australian crime commission's illicit drug data report 2012-13

ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT

AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION

2012 13-

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Chief Executive Officer

Australian Crime Commission

PO Box 1936 Canberra City

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Published April 2014

The data contained in this report is produced by the Australian Crime Commission (ACC) with

the endorsement of the eight police commissioners in Australia and the ACC Board.

Commonwealth of Australia 2014.

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ISSN 2202-3925

Cover artwork depicts crystal methylamphetamine hydrochloride ice.

ILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT

AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION

2012 13-

2AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSIONILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 201213

INTRODUCTION

FOREWORDIDDR 201213

Illicit drugs affect every member of the

community, at all levels of society. They

have a profound and devastating impact

on individuals, families, communities,

economies and entire countries.

In order to respond to the global challenge

illicit drugs pose, a detailed understanding

of the marketplace is essential. The

Australian Crime Commissions Illicit Drug

Data Report (IDDR) is a statistical report

which provides a national picture of the

illicit drug market. It compiles data from

a range of sources into one unique report

to inform our understanding and assist in

focusing our collective efforts to respond

to the issue.

Now in its 11th edition, the 201213

report paints a picture of a gravely serious

issue, with over 19 tonnes of illicit drugs

seized nationally in this reporting period

alone. National illicit drug seizures and

arrests were at record or decade highs

for nearly all drug types in this reporting

period. While disturbing, the figures also

demonstrate the continued vigilance

and achievements of law enforcement in

combating the illicit drug trade.

Organised crime remains an ever-present

pillar of the drug trade. Crime groups

thrive on the profits generated through

the illicit drug market and accordingly

continue to be a key focus of our response.

Illicit drug use in Australia, and the

profits gained from it, is directly linked to

transnational organised crime groups that

are implicated in large-scale criminality

and corruption overseas.

The dangers of illicit drugs and their

significant health, anti-social and crime-

related implications are well known.

The entrenched and evolving market

for the production, distribution and use

of methylamphetamine, particularly

crystalline methylamphetamine

(commonly known as ice), is currently

a national concern. With its relative

accessibility, affordability and destructive

side-effects, crystal methylamphetamine is

emerging as a pandemic akin to the issue

of crack cocaine in the United States.


INTRODUCTION

Central to addressing an issue of this scale

are holistic responses aimed at reducing

demand, supply and harmthe three

pillars of the National Drug Strategy. Illicit

drugs are not just a law enforcement

issue. A broader approach is required,

including cooperation, collaboration and

participation of a diverse range of sectors.

Through this collective approach we can

reduce the impact the illicit drug market

has on our community.

The latest version of the IDDR is more

detailed than ever before. For the first

time, the report includes forensic profiling

data of both border and domestic

methylamphetamine and MDMA seizures,

as well as profiling data of domestic heroin

seizures.

The IDDR is an integral part of the arsenal

used to combat the threat of illicit drugs

including methylamphetamine. The report

provides governments, law enforcement

agencies, policy makers, academia and

interested stakeholders with a robust

picture of the Australian illicit drug market.

It informs prioritisation and decision-

making to help to protect Australia against

the threat, harm and destruction caused

by illicit drugs.

The production of this publication is a

collective effort and I would like to take

this opportunity to express my gratitude

to all of our partnersincluding law

enforcement, forensic services, health and

academiafor their vital contributions.

Without their continued support and

input, it would not be possible to

understand the complex and evolving illicit

drug market in Australia.

Paul Jevtovic APM Acting Chief Executive Officer Australian Crime Commission


INTRODUCTION

CONTENTSIDDR 201213

FOREWORD 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 16 ABBREVIATIONS 17 INTRODUCTION 19 KEY POINTS 20

AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS 23 Key points 23 Main forms 24 International trends 27 Domestic trends 29 Domestic market indicators 39 National impact 51 References 53

CANNABIS 57 Key points 57 Main forms 58 International trends 60 Domestic trends 62 Domestic market indicators 65 National impact 71 References 72

HEROIN 75 Key points 75 Main forms 76 International trends 78 Domestic trends 81 Domestic market indicators 88 National impact 94 References 95

COCAINE 97 Key points 97 Main forms 98 International trends 100 Domestic trends 103 Domestic market indicators 109 National impact 116 References 117


INTRODUCTION

OTHER DRUGS 119 Key points 119 Anabolic agents and selected hormones 120 Tryptamines 130 Anaesthetics 137 Pharmaceuticals 143 Drug analogues and new psychoactive substances 154 Other and unknownnot elsewhere classified 161 National impact 164 References 166

CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS 175 Key points 175 Main forms 176 International trends 178 Domestic trends 180 Domestic market indicators 185 National impact 193 References 194

INITIATIVES 197 Key points 197 Introduction 198

STATE AND TERRITORY LEGISLATIVE AMENDMENTS AND INITIATIVES 203 Introduction 203 Legislative and regulatory amendments 204 State and territory initiatives 209

STATISTICS 217 Introduction 217 Counting methodology 218 Data sources 219 Limitations of the data 221 Jurisdictional issues 224 Explanatory notes 227 Arrest tables 230 Seizure tables 236 Purity tables 238 Price tables 248


INTRODUCTION

EXECUTVE SUMMARYIDDR 201213

The Australian Crime Commission (ACC) Illicit Drug Data Report 201213 provides a snapshot of the Australian illicit drug market. The report combines illicit drug data from a variety of sources including law enforcement, health and academia. The Illicit Drug Data Report is the only report of its type in Australia and provides the important evidence base to assist decision makers in the development of strategies to combat the threat posed by illicit drugs.

There were numerous record detections at the Australian border in 201213. The number of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS excluding MDMA), MDMA, cannabis, cocaine, tryptamine, anaesthetic and performance and image enhancing drug (PIED) detections are the highest on record, with the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and heroin detections also at a record high. The number of ATS precursor (excluding MDMA)detections at the Australian border is the highest reported in the last decade.

There were a record number of national illicit drug seizures and arrests reported in 201213. A record 86 918 national illicit drug seizures were reported in 201213, a 66.4 per cent increase on the 52 231 seizures reported in 200304. While the weight of illicit drugs seized nationally decreased from the record 23.8 tonnes seized in 201112, the 19.6 tonnes seized this reporting period is the second highest on record and a 75 per cent increase on the weight of illicit drugs seized in 200304. The number of national illicit drug arrests has increased 27.2 per cent over the last decade, from 80 020 in 200304 to a record 101 749 in 201213.

Cannabis continues to dominate the Australian illicit drug market, with the number of national cannabis seizures and arrests in 201213 the highest reported in the last decade. While cannabis accounts for the majority of national seizures and arrests, ATS continues to increase in prominence in the Australian market, with record national ATS seizures (both number and weight) and arrests reported in 201213.

A record number of national cocaine seizures and arrests were reported in 201213, with the weight of national cocaine and heroin seizures this reporting period the highest reported in the last decade. There were a record number of national steroid seizures and arrests this reporting period. There were a record number of national hallucinogen arrests this reporting period, with the number of national hallucinogen seizures in 201213 the highest reported in the last decade.

While the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally this reporting period decreased from a record 809 laboratories in 201112, the 757 detections is the second highest on record. The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas, however there has been an increase in the number of detections in commercial/industrial locations this reporting period.


