Author Biography

Prof. Dr. Ravindra Pogaku is a Professor ofChemical and Bioprocess Engineering atUniversity Malaysia Sabah. He is now the Directorfor Oil and Gas Engineering Studies and TrainingUnit at the School of Engineering and InformationTechnology, University Malaysia Sabah (UMS).Pogaku Ravindra’s work has appeared in more than200 publications and 4 patents in ISI/SCI/Scopusjournals. He has published eight books, six bookchapters and edited two scientific books. Prof.Pogaku is also on the Editorial Board of several

international journals and has reviewed over 500 journal manuscripts for reputedinternational journals. He has delivered various keynotes, plenary lectures, andchaired the prestigious conferences, seminars, workshops, technical events bothnationally and internationally. He has been honored with senior membership ofAmerican Institute of Chemical Engineers for his credentials in the field of chemicaland bioprocess engineering. He was a Visiting Scientist at Cornell University. Hewas UNESCO consultant. Prof. Ravindra is bestowed with the distinguishedChemical Engineer Award from the Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers, India.He has been recognized with Excellence Award consecutively for the last three yearsfrom the University Malaysia Sabah. Prof. Pogaku Ravindra is awarded with goldand silver medals for his research contribution for bioprocess industry at Geneva andMalaysia.

Prof. Dr. Ravindra PogakuProfessor of Chemical and Bioprocess Engineering

UNESCO energy consultant; Editor in Chief BMBRDirector Oil and Gas Engineering Studies and Training Unit

Phone: 088-320533/320000 (ext 3661)Fax: 088-320539/320348

Email: ravindra@ums.edu.my or dr_ravindra@hotmail.com

R. Pogaku et al. (eds.), Developments in Sustainable Chemicaland Bioprocess Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-6208-8,� Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

409

Prof. Dr. Awang Bono

Awang Bono (BSc., PhD.) is a Separation Science and Technology Professor atUniversiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). Prof. Bono completed his PhD work fromChemical Engineering Department, University of Surrey, United Kingdom in 1986and has been involving in teaching, research as well as industry for more than 20years. To date, he has over 150 scientific publications. Currently, Prof. Bono isserving as a Deputy Dean at School of Engineering and Information Technology,UMS.

Associate Professor Dr. Chu Chi Ming

Christopher Chi-Ming Chu is the Head of Chemical Engineering Programme at theSchool of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sabah. He received his B.Sc. andPh.D. from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom. His main researchinterest is in thermal systems and currently works on chimney performanceenhancement using wire mesh and passive cooling systems. He is the Head ofThermal and Environment Group in the Material and Mineral Research Unit. Hehas published and reviewed international journal papers and conferences.

410 Author Biography

Index

AAbyssomicins, 204Acclimatization process, KRW

adaptation process, 63COD removal efficiency, 62–63genotype appearance, 63inoculums, 61microorganisms, 60sample analysis, 62SBR system, 61–62

Acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentationacidogenic phase, 35clostridia strains, 35POME, Clostridium acetobutylicum

ABE recovery, 40bacteria growth profiles, 38liquid–liquid extraction, 37–38microbes and media, 37pH and reducing sugar profiles, 38process and analysis, 37solvent productions, 39sterilized POME supernatant vs. sludge,

38–39product recovery, 36solventogenic phase, 35–36

Acetonitrile (MeCN), 152, 229, 243Acid rains, 296Acidic sodium chlorite treatment, 278, 278f,

279f, 280Acidified sodium chlorite, 272Acidogenesis, 4Acoustic cavitation, mechanical effect of, 251

solvent penetration and capillary effects,251

Actinomycetes, 204–205antibiotics, 204anticancer drug, 204

marine actinomycetes. See Marineactinomycetes

parameter study, 205Actinomycetes isolation agar (AIA), 205Activated carbon preparation, waste

rubber tireadsorption, 372chemical activation, ZnCl2

activation temperature, 375activation time, 375–376adsorption, 373ash content, 376impregnation ratio effect, 373, 375methodology, 373–374moisture content, 376morphological study, 376–377scanning electron microscopy, 374surface area analysis, 374, 377–378

2,4-dichlorophenol, 372recycling, 372

Adsorbents, 104, 119, 296adsorption of H2S by, 298–300batch adsorption studies, 120–121bleaching adsorbents, 303, 304characterization of, 297porous adsorbents, 304, 306

Aeromicrobium marinum, 204Algae, 174, 356Alginate, 132t, 160, 201

j-carrageenan/alginate matrix, 199, 202sodium alginate, 198, 200, 202

Alkali treatment, 272, 274, 275, 277f, 278f,279f, 280

purpose of, 356–357of seaweed, 357–358semi-refined and refined carrageenan, 356variation of KOH concentration, 359

R. Pogaku et al. (eds.), Developments in Sustainable Chemicaland Bioprocess Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-6208-8,� Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

411

Alkaloids, 228, 235a-amylase production

in batch cultures, 165–166of B. subtilis 168 (pKTH10), 166fcomparison of sulphonated PolyHIPE

(SPHPs), 167tin immobilized cultures, 165–166

of B. subtilis 168 (pKTH10), 165fin steady-state, 169

a-lactalbumin (a-lac), 154heat stability of, 155percentage denaturation of, 154f

comparison with b-lactoglobulin, 155f5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), in solid-state

fermentation, 174in tetrapyrrole compounds production, 174extraction and determination of, 176by Rhodopseudomonas palustris. See

