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  • 8/8/2019 Automated Measurement Statistics and Calculation of Voltage and Current Harmonics

    1/8

    I E E ET r a n s a c t i o n so n P o w e rD e l iv e ry , Vo l .P W R D - 1 ,N o . 4 ,O c t o b e r1 9 8 6

    D E S I G NO F A S Y S T E MF O R A U J T O M AT E DM E A S U R E M E N TA ND S TATI ST IC SC A L C U L AT I O NOF V O LTA G EA NDC U R R E N TH A R M I O N I C S

    J . A . O r rM e m b e r ,I E E E

    D . C y g a n s k iM e m b e r ,I E E E

    A . F . E m a n u e lS e n i o r M e m b e r ,IEEE

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    W O R C E S T E RP O LY T E C H N I CI N S T I T U T E ,W O R C E S T E RM A 0 1 6 0 9

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    T h e d e s i g n an d o p e r a t i o n o f a p o r t a b l e , p e r s o n a lc o m p u t e r - b a s e ds y s t e m f o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t a n d p r o c e s s -i n g o f d a t a o n 6 0 H z . a n d h a r m o n i c cur ren t a n dv o l t a g e a m p l i t u d e s a n d p h a s e s , a n d f o r t h e product iono f s t a t i s t i c s a nd t i m e t r e n d s o n t h o s e q u a n t i t i e s i sd e s c r i b e d . O v e r t h e d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n i n t e r v a l , w h i c hm a y b e s e v e r a l d a y s i n l e n g t h , t h e s y s t e m c a l c u l a t e sa n d s to res f o r each s e le c te d h a rm o n ic f r e q u e n c y o fe a c h s e l e c t e d v o l t a g e or cur ren t c h a n n e l , s t a t i s t i c sc h o s e n f r o m a m o n g : M e a n , M e a n S q u a r e Va l u e , Va r i a n c e ,M a x i m u m ,

    M i n i m u m .T r e n d s i n

    c o m p o s i t eq u a n t i t i e ss u c h

    a s T e l e p h o n e Inf luence Fac tor a n d Tot al H ar mo ni c D i s -to r t ion m a y a l s o b e ca lcu la ted o v e r t h e i n t e r v a l .S a m p l e s o f t h e g r a p h i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c a lr e s u l t s a re i n c l u d e d .

    I N T R O D U C r I O N

    A s harmonic p r o d u c i n g l o a d s b e c o m em or e c om mo nont h e power network a n d as t h e y r e p r e s e n t l a r g e r f rac -t ions o f t h e t o t a l l o a d , t h e consequences o f t h er e s u l t i n g cur ren t a n d v o l t a g e d i s t o r t i o n s a re b e c o m i n gm o r e s i g n i f i c a n t . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e harmonics i t u a t i o n o n a g i v e n b u s a n d to p r e d i c t t h e e f f e c t s o ft h a t s i t u a t i o n , i t i s necessary to a c q u i r e a n d processd a t a on t h e h a r m o n i c s , a n d t o p r e s e n t t h a t d a t a i n a n

    e a s i l y c o m p r e h e n s i b l ef o r m . Previous work ( 1 - 5 1 h a s

    b e e n p r i m a r i l y t h e o r e t i c a l o r h a s r e p o r t e d resu l t s f o rp a r t i c u l a r h a r m o n i c - p r o d u c i n gl o a d s u s i n g r e l a t i v e l ye x p e n s i v e l a b o r a t o r y i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a d a p t e d t o t h ep u r p o s e . A n o n g o i n g s t u d y [ 6 1 i s g a t h e r i n g d a t a onr a d i a t e d i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e f r o m 6 0H z t o 3 0 M H z . S o m e b e g i n n i n gwork [ 7 - 9 ] h a s b e e nr e p o r t e d o n t e c h n i q u e s f o r d a t a reduc t ion a n d s t a t i s t -i c a l a n a l y s i s t o process t h e ra w d a t a i n t o convenien ta n d i m m e d i a t e l yu s a b l e f o r m .