INTRODUCTION

Key findings for 201213:

the number of national illicit drug arrests and seizures are the highest on record

the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and the weight of heroin detections at the Australian border are the highest on record

the number and weight of national ATS seizures are the highest on record

profiling1 of both border and national methylamphetamine seizures indicates the predominance of methylamphetamine manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine

a record number of cannabis detections were made at the Australian border, with seeds continuing to account for the majority of detections

the number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade

profiling2 of both border and national heroin seizures indicates South-East Asia as the prominent source region

while there was a record number of cocaine detections at the Australian border, the weight detected almost halved

profiling3 of cocaine border seizures indicates Colombia is the prominent source country

while the weight of national steroid seizures decreased, the number of national seizures and arrests continued to increase and are the highest on record

despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the number detected is the second highest reported in the last decade.

The following charts provide an overview of the Australian illicit drug market in 201213.

ARRESTS, 201213

1 Profiling data is based on calendar years and the first six months of 2013.2 Ibid. 3 Ibid.


INTRODUCTION

SEIZURES BY NUMBER, 201213

SEIZURES BY WEIGHT, 201213


INTRODUCTION

The following charts provide an overview of changes that have occurred in the illicit drug market in the last decade.

NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, 200304 TO 201213

The number of national ATS arrests has increased over the last decade, accounting for 21.8 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 201213, second only to cannabis.

National cannabis arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national illicit drug arrests, accounting for 61.0 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 201213.

Over the last decade, national heroin and other opioid arrests have decreased by one-third.

National cocaine arrests have accounted for less than 1.5 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in the last decade.

A record number of national other and unknown drug arrests this reporting period accounted for 13.5 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 201213.

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AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSIONILLICIT DRUG DATA REPORT 201213

INTRODUCTION

NUMBER OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 200304 TO 201213

Cannabis continues to account for the greatest number of national illicit drug seizures, with the 54 181 cannabis seizures in 201213 the highest number reported in the last decade.

ATS seizure numbers have remained second to cannabis over the last decade, with the record 21 056 ATS seizures reported in 201213 accounting for 24.2 per cent of national illicit drug seizures this reporting period.

National heroin and other opioid seizures accounted for 1.9 per cent of the number of national illicit drug seizures this reporting period, the lowest proportion reported in the last decade.

Over the last decade, the number of national cocaine seizures has increased by 158.3 per cent, from 839 in 200304 to a record 2 167 in 201213.

The 7 828 national other and unknown drug seizures this reporting period is the highest reported in the last decade, accounting for 9.0 per cent of national illicit drug seizures in 201213.

11


INTRODUCTION

WEIGHT OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 200304 TO 201213

The weight of national illicit drug seizures has fluctuated over the last decade, ranging between 6.4 tonnes in 200506 and 23.8 tonnes in 201112.

With the exception of 200607 and 201112, cannabis has accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of national illicit drug seizures, accounting for 47.6 per cent of the weight of national seizures this reporting period.

The 1 056 kilograms of cocaine seized nationally in 201213 is the highest weight reported in the last decade.

The 550 kilograms of heroin and other opioids seized nationally in 201213 is the second highest weight reported in the last decade.

The weight of national other and unknown drug seizures decreased this reporting period, accounting for 11.3 per cent of the weight of national seizures in 201213.

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INTRODUCTION

The following charts present national illicit drug arrests and seizures reported in 201213 by state and territory and drug type.

NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL ARRESTS, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 201213

With the exception of Victoria, over half of all illicit drug arrests in all states and territories related to cannabis.

With the exception of Tasmania, the proportion of arrests related to ATS was second only to cannabis in all states and territories.

In the Australian Capital Territory, 3.1 per cent of illicit drug arrests were related to cocaine, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 201213.

In Victoria, 6.1 per cent of illicit drug arrests were related to heroin and other opioids, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 201213.

In Western Australia, 21.0 per cent of all illicit drug arrests were related to other and unknown drugs, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 201213.

13


INTRODUCTION

NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL SEIZURES, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 201213

Cannabis accounts for the greatest proportion of the number of illicit drug seizures in all states and territories this reporting period.

All states and territories reported ATS as the second most seized drug in 201213.

In South Australia, 4.7 per cent of illicit drug seizures related to heroin and other opioids, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 201213.

In New South Wales, cocaine accounted for 4.5 per cent of illicit drug seizures, the highest proportion reported in any state or territory in 201213.

In New South Wales, 11.3 per cent of illicit drug seizures related to other and unknown drugs, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 201213.

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INTRODUCTION

WEIGHT OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL WEIGHT, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 201213

With the exception of New South Wales, Western Australia and the Northern Territory, cannabis accounts for the greatest proportion of the weight of illicit drug seized in 201213.

Cannabis continues to account for over 90 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized in South Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory.

In New South Wales, ATS accounts for 53.0 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 201213.

In New South Wales, cocaine accounts for 12.4 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 201213.

In Queensland, heroin and other opioids account for 8.6 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 201213.

In the Northern Territory, other and unknown drugs accounted for 75.1 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 201213.4 In Western Australia, the weight of other and unknown drugs accounted for the greatest proportion of weight of illicit drugs seized in that jurisdiction, accounting for 46.1 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized in 201213.

4 In the Northern Territory, illicit kava is trafficked in kilograms amounts and is the primary driver for the considerable weight of seizures reported as other and unknown drugs in 201213.

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INTRODUCTION

The following chart provides an overview of self-reported illicit drug use, in the 12 months preceding interview, in an Australian detainee population, 200304 to 201213 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology).

PROPORTION OF THE DETAINEES REPORTING ILLICIT DRUG USE IN THE 12 MONTHS PRECEDING INTERVIEW, 200304 TO 201213 (SOURCE: AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF CRIMINOLOGY)

Cannabis remains the most commonly reported illicit drug used by police detainees in the 12 months preceding interview. Following a decrease in 200708, reported use has remained relatively stable.

Amphetamines remain the second most commonly reported illicit drugs used by police detainees.

Reported heroin use in this population has decreased over the last decade, decreasing from over 19 per cent in 200304 to 13 per cent in 201213.

Reported cocaine use in this population has remained relatively stable over the last decade at around 11 per cent.

16


INTRODUCTION

This report contains data and analysis provided by federal, state and territory police, as well as forensic laboratories and the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service. Police and forensic data managers contributed significantly to improving this reports data quality. Their expertise and experience, along with their continued support, has been invaluable to the Australian Crime Commission.

Key contributors are listed below:

Attorney-Generals Department

Australian Customs and Border Protection Service

Australian Institute of Criminology, Drug Use Monitoring in Australia Program

Australian Federal Police

Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence

Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing

ChemCentre

Forensic Science Service Tasmania

Forensic Science South Australia

New South Wales Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office

New South Wales Forensic and Analytical Science Service

New South Wales Police Force

Northern Territory Police

Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services

Queensland Police Service

South Australia Police

Tasmania Police

Victoria Police

Western Australia Police.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSIDDR 201213