Solid-state fermentation (SSF)kinetics of, 178t

Anaerobic digested sludge dewaterabilityanalytical methods, 13dual conditioning effect

capillary suction time, 13–14cation type effect, 15–16low molecular weight chitosan, 16

materials, 13polymer type and dosage, 14–15pre-treatment, 12sludge characteristion, 13sludge conditioning, 12sludge handling cost, 11–12

Anaerobic digestion, 12, 43, 296and colourants, 4–5of POME, 3organic matter reduction, 3–4

Anaerobically treated palm oil mill effluent(AnPOME)

coagulation/flocculation ofdecolourisation, 5Fenton process, 5metal coagulants and polymers, 6molasses wastewater, treatment of, 6sewage sludge, 6–7ultrafiltration of, 5

Antimicrobial activity studyCynodon dactylon crude extract, 233tCynodon dactylon EtOH- and EA

SPE-based extraction, 234tdisc diffusion bioassay, crude

extract, 231–232, 234McFarland standard, 231Mueller–Hinton Agar (MHA) medium,

231

extraction yield, 231thin-layer chromatographic (TLC)

bioassay, 231Artificially structured microbial consortia

(ASMC), 66Aspergillus niger, 230, 231, 350, 351

potato dextrose agar (PDA), 230potato dextrose broth (PDB), 230on surface of LDPE films, 352fthin-layer chromatographic bioassay

of, 232fAureoverticillatam, 204

BBacillus amyloliquefaciens a-amylase AmyQ,

165Bacillus cereus, 230, 233t, 234tBacillus sp., 63, 66Bacillus subtilis, 160, 230, 233t, 234tB. subtilis 168 (pKTH10) strain, 161, 165,

165f, 167tBaker’s yeast fermentation, dynamic

metabolism of, 220–221Batch process, 211–212

stages, 215Batch process modeling, 212–214

Arrhenius equation, 213schematic of, 213f

Batch productivity optimizationfor exothermic process, 212

b-1,3-glucanase, 288b-lactoglobulin (b-lg), 154

percentage denaturation of, 154fcomparison with a-lactalbumin, 155f

thermal denaturation of, 155Biodegradable plastics, 348–349Biodiesel production

biocatalyst for, 200from crude Jatropha curcas oil, 201fimmobilized lipase in, 201–202

Bioethanol productionfirst-generation biofuel, 130oil palm trunk (OPT) sap

ANOVA and model development,21–23

biomass preparation, 20characteristics, 19culture preparation and fermentation,

20–21face-centered CCD design layout, 21,

22graph-based discussion and model

validation, 23–24

412 Index

one-factor-at-a-time method, 20response surface methodology, 20statistical design of experiment method,

20pretreatment, 19–20seaweed

alkaline pre-treatment, 130–131fermentation, 131, 134pre-treatment reviews, 132–133saccharification pre-treatment, 130

Biofilms, 65–66biodegradability study, 350

results, 351–353formation of, 67for green packaging, starch-based,

348–349immobilization and, 68–69mechanical testing, 350

results, 350–351reactor and treatment system, 67–68sample preparation, 349

Biogas, 44, 45, 46, 297, 298biogas desulfurization, 296from manure digestion, 296and natural gas, 295–296sulfur capacity of fresh zeolite, 299, 299fH2S, 296, 299

Biological evolution theory, 214Bio-oil, 182

higher heating value (HHV), 184Karl Fischer titration (KFT) method, 184straw bio-oil and wood bio-oil, 185

DTG curves of, 186fTGA curves of, 185f

weight change of, 185Bio-oil production

Jatropha curcas, pyrolysisbio-oil yield, 84empirical correlations, 86experimental tests, 83materials, 82–83product characterisation, 85–86thermo-gravimetric analysis, 82

waste chicken fats, pyrolysisGC–MS and FTIR analysis, 75product yield, 75–76pyro-oil characterisation, 76–78raw materials, 74torrefied biomass, 74, 75ZSM-5 catalyst, 74–75

Black pepperbioactive compounds, solubility

of, 266–267pressure, 266, 267f

solvent temperature, 266, 267fdiffusion rate, 268diffusivity, 268–269extraction, 263mass transfer of, 267mass transfer rate in SC

period, 267–268Sarawak black peppers, 265SFE process of, 264solubility of, 266, 267f, 269transition time, 267

Bleaching, 303Bleaching clays, 303Bleaching earth, 304

calcinations of, 309natural bleaching earth (clay), 308–309porous characteristics of, 306, 306t

Bovine serum albumin (BSA), 53, 152, 154,163, 192, 193, 194, 289, 292

Bradford’s assay, 289Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) approach,

305analysis, 306–308model, 374surface area, 308, 309, 374, 376, 378

Buckwheat hulls, hemicellulose from, 251Burkholderia cepacia (B. cepacia) lipase, 198,

