
findings from the Student Social and Emotional Health Report, Bernard et al.
(2008), conclude that a large percentage of students experience social and
emotional difficulties. The report indicates that girls display significantly
higher levels of social and emotional health than boys do, and significantly,
two-thirds of the students, both boys and girls, believe they are not doing as
well in their schoolwork as they could.
Additional findings from Bernard et al. (2008) reflect the importance of
teachers in children’s development and the differences in well-being
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 49
between boys and girls. The findings identify that teachers and parents have
a major impact on student social and emotional health of students, that
teachers perceive student social and emotional health differently from the
way students perceive it and that teachers’ behaviours have a direct
correlation to student social and emotional well-being. Students with low
levels of well-being feel their teachers do not demonstrate many of the
positive actions that the research shows as contributing to student success
and well-being (Bernard et al. 2008). Martin, (2002), in the Final Report to
ACT Department of Education, Youth and Family Services, concluded that
educational outcomes would be enhanced for boys and girls with increased
opportunities to gain control, choice and input into the decisions that effect
them and their school as well as by striving for relevance, purpose and
meaning in the curriculum (p. 18).
Other studies, such as that of Nelson, (2002) Boys: Getting it Right.
Report on inquiry into the education of boys have isolated assessment as a
key issue in boys’ education with reference to methods of assessment and
accuracy in measuring student achievement.
“The changing assessment methods … boys with relatively poor
literary skills are disadvantaged across most of the curriculum”
(Nelson, p. xix).
Practitioners who support these assertions add that the alignment of high
quality teaching practices with assessment practices and curriculum
purposes is crucial to the achievement of the best outcomes for both boys
and girls (Lingard, Martino, Mills & Bahr, 2002; McGaw, 2002). However,
schools often do not suit boys.
“What we didn’t realize until recently was that school also is a bad
place for boys” (Biddulph, 1995, p.142).
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 50
Martin, (2002) reports that,
“… the five most frequently reported difficulties boys experienced at
school were repetitive work that leads to boredom, competing
demands in their life … difficult schoolwork, and the perceptions of
poor teaching and poor relationships with teachers ” (p.12).
When boys were asked what they would change about school if they had the
chance, the dominant response centred on opportunities for choice and a
greater sense of control (Martin, 2002; 2003 Martin et al. 2005; 2008).
Recommendations are to both ‘guyify’ schools (Pollack, 1998) and to make
them more ‘boy-friendly’ (Fletcher, 1995) by ensuring that pedagogical
practices are not only intellectually demanding but also connected to
students’ real world experiences (Lingard et al. 2002).
2.10 Adolescent Male Perceptions of School
A major determinant in the educational experiences of students relates to the
quality of pedagogies experienced (Lingard, Martino, Mills & Bahr, 2002;
Buckingham, 2000). Boys report significantly less positive experiences of
schooling in terms of enjoyment of school, perceived curriculum usefulness
and teacher responsiveness (Rowe, 2000) and are more likely to respond
negatively or overtly to irrelevant curriculum and poor teaching (Nelson,
2002; Martin, 2002; Bernard et al. 2008; Younger & Warrington, 2003).
Boys are significantly more disengaged with schooling and more likely to be
at risk of academic underachievement - especially in literacy (Browne &
Fletcher, 1995; West, 1999b in Creswell, Rowe & Withers, 2002).
Buckingham, (2000) and Rowe & Rowe, (1999) identify that traditional
schooling tends to favour passive learning to the detriment of those students
who prefer interactive and experimental learning styles. Further, evidence is
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 51
provided for a large percentage of students (both genders included),
experiencing social emotional difficulties (Bernard et al. 2008), with
examples of socially inappropriate classroom behaviour by boys (MCEETYA,
1994). Two-thirds believe they are not doing as well in their schoolwork as
they could (Bernard et al. 2008). The gap continues to widen between girls
and boys’ academic results (Rowe, 2000a, 2000c; Australian Bureau of
Statistics 2000; 2004).
“Homework is neglected or rejected because it is too intrusive.
Negative attitudes are created by an excessive Year 11 workload at a
time when the demands of life beyond school are increasing and
becoming more important, rewarding and fulfilling, for example,
part-time work, sport and social life” (Trent & Slade, 2001, p.7).
An unsuitable environment framed by a boring, repetitive and irrelevant
curriculum, (Trent & Slade, 2001; Martin, 2002; McGraw, 2008), dominates
emerging issues for adolescent male perceptions of school.
2.11 Motivation and Self-Esteem
Martin, (2003), defines motivation as,
“… students’ energy and drive to learn, work effectively and to
achieve to their potential at school, and the behaviours that follow
from this energy and drive” (p. 44).
Motivation and self-esteem are significantly influenced by gender issues in
the classroom according to Cavanagh and Dellar, (2001); Martin, (2003);
Martin et al. (2008), with reference to appropriate behaviour, (Gilbert &
Gilbert, 1998; Lillico, 2001) and the decline in achievement (Younger et al.
2003; 2005).
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 52
Quantitative and qualitative findings of Jakobsdottir, (1996); Martin, (2003);
and Martin et al. (2008) on the other hand, did not reveal significant
differences in student perceptions of their educational outcomes due to
gender, but to class grouping (Jakobsdottir, 1996; Martin, 2003; Martin et al.
2008).
Confirmatory evidence suggests that boys have less positive experiences of
school (Rowe & Rowe, 1999; Martin et al. 2005; Carr-Gregg, 2004) with
more boys than girls admitted to bullying other students, although the
differences were small (Lingard et al. 2002). Girls are more likely to be
supported in their academic work by their peers and reported more interest
in reading books than boys (Gurian, 1999).
“Our society values the female model of nurturing, which includes
compassionate conversation, shared thoughts and feelings” (Lingard,
Martino, Mills & Bahr, 2002, p.3).
Warrington & Younger, (1999) identify that boys heavily influence ambience
of the classroom where many of the behaviours exhibited by boys are
socially inappropriate and disruptive not only to themselves but to others.
Girls complained about the negative effects on their work caused by boys'
disruptive behaviour (Warrington & Younger, 1999). The MCEETYA Report,
(1994) also confirms that dominant masculine practices taken up by groups
of boys severely limit the options of girls.
"Constant displays of physical power and aggression, the deliberately
crude and offensive behaviours, and the disparaging comments about
girls and their bodies, have the effect of placing girls in the position of
being dominated, controlled, disparaged, powerless and silent"
(MCEETYA, 1994, p.25).
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 53
Boys were identified by their teachers a being more disruptive than girls;
exhibit greater behaviour problems in the classroom (Barkley, 1996; Rowe,
1988) and treated more harshly than girls for the same offence (Lingard
et.al. 2002, p. 3). In addition, boys were identified as being in trouble
because of a lack of basic impulse control (Gurian, 1999; Carr-Gregg,
2004); in others a lack of the ability to articulate right from wrong or express
empathy (Gurian, 1999). The Rock and Water, Ykema, (2000), a Dutch
education program made popular in recent years, particularly in Holland and
Australia, operates to counteract these tendencies by teaching social skills
so that boys make changes on the inside; building a sense of purpose in
boys.
Boys record lower literacy levels than girls (Cre