17


INTRODUCTION

AAS Anabolic and Androgenic Steroids

ACC Australian Crime Commission

ACT Australian Capital Territory

AFP Australian Federal Police

ANSPS Australian Needle and Syringe Program Survey

ASADA Australian Sports Anti-Doping Agency

ATS Amphetamine-Type Stimulants

BINLEA Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs

CBD Cannabidiol

CEN Cannabis Expiation Notice

CIN Cannabis Infringement Notice

CIR Cannabis Intervention Requirement

Customs and Australian Customs and Border Protection Service Border Protection

DANPS Drug Analogues and New Psychoactive Substances

DEA Drug Enforcement Administration

DHEA Dehydroepiandrosterone

DIN Drug Infringement Notice

DUMA Drug Use Monitoring in Australia

EDRS Ecstasy and related Drugs Reporting System

ENIPID Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs

EPO Erythropoietin

FDI Forensic Drug Intelligence

FSANZ Food Standards Australia New Zealand

GBL Gamma-butyrolactone

GHB Gamma-hydroxybutyrate

gms Grams

hCG Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin

hGH Human Growth Hormone

ABBREVIATIONSIDDR 201213

18


INTRODUCTION

IDDR Illicit Drug Data Report

IDRS Illicit Drug Reporting System

IGCD Intergovernmental Committee on Drugs

INCB International Narcotics Control Board

LSD Lysergic Acid Diethylamide

MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine

NDS National Drug Strategy

NDSHS National Drug Strategy Household Survey

NEC Not Elsewhere Classified

NFRL National Forensic Rapid Lab

NIDRF National Illicit Drug Reporting Format

NMI National Measurement Institute

NSW New South Wales

NT Northern Territory

P2P Phenyl-2-propanone

PAG Precursor Advisory Group

PBS Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme

PIEDs Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs

Qld Queensland

SA South Australia

SCON Simple Cannabis Offence Notice

SUSMP Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons

Tas Tasmania

THC Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol

UK United Kingdom

UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

US United States of America

Vic Victoria

WA Western Australia

WADA World Anti-Doping Authority

4-MMC 4-methylmethcathinone

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INTRODUCTION

The Illicit Drug Data Report is the only report of its type in Australia, providing governments, law enforcement agencies and interested stakeholders with a national picture of the illicit drug market. This report provides the data necessary to assess current and future illicit drug trends and offers a brief analysis of those trends.

The Australian Crime Commission collects data annually from all state and territory police services, the Australian Federal Police, the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service, and state and territory forensic laboratories. The illicit drug data collected and presented in this report for the 201213 financial year includes:

arrests

seizures

purity levels

profiling data

prices.

The purpose of this report is to provide statistics and analysis to assist decision makers in developing illicit drug supply and harm reduction strategies. The data also assists the Australian Government to meet national and international reporting obligations.

The Australian Crime Commission uses the National Illicit Drug Reporting Format to standardise the data received from each law enforcement agency and other contributing organisations.

INTRODUCTIONIDDR 201213

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INTRODUCTION

KEY POINTSIDDR 201213

AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS

The number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased in 201213 and are the highest on record.

The number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased this reporting period, with the 4 139 detections in 201213 the highest number on

record.

Drug profiling data indicates that the majority of analysed methylamphetamine seizures are primarily manufactured from ephedrine/psuedoephedrine.

The number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 201213 and are the highest on record.

The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase, with the 22 189 arrests in 201213 the highest on record.

CANNABIS

There were a record 3 629 cannabis detections at the Australian border in 201213, with cannabis seeds continuing to account for the majority of detections.

The number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade.

National cannabis arrests continued to increase, with the 62 120 arrests in 201213 the highest number reported in the last decade.

HEROIN

The number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border increased in 201213, with the 513.8 kilograms detected the highest on record.

Profiling data from 2012 indicates the majority of analysed heroin seizures originated in South-East Asia.

The weight of national heroin seizures increased to 544.4 kilograms in 201213, the highest weight reported in the last decade.

The 2 463 national heroin and other opioid arrests reported in 201213 is the lowest number reported since 200708.

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INTRODUCTION


COCAINE

Although the weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border almost halved in 201213, the number of detections more than doubled and is the highest on record.

Cocaine profiling data indicates the continued prominence of Colombia as a source country for cocaine seized at the Australian border.

There was a record number of national cocaine seizures this reporting period, with the weight of national cocaine seizures the highest reported in the last decade.

There was a record 1 282 national cocaine arrests in 201213.

OTHER DRUGS

Over the last decade, the number of performance and image enhancing drugs detected at the Australian border has increased 751.6 per cent, with the

10 356 detections in 201213 the highest number on record.

The number of national steroid seizures and arrests continued to increase in 201213 and are the highest number on record.

There was a record 509 tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 201213.

There was a record 277 anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 201213.

The 565 national hallucinogen arrests reported in 201213 is the highest number on record.

CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS

Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the 757 laboratories detected in 201213 is the second highest number in the last

decade.

The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas; however detections in commercial/industrial locations increased in 201213.

The greatest proportion of laboratories continue to be addict-based; however, the proportion attributed to laboratories of other sizes almost doubled in 201213.

While the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border decreased in 201213, the number of detections increased and is

the highest reported in the last decade.

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INTRODUCTION

INITIATIVES

The leading drug policy document in Australia is the National Drug Strategy 20102015.

A number of key amendments were recently made to the Criminal Code Act 1995 to strengthen the serious drug offences framework.

The Australian Government is considering options to strengthen existing border controls to prohibit the importation of new psychoactive substances and is working

with states and territories to address the domestic manufacture, supply and

advertising of these substances.


crystal methylamphetamine hydrochloride ice

23




KEY POINTS The number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian

border increased in 201213 and are the highest on record.

The number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased this reporting period, with the 4 139 detections in 201213 the highest number on record.

Drug profiling data indicates that the majority of analysed methylamphetamine seizures are primarily manufactured from ephedrine/psuedoephedrine.

The number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 201213 and are the highest on record.

The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase, with the 22 189 arrests in 201213 the highest on record.

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Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) stimulate the central nervous system and speed up messages travelling between the brain and the rest of the body. Made in illegal clandestine laboratories (commonly referred to as clan labs), ATS pose a serious health risk to users due to their unknown content and purity. Drugs within the ATS group include amphetamine, methylamphetamine and phenethylamines (ADF 2013a; APAIC 2009). A list of common ATS used in Australia is outlined in Table 1.

TABLE 1: ATS used in Australia

Drug type Common names FormsMethod of administration

Amphetamine Speed, whiz, uppers, goey, louee, dexies, pep pills

White, yellow, pink or brown powder, paste

Oral, intranasal, injection, anala

Dexamphetamineb

(amphetamine dextro isomer in a pharmaceutical preparation)

Dexies, D-amp, dex White, round tablets that can have the marking D5

Oral, intranasal, injections, anala

Methylamphetamine (general term, frequently cut or diluted form of methylamphetamine hydrochloride salt)

Meth, speed, whiz, fast, uppers, goey, louee, Lou Reedc, rabbitc, tailc, pep pills; in paste form can be referred to as base, pure or wax; in liquid form can be referred to as ox blood, leopards blood, red speed or liquid red

White, yellow or brown powder, paste, tablets or a red liquid

Oral, intranasal, injection, anala

Methylamphetamine hydrochloride (crystalline form - uncut, undiluted)

Small crystal particle size known as crystal larger particle sizes known as ice; other terms include meth, d-meth, glass, crystal, batu, shabu (from the Philippines)

Crystallineresembles crushed ice, particle size variable

Smoking, intranasal, injection

MAIN FORMSAMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS

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Drug type Common names FormsMethod of administration

3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)

XTC, X, ecstasy, Adam, M&M, eccy, E, go, Scooby snacks, hug, beans

Tablet, powder, capsule, geltab (rare)

Oral, intranasal, smoking, injecting

3,4- methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA)

Eve Tablet Oral

3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) Love bug, crystal, P, window pane

Tablet Oral

N-methyl-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-butanamine (MBDB)

Eden Tablet Oral

Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA)d Death, Dr Death, Mitsubishi double

Tablet, powder Oral, intranasal, injecting (rare)

Paramethoxymethylamphetamine (PMMA)

PMMA Tablet Oral

4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine Nexus, 2-CB, bromo, TWOs

Tablet (Nexus), blotting paper, powder

Oral, intranasal

4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOB)

DOB, 4-bromo-DMA, bromo

Tablet, blotting paper

Oral

2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (DOM)

DOM, STP Tablet, blotting paper

Oral

4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA)

Flatliner, golden eagle

Tablet Oral

a. In tablet form, the drug can be inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid irritation to the users stomach, which commonly occurs when taken orally (also known as shafting or shelving).

b. Dexamphetamine (also known as dextroamphetamine sulphate) is sold in tablet form in Australia for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, in accordance with state and territory laws. It is also used illicitly.

c. Terminology noted in Queensland.d. PMA has stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.