200, 201, 202

CCaprolactones, 204CO2 separation of PEI/PEG

CMS membranesgas permeation properties, 332–333materials, 330microstructure properties, 331–332morphological structure, 333, 334procedure, 331phenolic resin-derived carbon

membrane, 330Carbon membrane, 327

performance of, 323porous structure of, 322production of, 324

carbolite vertical furnace, 324Carbon molecular sieve (CMS) membranes

CO2 separation. See Pyrolysis soaking timeproperties, 330

Carrageenan, 133t, 160classification, 356colorimetric determination of, 253effect of ultrasonic wave amplitude on, 254extraction, 130, 131

Index 413

Carrageenan (cont.)functional group composition, KOH

3,6-anhydrogalactose content, 358, 362FTIR spectrum, 358–360galactose-4-sulphate, 361–362gel strength, 359methodology, 358sulphate content, 358–359

iota-carrageenan. See Iota-carrageenaniota-type carrageenan, 356j-carrageenan, 198, 200, 201j-carrageenan/alginate matrix, 199, 202kappa-type carrageenan, 356lambda carrageenan, 356standard kappa-carrageenan, 357at various amplitude, 255fat various temperatures, 254f

Cellulase production, 54EFB. See Solid-state fermentation (SSF)by GDX02, 55, 56in SSF, 52

Cellulose, 52, 242, 272acidic sodium chlorite treatment, 278, 279fbiofuel, 130content analysis, 273, 273tdelignification process, 272, 274–275

acidic sodium chlorite, 275LPO with iron catalyst, 275Organosolv, 275purity of cellulose, 279frange and level of factors for experi-

mental design, 275tdemand, 272extraction methods, optimization of,

281–282extraction process, 276tfitted models for, 276thigher purity of, 280hydrogen bonding in, 247liquid phase oxidation (LPO), 279–280production, effects on, 55purity cellulose of Organosolv, 277, 278f,

279fyield of acidic sodium chlorite, 280

Central composite design (CCD), 243Chinicomycins, 204Chitinases, 287

hevamine, 288Chitosan, 6, 12, 13, 14, 15f, 160

absorbents, 104anaerobic digested sludge dewaterability,

16effect of cation type on dual conditioning

of sludge, 15–16

Chlorophyll, 174, 307Claus process, 296Conversion determination coefficient, 244Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (bermuda), 228

broad-spectrum antibiotic compounds in,236

cardiac glycosides, 235collection, 229extraction, 229

susceptibility of gram-positive and -negative bacteria, 235

solid-phase extraction, 229with different solvents, 231textraction yield, 231separation of bioactive compounds by

TLC, 232fStrataTM-X 33 lm Polymeric Sorbent

reverse-phase (Phenomenex) car-tridges, 229

thin-layer chromatographic bioassay of,232f

DDarwin’s natural selection concept, 214Delignification processes, 272, 274, 277f, 278f,

279fby Design Expert software, 275, 276t

Design Expert software, 275, 340, 344v6.0.8, 243version 7.1.6, 21, 24

Design of experiment (DOE), 20, 21t, 82, 243Dielectrophoresis (DEP)

ASMC construction, utilitzation of wire-cloth for

analytical method, 68biofilms reactor and treatment system,

67–68COD, removal efficiency of, 69immobilization, 67medium, composition of, 67microorganisms, 66–67pH effect, 69–70wirecloth, 67

positive effect, 68use of, 66

Dietzia, 204Diffusion-controlled period (DC), 264

mass transfer rate and mass transfer coef-ficient for, 268t

Dimensionally stable anodes (DSAs), 90Divinylbenzene (DVB), 161D-optimal design, 275, 282

by Design Expert software, 275, 276t

414 Index

RSM, 340Drug-resistant pathogens, 228Dry adsorption process, 296

carbon-based materials, 296metal-based materials, 296polymeric materials, 296porous materials, 296

Dual-conditioning mechanism, 16anaerobic digested sludge dewaterability

capillary suction time, 13–14cation type effect, 15–16low molecular weight chitosan, 16

Dual-mode controller (DM), 212performance of, 216f

proposed DM, 217tDye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC), 313

components of, 314electrolyte, 316photoanode, 315photocathode, 316–317photosensitizer, 314–315

nonnatural-based DSSCs, type of counterelectrode for, 317t

performanceby different types of electrolytes, 317twith different thin films and thickness,

316tsimplified mechanism of, 314fand silicon-based solar cell, 313

EEco-composite materials, 242Eichhornia crassipes, 5Electrolyte, 93, 314, 314f, 316

concentration and removal %, 94ttype of counter-electrode for, 317t

Empty fruit bunch (EFB), 29, 175oil palm empty fruit bunch, 52. See also

Empty palm oil fruit bunch (EFB)under solid-state fermentation (SSF) pro-

cess, 174Empty palm oil fruit bunch (EFB)

cellulase production, Aspergillus sp.GDX02

b-glucosidase, 54biomass, effects of, 55carbon sources, 52EFB saccharification, 53, 56enzyme assay, 53enzyme extraction, 53fermentation process, 52initial moisture content, 55lignocellulose, 52

nitrogen source concentration, 55protein determination, 53xylanase activity, 54

composting processexperimental material, 29mesophilic bacterial consortium prepa-

ration, 29pH, 28, 30–32procedure, 29–30sampling and analysis, 30substrate moisture, 28, 30–31temperature, 28, 30, 32

incineration and mulching, 28Entrapped lipase, leakage of, 199, 200Environmental Quality Regulation 1996 by