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The most common forms of amphetamine are powder and tablets or capsules.

Methylamphetamine has four common formstablet, crystal, base (also referred to as paste) and powder (also referred to as speed)with powder the most common form used in Australia. Crystal methylamphetamine, often referred to as ice, is a highly purified form that is crystalline in appearance.1 Ice is generally heated and the vapours inhaled. It may also be injected after being dissolved in water (ADF 2013b; AIC 2011).

Due to slight structural differences, methylamphetamine produces a stronger nervous system response than amphetamine. Short-term effects of amphetamine and methylamphetamine use may include sweating, headaches, insomnia, anxiety and paranoia. High doses can result in blurred vision, hallucinations, tremors and stroke. Long-term use may result in severe dental problems, reduced immunity, high blood pressure, depression, impaired memory and concentration, deficits in motor skills, aggressive or violent behaviour, anxiety, cardiovascular problems and kidney failure (ADF 2013b; CAMH 2012; Jenner 2012).

Phenethylamines refer to a class of substances with psychoactive and stimulant effects which include 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and other similar substances. This report focuses on MDMA, which has a chemical structure similar to that of amphetamine. MDMA is a synthetic stimulant and is commonly referred to as ecstasy2 (EMCDDA 2013; NIDA 2012).

MDMA is most commonly sold in tablet form, featuring a characteristic impression or logo. Other forms include capsule, powder and crystal. MDMA is most commonly ingested, although it can also be snorted, inhaled or injected. Drugs purported to be MDMA may contain other substituted amphetamine derivatives, such as MDEA, MDA or a combination of synthetic hallucinogens and stimulants. As such, health risks associated with MDMA use are increased as the effects of tablets sold as MDMA are unpredictable and vary due to the unknown content (DoHA 2010; EMCDDA 2013; NIDA 2012).

Having stimulant and hallucinogenic effects, MDMA has a wide-range of physical and psychological health impacts. Short-term effects of MDMA use may include anxiety, panic attacks, increased blood pressure and convulsions. Long-term use may lead to long-lasting confusion, depression and memory and cognitive impairment (DoHA 2010; NSW Health 2012).

1 While the crystal form of methylamphetamine is typically of higher purity, appearance alone is not a reliable indicator of purity as purity levels may be influenced by a number of factors, including the adulterants used.

2 Ecstasy refers to tablets sold as MDMA, but which may contain a range of other substances and little to no MDMA.

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The ATS market continues to evolve and grow. Globally, it remains the second most widely used illicit drug after cannabis. In 2012, the World Customs Organization reported an increase in border detections of ATS in North America, Western Europe and the Middle East, with large quantities also detected in the Asia-Pacific region. During 2012, customs agencies reported a global increase in the number and weight of methylamphetamine and MDMA detections. The largest methylamphetamine border detections by weight were reported by customs agencies in Asia-Pacific, Western Europe and North America (WCO 2013).

Several South-East Asian countries have entrenched synthetic drug markets, with a number of them reporting the ongoing detection of ATS clandestine laboratories. In 2013, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported that methylamphetamine seizures in East and South-East Asia reached record levels in 2012. In Indonesia alone, the methylamphetamine market reportedly generates approximately US$1 billion in revenue each year (UNODC 2013b; UNODC 2013c).

According to UNODC reporting, in December 2012 the Indonesian National Police intercepted a Malaysian-led drug trafficking organisation and seized over 250 kilograms of crystalline methylamphetamine with an estimated market value of US$39 million (UNODC 2013b). The size of the ATS market in South-East Asia makes it an attractive target for international organised crime groups. West African and Iranian crime groups are active in moving ATS into South-East Asia, supplying significant quantities of methylamphetamine and MDMA, both for domestic consumption and transhipment to other international markets. According to open source reporting, Chinese and West African drug traffickers are using Cambodian international airports to move illicit drugs out of Cambodia (Phnom Penh Post 2013a). In August 2012, Cambodian Police seized more than 1 kilogram of MDMA and approximately 85 000 tablets of methylamphetamine that were being trafficked through Cambodia to Thailand (Phnom Penh Post 2013b).

INTERNATIONAL TRENDS


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Iran is a growing source of methylamphetamine destined for both domestic and international markets. Iran-based methylamphetamine trafficking networks have become leading domestic market suppliers, in addition to supplying user markets across the Middle East and Asia-Pacific region. The Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) reported that while Iranian seizures of opium and heroin have remained stable, seizures of methylamphetamine are increasing, with 2012 figures reportedly increasing elevenfold from 2008 to 2011 (BINLEA 2013a).

North America remains both a transit and a source region for methylamphetamine. According to open source reporting, in July 2012 Canadas Ontario Police detected three drug laboratories and seized 120 kilograms of methylamphetamine, 110 483 methylamphetamine tablets, 14 kilograms of methylamphetamine powder and CA$81 000 cash representing one of the largest drug seizures in Canadian history (Criger 2013).

According to BINLEA reporting, Mexico continues to produce large quantities of methylamphetamine, with an increasing number of clandestine laboratories detected. In 2012, the Government of Mexico seized over 30 tonnes of methylamphetamine and dismantled 267 methylamphetamine laboratories, compared with 227 in 2011 (BINLEA 2013b). According to open source reporting, the Mexican Navy seized 614 kilograms of methylamphetamine and 72 203 psychotropic tablets in operations targeting organised crime groups between 1 December 2012 and 31 July 2013 (Mexico City Milenio 2013). Mexico remains the primary source for methylamphetamine in the United States of America (US), with media reporting indicating that more than 80 per cent of the methylamphetamine seized in the US is manufactured in Mexico (Replogle 2013).

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AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATIONThe Australian Customs and Border Protection Service continues to detect amphetamine and methylamphetamine at the border. Apart from a number of large detections in sea cargo, the majority of detections in 201213 were in the postal stream, for amounts ranging from less than 1 gram to 9 kilograms.

In 201213, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased and are the highest on record (see Figure 1). The number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections increased 85.6 per cent this reporting period, from 1 077 in 201112 to 1 999 in 201213. The total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections increased by 515.8 per cent, from 347.3 kilograms in 201112 to 2 138.5 kilograms in 201213.

FIGURE 1: Number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, 200304 to 201213 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)

The increase in the weight of detected ATS (excluding MDMA) in 201213 is largely due to 3 large detections in sea cargo, which have a combined weight of 1 254.8 kilograms. By comparison, the top 3 detections during 201112 had a combined weight of 187.2 kilograms. Of the 1 999 detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in 201213, 112 were over 1 kilogram (5.6 per cent). These detections were predominantly of crystal methylamphetamine and methylamphetamine liquid.

DOMESTIC TRENDSAMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS

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The number of MDMA detections increased by 329.4 per cent this reporting period, from 964 in 201112 to 4 139 in 201213, the highest number on record. The total weight of MDMA detections increased by 1 143.3 per cent, from 12.0 kilograms in 201112 to 149.2 kilograms in 201213, the largest weight detected since 200708 (see Figure 2).

FIGURE 2: Number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, 200304 to 201213 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)

SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONSSignificant border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in 201213 include:

585 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in February 2013, declared as metabisulphite, via sea cargo from China to Sydney

363.8 kilograms3 of liquid methylamphetamine detected in April 2013, suspended in 96 bottles of carpet cleaning products, via sea cargo from China to Melbourne

306 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in July 2012, concealed in 3 200 terracotta pots, via sea cargo from Thailand to Sydney

75 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in May 2013, concealed in sofas and chairs, via sea cargo from China to Sydney

72.9 kilograms4 of liquid methylamphetamine detected in May 2013, concealed and suspended in shampoo and conditioner, via sea cargo from China to Sydney.

The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 1 402.7 kilograms and account for 65.1 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the Australian border in 201213.

3 The final weight of the liquid seizure is in kilograms as it represents the drugs final weight after being extracted from the suspension liquid and dried.

4 Ibid.

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Significant border detections of MDMA in 201213 include:

117 kilograms of MDMA detected in January 2013, extracted from a suspension in olive oil, via sea cargo from Spain to Sydney

397 grams of MDMA powder detected in May 2013, concealed between the pages of a magazine, via air cargo from Germany to Brisbane

268 grams of MDMA tablets detected in September 2012, concealed in candles, via international mail from Germany to Sydney

265 grams of MDMA crystals detected in April 2013, concealed in an external hard disc, via international mail from Germany to Sydney.

The 4 detections listed above have a combined weight of 117.9 kilograms and account for 79 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the Australian border in 201213.

IMPORTATION METHODSThe postal stream continues to account for the majority of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections by number, accounting for 86.1 per cent of detections in 201213 (see Figure 3). Detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in parcel post this reporting period were in crystal and powder form.

FIGURE 3: Number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 201213 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)

Two sea cargo detections made between February and April 2013 accounted for approximately 44 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected this reporting period. Despite being the prominent method of importation by number, the weight of parcel post detections remains low, accounting for 5.9 per cent of the weight of detections in 201213 (see Figure 4).

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FIGURE 4: Weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 201213 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)

Over the last decade, parcel post has accounted for over 80 per cent of the number of MDMA border detections. In 201213, parcel post accounted for 99.9 per cent of the number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, the highest percentage reported in the last decade (see Figure 5).

FIGURE 5: Number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 201213 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)

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MDMA parcel post detections weighed an average of 0.76 grams this reporting period, with the number of importations through this stream accounting for 21.1 per cent of the weight of border detections in 201213. Sea cargo detections accounted for 78.4 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the border this reporting period. A single detection of MDMA this reporting period weighed 117 kilograms and accounted for 78.4 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the Australian border in 201213 (see Figure 6).

FIGURE 6: Weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 201213 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)

EMBARKATION POINTSIn 201213, a total of 49 countries were identified as embarkation points for ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the Australian border, compared with 112 countries in 201112. China was the most significant embarkation point by weight this reporting period, accounting for 8 detections in the sea cargo stream, weighing a total of 1 224.6 kilograms. Prominent embarkation points by number and weight in 201213 were Thailand (43 detections, weighing a total of 313.9 kilograms), Hong Kong (96 detections, weighing a total of 224.1 kilograms) and Canada (520 detections, weighing a total of 74.3 kilograms). The combined total of these 3 embarkation points accounted for 42.5 per cent of the total number and 88.7 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border in 201213.

In 201213, a total of 33 countries were identified as embarkation points for MDMA detected at the Australian border, compared with 13 countries in 201112. By number, the Netherlands was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA, with 2 017 detections. By weight, Spain was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA detections at the Australian border, with 117 kilograms in 201213. Of the 33 embarkation points for MDMA in 201213, only 6 countries reported a total detection weight of more than 1 kilogram. These were Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium and Canada. These 6 embarkation points accounted for 96.3 per cent of the total number and 98.3 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border in 201213.

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DRUG PROFILING The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates a forensic drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute which enables the identification of the synthetic route of synthesis for samples of methylamphetamine and MDMA submitted from seizures made at the Australian border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However, only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs is analysed or profiled.5

Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the border have been primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine (Eph/PSE). During 2012, 721 samples of methylamphetamine were submitted from 126 seizures, representing a total bulk weight of 1 172 kilograms. This is significantly higher than the 507 samples submitted from 99 seizures in 2011, which had a total bulk weight of 681 kilograms. This trend has continued, with the 99 seizures submitted for analysis in the first six months of 2013 representing a total bulk weight of 1 640 kilograms of methylamphetamine. In 2011, phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) was used in the production of approximately 236 kilograms (62.8 per cent) of the drug. In 2010, Eph/PSE was used in the production of approximately 83 kilograms (48.5 per cent) of the total bulk weight, while P2P was used in the production of approximately 3 kilograms (1.8 per cent) (see Table 2 and 3).

TABLE 2: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of analysed AFP border seizures classified by precursor, 2010-June 2013

YearSynthetic Route

Eph/PSE % P2P % Mixed/Unclassified %

JanJun 2013 74.6 25.4

2012 71.8 19.1 9.1

2011 56.8 13.6 29.6

2010 80.4 5.9 13.7

Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.

TABLE 3: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of total bulk weight of analysed AFP border seizures, 2010June 2013

YearSynthetic Route

Eph/PSE % P2P % Mixed/Unclassified %

JanJun 2013 83.8 16.2

2012 72.2 8.0

2011 35.6 62.8 1.6

2010 48.5 1.8 49.7


5 For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law enforcement resources or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples, such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable to chemical profiling.

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The Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project extends the routine drug profiling capabilities of law enforcement from seizures at the border to also include state and territory seizures involving heroin, methylamphetamine, MDMA, and more recently cocaine.6 This enables detection of similarities between supply routes into different jurisdictions; links between different criminal groups; as well as comparison of trends between jurisdictions, including importations seized and profiled from the border.

The period between 2010 and 2013, saw methylamphetamine ENIPID samples primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine (Eph/PSE) using phosphorus/iodine (P/I) routes, with quantities also made through the Emde method, reductive amination or Leuckart reaction using P2P. In 2011, 2012 and 2013, approximately 68 per cent, 86 per cent and 55 per cent respectively of profiled ENIPID samples contained methylamphetamine manufactured from Eph/PSE, with approximately 3 per cent, 5 per cent and 17 per cent respectively made through the reductive amination or Leuckart reaction, using P2P. This prevalence is also reflected in the number of seizures involving the respective precursors. This data suggests that domestically seized samples are slowly moving away from Eph/PSE based methods and towards those using P2P. This increase was also reflected in the number of cases involving P2P based routes (see Table 4 and 5).

TABLE 4: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional samples, classified by precursor, 20112013

Synthetic Route

Year Jurisdiction Eph/PSE % P2P % Mixed/ Unclassified % Total %

2013

NSW 36.4 5.9 8.8 51.1

NT 3.0 1.0 4.0

TAS 2.5 0.5 3.0

VIC 0.5 0.5

WA 13.3 9.9 18.2 41.4

Total 55.2 16.8 28.0 100

2012

ACT 4.7 4.7

NSW 38.2 0.6 6.2 45.0

NT 7.9 0.3 8.2

TAS 0.6 0.6

WA 34.4 4.4 2.7 41.5

Total 85.8 5.0 9.2 100

2011

NSW 13.7 0.9 2.4 17.0

NT 5.7 0.5 6.2

TAS 2.4 2.4

WA 46.0 1.9 26.5 74.4

Total 67.8 3.3 28.9 100

Note: This data set represents a total of 754 methylamphetamine samples. Due to a lack of available data, 60 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.