Malaysian Government, 321Enzymatic devulcanization, 191Enzymes, 12, 160. See also Hydrolases

extraction, 53genetically modified microorganisms, 160industrial enzymes, SSF in, 52saccharification rate of GDX02 cellulase,

56various immobilization methods for, 198

Escherichia coli (E. coli), 134, 173, 174, 228,230, 233t, 234t

Ethanol, 37, 39, 47, 130, 193, 221concentration profiles of, 224f, 225C. dactylon crude extracts

antimicrobial activity of, 233textraction yield of, 231t

in disc diffusion bioassay (crude extract),231

fermentation process, 223GC SRI 8600C, 45in preparation samples for SEM analysis,

163–164from seaweed, 130

fermentation of, 131, 133t, 134separation of bioactive compounds from,

232fin thin-layer chromatographic bioassay,

230, 231, 232ftransesterification of crude JCO, 199

Eucheuma denticulatum, 250Extracted PKC cellulose, FTIR analysis of,

280–281, 281f, 282Extraction

and calcination, 305of C. dactylon, 229and determination of 5-aminolevulinic

acid, 176of enzyme, 53of hydrolases, 289, 290, 293

Index 415

Extraction (cont.)of iota-carrageenan, 254liquid–liquid extraction, 38–39solid-phase extraction, 229ultrasonic-assisted, 139ultrasound-assisted, 252–253yield, 231

of C. dactylon

FFe/Ti-NaY heterogeneous catalysts

advantages, 98catalyst preparation, 98–99decolorization efficiency

of Amaranth, 99–101drawbacks, 98fast charge carrier

recombination, 98sonocatalytic process, 99

Fed-batch application in industrial bioprocess,219–220

Ferric chloride, 6, 194Flash pyrolysis

bio-oil, 182oil production, 183

physicochemical properties, 184tFlavonoid microencapsulation, Orthosiphon

stamineuschemicals, 138–139field emission scanning electron

microscope, 140HPLC analysis, 139moisture content, 140, 141particle morphology, 142–143plant material, 139spray drying, 140total flavonoid content, 139–142ultrasonic-assisted extraction, 139WPI to maltodextrin ratio, 142

Flavonoids, 138, 143, 228, 235microencapsulation of, 143total content, 139–140, 141, 142f

Formaldehyde-based adhesives, 338Fossil fuels, 74, 81, 82, 295, 296Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)

spectroscopy (FTIR), 273, 357, 367carrageenan functional group composition,

358–360of semi-refined carrageenan at various

KOH concentrations, 359fof cellulose obtained from PKC

under different conditions, 281fof extracted PKC cellulose, 280

and GC–MS, waste chicken fat pyrolysis,75

MPA, PNIPA polymerizationband characteristics, 368–369, 369fmethodology, 368

Fresh palm kernel (Elaeisguineensis var. te-nera), 273

analysis of cellulose content and hemicel-lulose released, 273

isopropanol, 273Freundlich isotherm, 121, 122, 123f, 125, 376,

377, 378Fulvic acid-like substances, 4, 7

GGelatine, 160Gel-filtration chromatography (GFC), 291Gelidium amansii, 131, 132t, 133tGenetic algorithm (GA), 212

performance of, 216fproposed GA, 217t

Genetic algorithm modelling, 214–215chromosome, 214crossover operation, 215

Ginseng roots and cultured cells, saponinsfrom, 251

Glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP)material

mechanical property, 395properties, 395seawater and weathering degradation test,

395layup fabrication technique, 396mass gain and immersion period,

397–398microscopic examination, 398salinity etching effects, 397specimen preparation, 396water absorption and micrographic

tests, 396–397Global warming, 321, 329Glucose, 24, 29, 46, 52, 223, 244t

activity of b-glucosidase, 53, 55in Alaria crassifolia, 132tin batch fermentation of thermophilic

anaerobic sludge, 48fon beta-glucosidases, 56fconcentration profiles of, 224fcontent extraction, 242in Gelidium amansii, 132t, 133tin hydrogen production, 47in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 133ttotal content analysis, 243

416 Index

in Ulva pertusa, 132tyield, 53

Glycosides, 5, 228cardiac glycosides, 235

HHeme, 174Hemicellulose, 3, 4, 52, 84, 242, 247, 251,

272, 280analysis of hemicelluloses released, 273hemicellulose-free PKC fiber, 274, 281in raw POME, 36removal processes, 274, 275–276, 275t,

276t, 277f, 281talkali treatment, 274hot water treatment, 274range and level of factors for experi-

mental design, 275tregression analyses, 275

removal time (HRT), 275Hevamine, 288Hevea brasiliensis, 286

latex in, 287–288, 293purification of patatin-like protein from,

291lipid acyl hydrolase (LAH), 290screening for, 290f

Hevea Cathepsin G, 288Hexagonal mesoporous molecular sieves

(HMS) silica, 304BET analysis, 306–308bleaching and regeneration (solvent

extraction and calcination), 305characterization, 305DFT differential pore volume distribution,