6 Profiling of cocaine samples under the ENIPID project commenced in late 2013 and therefore falls outside the reporting period.

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TABLE 5: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional cases, classified by precursor, 20112013

Synthetic Route

Year Jurisdiction Eph/PSE % P2P % Mixed/ Unclassified % Total %

2013

NSW 44.7 6.1 12.3 63.1

NT 3.5 1.8 5.3

TAS 2.7 0.9 3.6

VIC 0.9 0.9

WA 6.1 3.5 17.5 27.1

Total 57.0 10.5 32.5 100

2012

ACT 3.5 3.5

NSW 41.3 0.5 5.5 47.3

NT 11.4 0.5 11.9

TAS 1.0 1.0

WA 26.8 5.0 4.5 36.3

Total 84.0 5.5 10.5 100

2011

NSW 13.5 1.8 4.5 19.8

NT 8.1 1.0 9.1

TAS 4.5 4.5

WA 32.4 2.7 31.5 66.6

Total 58.5 5.5 36.0 100

Note: This data set represents a total of 754 methylamphetamine samples (426 cases). Due to a lack of available data, 60 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.

Of the 2010 and 2011 MDMA AFP border seizures amenable to profiling, the dominant synthetic route of manufacture was observed to be the reductive amination borohydride method, however, due to the relatively small number of seizures during these periods (15 in both 2010 and 2011) there are limitations to how far this data can be extrapolated with respect to the broader market. Throughout 2012 and the first six months of 2013, a significant increase in the number of MDMA seizures was observed, which also corresponded with a shift towards MDMA manufactured through the reductive amination platinum hydrogenation method (see Table 6).

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TABLE 6: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of analysed seizures, 2010June 2013

Reductive Amination

YearUnclassified

%Borohydride

%Platinum

Hydrogenation %Aluminium

Amalgam %Mixed/

Unclassified %

JanJun 2013 9.7 9.7 67.7 12.9

2012 14.0 8.0 70.0 8.0

2011 58.3 16.7 8.3 16.6

2010 66.7 22.2 11.1


MDMA produced via the reductive amination borohydride method comprised the highest proportion of the bulk weight profiled from 2010 to 2012. In 2012, 3 seizures all produced by this method accounted for approximately 96 per cent of the total bulk weight profiled for the period. The 2013 reporting period saw the largest seizure of MDMA since 2007, weighing approximately 117 kilograms. While profiling data on this seizure was not available at the time of writing, of the seizures that were profiled in the first six months of 2013, the reductive amination platinum hydrogenation method was used to manufacture the highest proportion of the total bulk weight, a shift from previous reporting periods (see Table 7).

TABLE 7: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of analysed bulk weight, 2010June 2013

Reductive Amination

YearUnclassified

%Borohydride

%Platinum

Hydrogenation %Aluminium

Amalgam %Mixed/

Unclassified %

JanJun 2013 3.2 1.9 94.9

2012 0.9 96.7 2.4

2011 70.6 26.6 2.0 0.8

2010 99.9 0.1

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TABLE 8: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional samples, 2011June 2013

Reductive Amination

Year JurisdictionUnclassified

%Aluminium

Amalgam %Borohydride

%Platinum

Hydrogenation %Total

%

JanJun 2013

NSW 14.6 12.2 36.6 63.4

NT 2.4 2.4

WA 2.4 26.8 5.0 34.2

Total 19.4 12.2 26.8 41.6 100

2012

ACT 2.7 1.3 1.3 5.3

NSW 10.7 14.7 16.0 24.0 65.4

NT 1.3 1.3 2.6

WA 5.4 9.3 12.0 26.7

Total 16.1 17.4 27.9 38.6 100

2011

NSW 15.4 15.4 30.8

NT 15.4 15.4 30.8

WA 30.8 7.6 38.4

Total 30.8 30.8 7.6 30.8 100

Note: This data set represents a total of 129 MDMA samples. Due to a lack of available data, 37 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.

TABLE 9: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional cases, 2011June 2013

Reductive Amination

Year JurisdictionUnclassified

%Aluminium

Amalgam %Borohydride

%Platinum

Hydrogenation %Mixed

%Total

%

JanJun 2013

NSW 16.7 13.3 40.1 3.3 73.4

NT 3.3 3.3

WA 3.3 13.3 6.7 23.3

Total 23.3 13.3 13.3 46.8 3.3 100

2012

ACT 1.9 1.9 3.8

NSW 9.6 13.5 15.4 21.2 9.6 69.3

NT 1.9 1.9 3.8

WA 1.9 9.6 11.6 23.1

Total 11.5 15.4 26.9 34.7 11.5 100

2011

NSW 25.0 25.0 50.0

NT 12.5 12.5 25.0

WA 12.5 12.5 25.0

Total 25.0 12.5 12.5 37.5 12.5 100

Note: This data set represents a total of 129 MDMA samples (90 cases). Due to a lack of available data, 37 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date. Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.

See the Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter for information regarding the route of ATS manufacture identified in detected domestic clandestine laboratories.

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Of the 757 clandestine laboratories detected in 201213, the majority were identified as producing ATS (excluding MDMA). The number of MDMA laboratories detected this reporting period increased, from 2 in 201112 to 7 in 201213 (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter).

According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 7.0 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using amphetamine/methylamphetamine at least once in their lifetime. In the same 2010 survey, 2.1 per cent reported recent7 amphetamine/methylamphetamine use (AIHW 2011).

In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting the recent8 use of any form of methylamphetamine increased, from 66 per cent in 2011 to 68 per cent in 2012. Recent methylamphetamine users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using methylamphetamine a median of 22 days in the six months preceding interview, the highest reported since 2007. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of methylamphetamine decreased to 66 per cent, with the reported median days of methylamphetamine use in the six months preceding interview increasing to 24 days.

Within this user population, the proportion of respondents reporting recent crystal methylamphetamine use increased, from 45 per cent in 2011 to 54 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent crystal methylamphetamine use increased to 55 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of methylamphetamine powder (speed) decreased, from 44 per cent in 2011 to 40 per cent in 2012, with early findings of the 2013 study indicating this has decreased to 34 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of base decreased from 21 per cent in 2011 to 18 per cent in 2012. Early findings of the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 13 per cent (see Figure 7) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).

7 In the NDSHS, recent use refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.8 The term recent use in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in the

six months preceding interview.

DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS


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FIGURE 7: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent use of speed, base and crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)

a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.

In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting methylamphetamine as their drug of choice increased, from 20 per cent in 2011 to 21 per cent in 2012. For any form of methylamphetamine, injection (65 per cent) was the most common method of administration, followed by smoking at 19 per cent and swallowing at 8 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013).

The prevalence of ecstasy use in the regular injecting drug user population decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 12 per cent in 2012. Swallowing was the most common method of administration reported within this user population (Stafford & Burns 2013).9

In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of one or more forms of methylamphetamine increased, from 60 per cent in 2011 to 61 per cent in 2012, the highest reported since 2008. Powder (speed) remains the most common form of methylamphetamine used, followed by crystal and base. For any form of methylamphetamine, swallowing (76 per cent) was the most common method of administration, followed by smoking at 46 per cent and snorting at 28 per cent. Recent users of any form of methylamphetamine within this drug user population reported using methylamphetamine a median of 6 days in the six months preceding interview, which has remained stable since 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of any form of methylamphetamine decreased to 50 per cent, with the reported median days of methylamphetamine use in the six months preceding interview decreasing to 4 days (see Figure 8) (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).