307, 307fdosage of acid and ratio of bleaching

material, 307, 307tporous characteristics and bleaching earth,

306tregenerability of, 308–309SEM images of, 306fsynthesis of, 304–305

High internal phase (HIPE) route, 160, 161,164

Hollow fiber production, 323dope composition, 323tspinning conditions, 234t

Hot water treatment, 272, 274hemicellulose removal from PKC with,

277fin purity of cellulose, 279fin yield of cellulose, 278f

LPO with, 280Organosolv with, 280

Humic acid, 28, 112, 113, 116like substance, 7

Hydrochloric acid (HCl), 32, 108, 176, 242,274, 277, 289, 373

Tris–HCl, 291, 293H2S adsorption test, 297

adsorption by adsorbents, 297time duration between experiments

(TDBE), 297Hydrolases

extraction, 289, 290qualitation of purity by SDS-PAGE, 292

lipolytic acyl hydrolase (LAH) activity,292

quantitation of protein by Bradford’s Pro-tein Assay, 292

screening, 290–291lipid acyl hydrolase (LAH), 290, 290f

separation by SephacrylTM S-200 Gel Fil-tration, 291–292

elution pattern of, 291fskim latex serum, types of proteins

in, 287–288use in industries, 287

Hydrolysis, 163, 195, 199, 201, 395acid hydrolysis, 130, 132t, 134alkaline hydrolysis, 134anaerobic digestion mechanism, 4cationic hydrolysis products, 15, 16enzymatic hydrolysis, 130, 131, 132t, 134,

347hydrolases in, 287of plant fibre, 202treatment process, 243

IIB-00208, 204Immobilization methods for enzymes

adsorption, 198covalent binding, 198cross-linking, 198entrapment, 198

entrapped lipase, leakageof, 199, 200

of lipase, 198–199, 200lipase activity, 198

reusability, 199, 201transesterification process

parameters, 199Immobilization of lipase, 198–199

lipase activity, 198

Index 417

Immobilized B. subtilis cells. See also Immo-bilized cell technology

morphology of, 166–167Immobilized cell reactor, preparation of, 162Immobilized cell technology, 160

immobilized matrices for cell support, 160production of a-amylase by, 161

In vitro antimicrobial activity. See Cynodondactylon (L.) Pers. (bermuda)

Industrial enzymes, 160. See also a-amylaseproduction; Hydrolases; Skim latexserum

Interfacial polymerization (IP) techniqueBPA toxicity, 112methodology, 113polyamide membrane, 112polyester thin film composite membrane

performance testingcharacteristics, 113materials, 112–113membrane permeability study, 114–115NOM solution model, 113, 116salt and organic removal, 113–114salt rejection study, 115–116salt solutions, 113triethanolamine, 112

Interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs), 198Iota-carrageenan (i-carrageenan), 250

colorimetric determination of, 253correlation of solid–liquid mass transfer

coefficient, 257–260experimental and predicted mass

transfer coefficients, comparison,260f

Fick’s second law of unidirectionaldiffusion, 257

seaweed particles swelling diameter,258

solid–liquid mass transfer coefficient,259

effect of particle diameter on, 256–257at different diameter of seaweed parti-

cles, 256fequilibrium yield, 257fp and q values of, 257fseaweed particles swelling, 257f

effect of temperature on, 255–256at different temperatures of, 256f

extraction from seaweed, 251extraction yield, 254

effect of ultrasonic wave amplitude on,254–255

extraction time at different amplitudesof ultrasound, 255f

at various temperatures, 254fsolid–liquid mass transfer coefficient, 251ultrasonic waves, determination of ampli-

tude of, 253intensity of ultrasound, 253

ultrasound-assisted extraction, 252experimental apparatus used for, 252f

Iota-type carrageenan, 356Isopropanol, 161, 273

JJapanese Industrial Standard (JIS 5908-1994),

340Japanese Standard JIS8101, 273Jatropha curcas (J. curcas) oil (JCO),

197–198Jatropha curcas pressed cake

bio-oil production, 82empirical correlations, 86product characterisation, 85–86pyrolysis, 83yield, 84

physicochemical properties, 83t

KKaolin hollow tube microstructure

advantage, 381applications, 381k/p ratio effects

dry jet wet spinning, 383hydrodynamically unstable viscous fin-

gering, 386materials, 382powder characterization, 382, 384scanning electron microscope, 383–384SEM images, 385spinning solution preparation, 382–383spongelike structure, 386viscosity measurement, 383, 385–386

j-carrageenan, 198Kappa-type carrageenan, 356Kenaf, 242

2D contour plot and 3D response surface,246f

biomass, 245cellulose, 242glucose content extraction from, 242hemicelluloses, 242

418 Index

hydrogen bonding, 247hydrolysis treatment process, 243lignin, 242total glucose content analysis, 243

Kenaf-retting wastewater (KRW)acclimatization, activated sludge

adaptation process, 63COD removal efficiency, 62–63genotype appearance, 63inoculums, 61microorganisms, 60sample analysis, 62SBR system, 61–62

characteristics of, 61components, 59, 60

Klebsiella spp., 230, 233t, 234, 234tKuster’s agar (KUA), 205

LLambda carrageenan, 356Langmuir isotherm, 121, 122fLatex serum. See Skim latex serumLaticifers, 287Lead ion adsorption, activated carbon

adsorbent, 120aqueous solution, 120batch adsorption studies, 120–121isotherms

Freundlich isotherm, 121Langmuir isotherm, 121results, 122–123

kineticspseudo-first and second order models,

121results, 123–124

thermodynamicsenthalpy and entropy, 122Gibbs free energy, 122results, 124

Lignin, 4–5, 242, 272, 273tin palm kernel cake (PKC), 338removal process, 130

Lignocellulosic material, 242Lipid acyl hydrolase (LAH), 290, 290f, 292,

293Liquid phase oxidation (LPO), 272, 279–280

with alkali pretreatment, 281fLow-density polyethylene/tapioca starch-

based biofilm preparationbiodegradation analysis

fungi growth, 351–353methodology, 350

mechanical testingelongation at break, 350, 351methodology, 350polymer compatibility, 350–351tensile strength, 350, 351

sample preparation, 349Luria–Bertani medium, 161

MMaillard reaction, 5, 7Malaysia, 19, 28, 190

biodiesel production company, 82crude palm oil production in, 304palm oil mill industry in, 3

Maltodextrin, 153a-lac denaturation, 154b-lg denaturation, 155reducing protein denaturation, 156

Marine actinomycetes, 204–205growth, influence of

incubation temperature on, 207–208incubation time on, 209isolation media on, 206pH on, 206seasalt concentration on, 208

isolation from marine sponge, 207fMarine sponge, mesophyll part of, 205Marinophilus, 204Mass transfer, 267

rate, 268tMass transfer coefficients, 264–265, 268t, 269

correlation of solid–liquid efficient,257–260

Medicinal plants, 228Melamine–urea–formaldehyde resin, 338, 339Melanoidin, 4, 5, 7Membrane characterization

permeance P (in GPU), 324, 327fthermogravimetric analysis, 324

Membrane technology, in gas processing, 3223-Mercaptopropionic acid (MPA), PNIPA

polymerizationFourier transform infrared spectroscopy

band characteristics, 368–269methodology, 368

LCST of PNIPAmethodology, 368phase transition, 369

Methanogenesis, 4Micrococcus sp., 66Mixture. See Whey protein isolate (WPI)Multistep action (MSA) Q-learning, 222

Index 419

NNatural gas sweetening, 296Natural gas utilization, 322Natural rubber (cis-1,4-polyisoprene), 286

hevein, 288processing, 286–287proteins in, 287

N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm), 366NiTi alloy

advantages, 389–390applications, 389solid-state synthesis

methodology, 390Ni–Ti binary alloy system, 390primary and secondary reactions, 393SEM micrograph, 390, 391sintering, 391–393XRD spectra, 391, 392

N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), 323, 331,382, 383

OOil palm trunk (OPT) sap

bioethanol production, 22ANOVA and model development,

21–23biomass preparation, 20culture preparation and fermentation,

20–21face-centered CCD design layout, 21,

22graph-based discussion and model val-

idation, 23–24one-factor-at-a-time method, 20pretreatment, 19–20statistical design of experiment method,

20characteristics, 19

Oil-free PKC fiber (PKC), analysis of, 273,273t

One-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) method, 20Organosolv processes, 272, 274, 275t, 280

delignification, 276twith organic acids, 277, 278fpurity of cellulose using, 279f

Orthosiphon stamineus leavesbioactive compounds, 138flavonoid degradation, spray drying

chemicals, 138–139field emission scanning electron

microscope, 140HPLC analysis, 139methodology, 140

moisture content, 140, 141particle morphology, 142–143plant material, 139total flavonoid content, 139–142ultrasonic-assisted extraction, 139WPI to maltodextrin ratio, 142

Oxoid nutrient broth, 66

PPalm kernel cake (PKC), 272, 273, 338

alkali-pretreated PKC, 277, 280analysis of, 273textracted PKC cellulose, 280–281FTIR spectra of cellulose, 281fhemicellulose removal from, 277fhemicellulose-free fiber, 274hot water-pretreated PKC, 278, 280oil-free fiber. See Oil-free PKC fiber

(PKC), analysis ofpowder, preparation of, 339purity of cellulose PKC, 279utilization of, 339on water absorption of particleboard, 342

optimization of process factors withproperties of particleboard with, 344

on static bending test (MOE and MOR)of particleboard, 343–344

on thickness swelling of particleboard,343

Palm oil mill effluent (POME)ABE fermentation, Clostridium

acetobutylicumABE recovery, 40bacteria growth profiles, 38liquid–liquid extraction, 37–38microbes and media, 37pH and reducing sugar profiles, 38process and analysis, 37solvent productions, 39sterilized POME supernatant vs. sludge,

38–39anaerobic digester, 297anaerobic digestion and colourants

lignin, 4–5mechanism, 4melanoidin, 5tannins, 5

anaerobically treated, 4. See also Anaero-bically treated palm oil mill effluent(AnPOME)

characteristics, 36hazardous characteristics, 104hydraulic retention time, 104

420 Index

oil and solid separation, H3PO4 effectdegumming, 105emulsifying activities and viscosity,

105higher temperature effect, 106methodology, 105–106neutralization, 105oil flotation rate, 105–108

raw, 4thermophilic hydrogen production

analytical method, 45batch fermentation, 45, 47–48cultural conditions, 46–47fermentation substrate preparation, 44hydrogen yield and production rate,

45–46seed sludge preparation, 44serum bottle experiments, 45

Particle swelling, 251, 395, 398of seaweeds, 256, 257f, 258swelling behavior of particles, 259