9 The IDRS is not designed to monitor trends in ecstasy and related drug use as the frequency and prevalence of use in people who inject drugs is low.

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FIGURE 8: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting the recent use of speed, base and crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)

a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.

In the regular ecstasy user population, the proportion of respondents reporting methylamphetamine powder as their drug of choice decreased, from 5 per cent in 2011 to 4 per cent in 2012, followed by crystal methylamphetamine at 3 per cent and base at

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Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey is based on the combined reporting of amphetamine and methylamphetamine use in the 12 months preceding interview and is referred to as amphetamines use. In 201213, the proportion of detainees testing positive11 for amphetamine12 increased from 24.9 per cent in 201112 to 27.3 per cent in 201213, the highest reported since 200607, but lower than figures reported between 200304 and 200607. The proportion of detainees testing positive for methylamphetamine also increased, from 23.4 per cent in 201112 to 25.9 per cent in 201213.13 The proportion of detainees testing positive for amphetamines is higher than the proportion of detainees testing positive for heroin, cocaine, opiates, benzodiazepines and MDMA. Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) statistics indicate a high proportion of detainees testing positive for amphetamines over the past decade, with the self-reported use of amphetamines increasing from 37.4 per cent in 201112 to 39.7 per cent in 201213 (see Figure 9).

FIGURE 9: National proportion of detainees testing positivea for amphetamine/methylamphetamine compared with self-reported use, 200304 to 201213b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)

a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.b. Figures reported for 201213 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.

In regards to MDMA use, the proportion of detainees testing positive for MDMA increased, from 0.8 per cent in 201112 to 1.36 per cent in 201213, the highest percentage reported since 200809. Self-reported use of MDMA increased from 11.06 per cent in 201112 to 13.39 per cent in 201213, the highest percentage reported since 200910 (see Figure 10).

11 Amphetamines and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 14 days after use (Makkai 2000).12 Results for all amphetamine types including MDMA, methylamphetamine.13 It should be noted that following administration, methylamphetamine is metabolised into amphetamine, which could

account for the high proportion of positive amphetamine results in urine testing.

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FIGURE 10: National proportion of detainees testing positivea for MDMA compared with self-reported use, 200304 to 201213b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)

a. Urine was collected in one site only during the fourth quarter of 2012.b. Figures reported for 201213 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.

PRICENationally, the price of a gram of amphetamine remained stable in 201213, ranging between $150 and $800. The Northern Territory reported the highest price for a gram of amphetamine this reporting period, which ranged between $600 and $800.

In Australia, the price for non-crystal methylamphetamine is generally lower than crystal methylamphetamine. There has been no change in the national price range for a gram of non-crystal methylamphetamine, which ranged between $70 and $900 in 201213. New South Wales and Victoria were the only two states to report the price of a kilogram of non-crystal methylamphetamine this reporting period. The prices remained stable compared to the previous reporting period in these two states, in New South Wales the price ranged between $70 000 and $110 000, and in Victoria the price ranged between $100 000 and $120 000.

Nationally, the price for a gram of crystal methylamphetamine in 201112 ranged between $300 and $2 000, compared with between $400 and $1 600 in 201213. The Northern Territory reported the highest price for a gram of crystal methylamphetamine this reporting period, ranging between $1 200 and $1 600. New South Wales and Victoria were the only two states to report the price for one kilogram of crystal methylamphetamine. The prices remained relatively stable, ranging between $200 000 and $320 000 in 201213, compared with $200 000 and $330 000 in 201112.

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Nationally, the price range for a single MDMA tablet remained relatively stable, ranging between $20 and $50. New South Wales and Queensland reported the greatest price range for a single tablet, which ranged between $20 and $50 this reporting period.

PURITYFigure 11 illustrates the annual median purity of amphetamine14 over the last decade. Since 200304, the median purity of analysed amphetamine samples has fluctuated greatly, ranging between 0.4 per cent and 45.2 per cent. In 201213, the annual median purity ranged between 3.2 per cent in Queensland and 71.2 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia all reported a decrease in annual median purity this reporting period.

FIGURE 11: Annual median purity of amphetamine samples, 200304 to 201213

Figure 12 illustrates the median purity of analysed amphetamine samples on a quarterly basis in 201213. This reporting period, the quarterly median purity of amphetamine ranged from 0.3 per cent in Western Australia to 73.5 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory.

14 Amphetamine is a manufacturing by-product of some commonly used methods of methylamphetamine production. This can result in two separate purity figures for a single drug sampleone as methylamphetamine with considerable purity and another as amphetamine of low purity.

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FIGURE 12: Quarterly median purity of amphetamine samples, 201213

Figure 13 illustrates the annual median purity of methylamphetamine over the last decade. Since 200304, the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples has ranged from 4.4 per cent to 76.1 per cent. In 201213, every state and territory reported an increase in the median purity of methylamphetamine. Victoria reported the highest annual median purity of 76.1 per cent this reporting period, the highest median purity reported in the last decade.

FIGURE 13: Annual median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 200304 to 201213

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Figure 14 illustrates the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples on a quarterly basis in 201213. During this reporting period, the median purity of methylamphetamine samples ranged from 6.2 per cent in Tasmania to 78.8 per cent in Victoria. Tasmania reported the greatest fluctuation in quarterly median purity this reporting period, ranging from a low of 6.2 per cent in the third quarter of 2012 to 64.1 per cent in the first quarter of 2013.

FIGURE 14: Quarterly median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 201213

Figure 15 illustrates the annual median purity of phenethylamine samples over the last decade, the majority of which relate to MDMA. Since 200304, the annual median purity of analysed phenethylamine samples ranged from 6.8 per cent to 82.7 per cent. In 201213, the annual median purity of phenethylamine samples ranged from 14.3 per cent in South Australia to 82.7 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. Although minimal, Queensland and South Australia reported a decrease in the median purity of phenethylamine samples in 201213.

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FIGURE 15: Annual median purity of phenethylamine samples, 200304 to 201213

Figure 16 illustrates the median purity of analysed phenethylamine samples on a quarterly basis during 201213, the majority of which relate to MDMA. During this reporting period, the median purity of phenethylamine samples ranged from 12.9 per cent in South Australia to 82.7 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory.

FIGURE 16: Quarterly median purity of phenethylamine samples, 201213

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AVAILABILITYIn a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of methylamphetamine powder (speed), 89 per cent reported methylamphetamine as being easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 80 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 84 per cent. In the same study, 79 per cent of respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 74 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate that this has increased to 80 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy or very easy to obtain increased from 83 per cent in 2011 to 84 per cent in 2012, with early findings from the 2013 study indicating that this has increased to 88 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013).

In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of methylamphetamine powder (speed), 75 per cent reported powder as being easy or very easy to obtain, a decrease from the 87 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to 78 per cent. In the same 2012 study, 68 per cent of respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 61 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to 95 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy or very easy to obtain increased from 86 per cent in 2011 to 90 per cent in 2012, with early findings from the 2013 study indicating this has decreased to 88 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).

In the same 2012 study, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of ecstasy, 89 per cent reported ecstasy as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the 78 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 86 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).15

SEIZURES AND ARRESTSSince 200910, both the number and weight of national ATS seizures have continued to increase, with the number and weight of national ATS seizures in 201213 the highest on record (see Figure 17).

15 In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any psychostimulants. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting periods.