Particleboard productionapplications, 338formaldehyde-based adhesives, 338palm kernel cake (PKC) filter

ANOVA results, 341–342experimental design, 340lipid in, 338MUF resin preparation, 339preparation of, 339process factor optimization, 344protein content, 338static bending test, 343–344thickness swelling of particleboard, 343water absorption, 342

production and characterization, 340production of, 338

Petroleum-based fuels, 242Phenol, 161

adsorption of, 273ring, 372

Phenolics, 228, 235phenolic compounds, 372

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)degumming process, 105neutralization, 105oil and solid separation, POME

degumming, 105emulsifying activities and viscosity,

105higher temperature effect, 106methodology, 105–106neutralization, 105

oil flotation rate, 105–108Photoanode, 313, 314, 315

material (size)/modification, 316tPhotocathode, 316–317, 317tPhotosensitizer, 314–315Photosynthetic bacteria, 174Plastics, 242, 338, 348–349

biodegradable plastics, 348, 349injection-moulded plastics, 348synthetic plastics, 348

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPA)applications, 366characterization, 368polymerization

chain transfer agent, 366–367FTIR, 367–369materials, 3673-MPA. See 3-Mercaptopropionic acid

(MPA), PNIPA polymerizationPNIPA synthesis, 367telomerization, 366UV–vis spectrophotometer, 367

synthesis, 366Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

characteristics, 90occupational exposures, 89oxidation, electrochemical process

anode effect, 92dimensionally stable anodes, 90electrochemical cell, 91electrode preparation, 91energy consumption (EC), 92, 95field emission scanning electron

microscopy, 91instantaneous current efficiency (ICE),

92, 95pH and electrolyte effect, 93–94selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode,

91Ti/SnO2 electrode structure, 92–93

Polyetherimide (PEI), 323CO2 separation. See Pyrolysis soaking timepolyethylene glycol (PEG) based CMS

membrane. See CO2 separation ofPEI/PEG CMS membranes

properties, 330Polyethylenimine, 66PolyHIPE (PHP) discs, 162, 163PolyHIPE (PHP) matrix, 160, 161, 163

polymer matrix, architecture of, 164characteristics of, 165t

sulphonated matrix. See Sulphonated PHPs(SPHPs)

Index 421

Polynomial regression model, 244Polyolefin, 348Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), 323, 326, 327,

332Potassium persulfate, 161Propionic acid bacteria, 174Protein denaturation, 138, 142, 152, 155, 156Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa),

228, 230, 232, 233t, 234, 234tPurification, 6

of active ingredients of plantmaterial, 250

of gases, 297of high value biomolecules, 366industrial water purification activities, 11methods for fermentation processes, 36partial purification of hydrolases protein,

291of seawater, 373steps on pooled fractions, 293

Pyrethrum flowers, pyrethrins from, 251Pyrolysis

Jatropha curcas, bio-oil productionbio-oil yield, 84empirical correlations, 86experimental tests, 83materials, 82–83product characterisation, 85–86thermo-gravimetric analysis, 82

waste chicken fats, bio-oil productionGC–MS and FTIR analysis, 75product yield, 75–76pyro-oil characterisation, 76–78raw materials, 74torrefied biomass, 74, 75ZSM-5 catalyst, 74–75

Pyrolysis centrifuge reactor (PCR), 182schematic diagram of, 182f

QQ-learning (QL) algorithm, 220, 221Q-learning-based controller, 222–223

for fed-batch yeast fermentation, 219–220baker’s yeast fermentation, dynamic

metabolism of, 220–221methodology, 221multistep action Q-learning, 222process flow diagram, 222f

Quantificationof a-amylase assays, 163of protein, 163of released cell numbers and cell dry

weight, 162–163

RRhodopseudomonas palustris (R. palustris),

174. See also Solid-state fermenta-tion (SSF)

cell growth determination, 176effect of initial pH, moisture content, and

incubation period on the productionof ALA, 177–178, 178t

Raw seaweed (Eucheuma denticulatum), 252,357

Recombinant plasmid pKTH10, 165Response surface methodology (RSM), 20,

275, 339D-optimal design, 275, 340RSM model, 21–23, 245t

Rhodococcus, 66, 204Rhodobacter capsulatus, 174Rhodobacter sphaeroides, 174Rubber waste, 190

SSabah sea area, 205fSaccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae), 20

in anaerobic fermentation, 131ethanol production, 131, 134fermentation efficiency of, 23fermented seaweed (Laminaria japonica)

waste hydrolysate, 134in seaweed fermentation, 133t

Salinibacterium, 204Salinispora, 204Salvia officinalis L., polysaccharides from, 251Sarawak black peppers, 265Scanning electron microscopy (SEM),

325–326determination of pore and interconnect size

by, 162of hollow fiber membranes, 325f

Seaweedsbioethanol production

alkaline pre-treatment, 130–131fermentation, 131, 134pre-treatment reviews, 132–133saccharification pre-treatment, 130

carrageenan. See Carrageenanclassification, 356micrograph, NiTi alloy synthesis, 390, 391SEM analysis, preparation of matrix sam-

ples for, 163–164Semi-refined carrageenan (SRC) production

alkali treatment, 356–357KOH treatment

FTIR spectrum, 358–360

422 Index

functional group composition, 358,360–362

methodology, 357–358seaweed preparation, 357

Semporna, 204, 205, 209Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) system,

61–62Simultaneous thermal analysis, 184Single gas permeability test, 324, 326–327Skim latex serum, 287. See also Hydrolases

biochemical analyses, 289dye-binding method of Bradford’s

assay, 289quantitation of activity by hydrolases

assay, 289chromatography gel formation, 289enzymes in, 288Hevea Cathepsin G, 288types of proteins in, 287–288

Solar crops dryer, chimney effectair flow rate, 146air velocity, 146burner capacity, 146design layout, 147methodology, 148modified and conventional chimney

estimated draft, 148mechanical system, 149simulation program, 149

transparent and drying bed area, 146Solar energy, 146

conversion, 318photocathode in, 316–317

Solar radiation, 146Solid-state fermentation (SSF), 174

advantages, 52cell growth determination, 176–177cellulase production, EFB

b-glucosidase, 54biomass, effects of, 55carbon sources, 52EFB saccharification, 53, 56enzyme assay, 53enzyme extraction, 53fermentation process, 52initial moisture content, 55lignocellulose, 52nitrogen source concentration, 55protein determination, 53xylanase activity, 54

empty fruit bunch (EFB) under, 174incubation periods, 176initial moisture contents, 176

in ALA production, 177, 177f

initial pH, 176in ALA production, 177, 177f

preparation of starter culture and, 175R. palustris NRRL-B4276, 175

Solubility-controlled period (SC), 264mass transfer rate and mass transfer coef-

ficient for, 268tSolwaraspora, 204Sorbitanmonooleate (Span 80), 161Sovova’s model, 264Soxhlet extractor, 305, 309, 339Soybeans, oil from, 251Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), 228, 230,

232, 233t, 234, 234tStarch casein agar (SCA), 205Starch-degrading bacterium, 160, 164Streptococcus pneumonia, 230, 231, 233t, 234tStreptococcus pyogenes, 230, 233t, 234tStreptomyces, 204Styrene, 161

divinylbenzene polyHIPEs, 165Sulfhydryl-disulfide interchange reactions, 155Sulphonated PHPs (SPHPs), 164

characteristics of, 165telectron micrograph of cross section of,

168fmicrostructure of, 164f

Sulphonated polyHIPE polymer matrix, prep-aration of, 161

Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), 161, 242Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), 263

of black pepper using CO2 as the solvent,264

and experimental procedure, 265equipment setup, 266f

Superoxide dismutase (SOD), 288Survival of the fittest, 214

TTannins, 4, 5, 7, 228, 235Terpenoids, 228, 235Test microorganisms, 230Tetrathionate hydrolase, 191

activity, 194–195assay, 193specific activity of, 195

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), 326–327,326f

experiments, 182, 185Thermophilic hydrogen production, POME

analytical method, 45batch fermentation, 45, 47–48cultural conditions, 46–47

Index 423

Thermophilic hydrogen production, POME(cont.)fermentation substrate preparation, 44hydrogen yield and production rate, 45–46seed sludge preparation, 44serum bottle experiments, 45

Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, 191cultivation of, 192growth of, absorbance at 440 nm, 194propagation of, 192secreted tetrathionate hydrolase by, 191

activity of enzyme, 194specific activity of, 195, 195fS4-intermediary pathway, 195

Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), 152, 153Trioxacarcins, 204Trypsin inhibitor, 287

UUltra-performance liquid chromatography

(UPLC) analysis, 152, 153, 154, 156for protein content in WPI, 154

Ultrasonication, 251, 255ultrasonic extraction, 254

of i-carrageenan, 260ultrasonic method, 191, 331ultrasonic waves, 253, 255, 259

amplitude, effect of, 254, 259ultrasonic-assisted extraction, 139ultrasonic-assisted technology, 250ultrasonicator, 256

Ultrasound (US). See also Ultrasonicationamplitude of, 255fexperimental apparatus used for, 252fextraction, 256, 257intensity of, 253, 254ultrasound-accelerated process, 98ultrasound-assisted extraction, 252–253waves, 97–98, 252

VVerrucosispora, 204Vinylpyridine, 161Vitamin B12, 174Vulcanized scrap tires, 190–191

devulcanization process, 191

optical density, 192protein assay, 192–193protein content determination,

192–193, 194tetrathionate hydrolase assay, 193, 194Thiobacillus ferrooxidans in, 191

safe recycling method, search for, 191

WWastewater treatment using wirecloth elec-

trode. See Dielectrophoresis (DEP)Whey protein isolate (WPI), 138, 152

thermal denaturation, 152whey proteins and maltodextrin mixture,

143WPI solution, preparation, 153

degree denaturation of, 154kinetic study design and heat treatment,

153UPLC analysis, 153

Williamsia maris, 204Woad seeds, oil from, 251

XXRD spectra, 392f

NiTi alloy synthesis, 391, 392

YYeast. See also Baker’s yeast fermentation,

dynamic metabolism of; Q-learn-ing-based controller

concentration profiles of, 224ffermentation process, dynamics of, 220

ZZeolites, 296

breakthrough sulfur capacity, 299–300,299f

chemical compositions of, 298tand H2S concentrations, time evolution of,

299tZSM-5 catalyst, 74–75

424 Index