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FIGURE 17: National ATS seizures, by number and weight, 200304 to 201213

The number of national ATS seizures increased by 38.6 per cent this reporting period, from 15 191 in 201112 to 21 056 in 201213. The weight of national ATS seizures increased by 310.4 per cent, from 1 572.6 kilograms in 201112 to 6 453.7 kilograms in 201213. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number and weight of national ATS seizures, accounting for 41.6 per cent and 68.2 per cent respectively in 201213. Victoria reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of ATS seizures this reporting period, while New South Wales reported the greatest percentage increase in the weight of ATS seized (see Table 10).

TABLE 10: Number, weight and percentage change of national ATS seizures, 201112 and 201213

Number Weight (grams)

State/Territoryab 201112 201213 % change 201112 201112 % change

New South Wales 5 772 8 762 51.8 882 916 4 403 788 398.8

Victoria 1 394 2 422 73.7 580 063 1 850 879 219.1

Queensland 3 350 4 172 24.5 41 266 58 053 40.7

South Australia 539 346 -35.8 14 155 53 359 277.0

Western Australia 3 401 4 580 34.7 29 578 74 688 152.5

Tasmania 258 241 -6.6 4 683 5 199 11.0

Northern Territory 328 350 6.7 19 450 7 032 -63.8

Australian Capital Territory 149 183 22.8 517 738 42.7

Total 15 191 21 056 38.6 1 572 628 6 453 736 310.4

a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and phenethylamines groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter.

b. Includes seizures by state/territory police and the AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.

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Figure 18 illustrates the number of national ATS arrests since 200304. Over the last decade, ATS arrests have increased 131.3 per cent, from 9 593 in 200304 to 22 189 in 201213, the highest number of ATS arrests on record. In 201213, consumer offences accounted for 75.0 per cent of national ATS arrests. However, South Australia reported more ATS provider than consumer arrests in this reporting period.

FIGURE 18: Number of national ATS arrests, 200304 to 201213

The number of national ATS arrests increased by 31.9 per cent, from 16 828 in 201112 to 22 189 in 201213. Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reported a decrease in ATS arrests, while the Northern Territory reported the greatest percentage increase. Victoria accounted for the greatest number of national ATS arrests, followed by New South Wales and Queensland. These three states account for 79.4 per cent of national ATS arrests in 201213 (see Table 11).

TABLE 11: Number and percentage change of national ATS arrests, 201112 and 201213

State/Territoryab Arrests

% change201112 201213

New South Wales 4 451 5 905 32.7

Victoria 4 494 6 762 50.5

Queensland 4 188 4 941 18.0

South Australia 1 049 1 312 25.1

Western Australia 2 347 2 870 22.3

Tasmania 161 125 -22.4

Northern Territory 14 169 1 107.1

Australian Capital Territory 124 105 -15.3

Total 16 828 22 189 31.9

a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and phenethylamines groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter.

b. The arrest data for each state and territory includes Australian Federal Police data.

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During the past decade, the Australian drug market has seen a shift towards the use of synthetic substances such as ATS. Historically, the domestic methylamphetamine market has primarily been supplied by domestic manufacture, facilitated by the domestic diversion and importation of precursor chemicals. In addition to domestic production, the Australian ATS market is supplemented to an unknown extent by the importation of finished product.

Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the border have been primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine. Over this period, there has been an increase in the proportion of samples identified as being manufactured from phenyl-2-propanone (P2P). The predominance of methylamphetamine manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine and an increase in the samples manufactured from phenyl-2-propanone is also reflected in methylamphetamine profiled as part of the ENIPID project.

Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of MDMA seized at the border have indicated a shift from MDMA manufactured through the borohydride method towards MDMA manufactured using the platinum hydrogenation method. MDMA samples profiled as part of the ENIPID project since 2011 indicate the ongoing prominence of MDMA manufactured using the platinum hydrogenation method. Due to the relatively small number of seizures during these periods (particularly in 2010 and 2011) there are limitations to how far this data can be extrapolated with respect to the broader market.

In 201213, while the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors detected at the Australian border continued to increase, the weight of related detections decreased. Despite this decrease, over 1.7 tonnes of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors were detected at the Australian border this reporting period, the majority of which related to pseudoephedrine and ephedrine detections. There were 12 detections of MDMA precursors at the Australian border in 201213, the highest number of detections reported in the last decade. Of these, 7 related to safrole detections, which accounted for almost 100 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursors detected at the Australian border this reporting period (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter).

In 201213, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased and are the highest on record. The number of detections increased from 1 077 in 201112 to 1 999 in 201213, while the weight increased 515.8 per cent, from 347.3 kilograms in 201112 to 2 138.5 kilograms in 201213. Parcel post continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the greatest

NATIONAL IMPACTAMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS

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proportion of the weight of detections this reporting period. The number of embarkation points identified for ATS (excluding MDMA) decreased by 56.3 per cent this reporting period, from 112 countries 201112 to 49 countries in 201213. In 201213, Canada was the prominent embarkation point for ATS (excluding MDMA) detections by number, while China was the prominent embarkation point by weight.

In 201213, both the number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased, with the number of detections the highest on record. While the weight of MDMA border detections also increased, from 12 kilograms in 201112 to 149.2 kilograms in 201213, it remains low compared to weights detected earlier in the decade. Parcel post continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of detections this reporting period. The number of embarkation points identified for MDMA increased by 153.8 per cent this reporting period, from 13 countries 201112 to 33 countries in 201213. The Netherlands was the prominent embarkation point by number for MDMA detections at the Australian border in 201213, while Spain was the prominent embarkation point by weight.

Of the 757 clandestine laboratories detected nationally this reporting period, 544 were producing ATS (excluding MDMA), a decrease from the 552 laboratories detected in 201112. While the number of laboratories identified as producing MDMA increased, from 2 in 201112 to 7 in 201213, it remains lower than the 16 detected in 201011 (see Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter).

ATS remain the second most widely used illicit drug in Australia and continue to account for a significant proportion of illicit drug seizures and arrests. Both the number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 201213 and are the highest on record. The number of national ATS seizures increased, from 15 191 in 201112 to 21 056 in 201213, while the weight of ATS seized increased from 1 572.6 kilograms in 201112 to 6 453.7 kilograms in 201213. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national seizures, accounting for 41.6 per cent of the number and 68.2 per cent of the weight of seizures this reporting period. The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase in 201213, with the 22 189 arrests this reporting period the highest number on record. New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland continue to account for the greatest proportion of national ATS arrests, accounting for 79.4 per cent of arrests in 201213. Consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national ATS arrests, however, in 201213 South Australia reported more ATS provider arrests than consumer arrests.

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Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre (APAIC) 2009, ATS information, APAIC, Bangkok, viewed 19 August 2013, .

Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013a, Drug information: drug facts: amphetamines, ADF, Melbourne, viewed 19 August 2013, .

Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013b, Drug information: drug facts: ice, ADF, Melbourne, viewed 20 August 2013, .

Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) 2011, Amphetamines, AIC, Canberra, viewed 20 August 2013, .

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report, Drug statistics, no. 25, Cat. no. PHE 145, AIHW, Canberra.

Black, E, Dunn, M, Degenhardt, L, Campbell, G, George, J, Kinner, S, Mathews, A, Quinn, B, Roxburgh, A, Urbancic-Kenny, A and White, N 2008, Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2007: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS), Australian Drug Trends Series no. 10, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales.

Bureau of International Narcotics and

australian crime commission's illicit drug data report 2012-13

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