    E x c e p t i n unusua l c a s e s , t h e c u r r e n t a n d v o l t a g eharmonics o n a b u s w i l l vary i n a m p l i t u d e a n d p h a s ea n g l e over t i m e . T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s a re a n a l o g o u s t ot h e 6 0 H z l o a d c u r r e n t a n d v o l t a g e var ia t ions over ad a i l y p e r i o d , b u t t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n m o r e r a p i d varia-t i o n s because o f t h e c o n t r o l l e d n a t u r e o f m a n y

    harmonic sources . F u r t h e r , i n d i v i d u a l harmonics c a n -no t b e a s s u m e d t o vary i n s y n c h r o n i s m . T h e r e f o r e , al a r g e number o f harmonics ( p o s s i b l y a s m a n y a s 5 0 )must o c c a s i o n a l l y b e s t u d i e d . I t i s c l e a r t h a t a n

    8 6 W N 1 9 8 - 6 A p a pe r r ec om m en d ed a n d approvedby t he I E E E P o w e r S y s t e m I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n & M e a s u r e -m e n t s Commit tee of t h e I E E E Power E n g i n e e r i n g Socie tyf o r p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e IEEE/PES 1 9 8 6 Wi n t e r M e e t i n g ,N e w Yo r k , N e w Yo r k , February 2 - 7 , 1 9 8 6 . Manuscr ip ts u b m i t t e d Augus t 2 9 , 1 9 8 5 ; made avai lab le f o r p r i n t i n gNovember 2 7 , 1 9 8 5

    accura te r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e harmonic s t a t e o f a b u sr eq ui r e s a c q u i s i t i o n o f much d a t a , a s wel l a s a no r g a n i z e d m e a n s o f p r o c e s s i n g a nd present ing t h ea c q u i r e d d a t a .

    T h i s p a p e r descr ibes t h e d e s i g n a n d opera t ion o fa p o r t a b l e , persona l computer-based s y s t e m f o r t h em e as ur em e nt a nd process ing o f d a t a on 6 0 H z a n d har-m o n i c cur ren t a n d v o l t a g e a m p l i t u d e s a n d p ha se s , a n df o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c s a n d t i m e t r e n d s ont h o s e quant i t i es . T h e s y s t e m wa s d e s i g n e d f o r us e i nt roubleshoot ing c a s e s o f h a r m o n i c s problems a n d f o rg a t h e r i n g d a t a on t h e p r e s e n t l e v e l o f harmonic"pol lu t ion" o n t h e p o w e r n e t w o r k . I t a l s o would b e o fu s e i n non-harmonic s i t u a t i o n s s u c h a s i n moni tor ingp o w e r f a c t o r variat ions, da i ly l o a d p r o f i l e s , a n d bal -ance among p h a s e s . T h e s y s t e m descr ibed here i sin tended t o b e more f l e x i b l e i n a p p l i c a t i o n t h a n c o n -vent iona l l i n e vol tage condi t ion moni tors a ndrecorders , a n d t o p r o c e s s d a t a i n r e a l t i m e s o t h a tus ef ul r es ul ts a r e i m m e d i a t e l yava i lab le i n t h e f i e l d .S i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s s y s t e m i n c l u d e t h ef o l l o w i n g : extens ive u s e o f s o f t w a r e r a t h e r thanh a r d w a r e t o i m p l e m e n t s i g n a l process ing f u n c t i o n s ;appl icab i l i ty t o a wide range o f measurements i n c l u d -i n g h a r m o n i c a n d 6 0 H z vol tage a n d c u r r e n t , a n dd a i l y t r e n d s ; on- l ine d a t a process ing a n d graphicsd i s p l a y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e e d f o r

    c e n t r a l i z e d , o f f - l i n ep r o c e s s i n g . A re la t ive ly l o w c o s t s y s t e m h a s beenach ieved b y u s e o f c o m m e r c i a l l y - a v a i l a b l ep e r s o n a lcomputer e q u i p m e n t a n d a minimum o f c u s t o m - b u i l th a r d w a r e .

    Precaut ions have been t a k e n i n t h e d e s i g n o f t h i ss y s t e m t o a v o i d s o u r c e s o f e r r o r common t o d i g i t a l ( a so p p o s e d t o c o n v e n t i o n a l a n a l o g ) f r e q u e n c y a n a l y s i st e c h n i q u e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e u s e o f four-polea n t i - a l i a s i n g f i l t e r s , a high reso lu t ion ( 1 2 b i t ) A / Dc o n v e r t e r , a n d p h a s e locked l o o p t o s y n c h r o n i z e s a m -p l i n g t o t h e i n p u t fundamenta l f requency ( n o m i n a l l y 6 0H z ) .

    S Y S T E MC A PA B I L I T I E S

    F o l l o w i n g i s a summary o f t h e var iab les a n ds t a t i s t i c s c a p a b l e o f be ing m e a s u r e d a nd ca lcu la tedd u r i n g d a t a r u n s . A d d i t i o n a l t y p e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n( s u c h a s e f f e c t s o n s p e c i f i c t y p e s o f e q u i p m e n t ) m a yb e d e r i v e d o f f - l i n e us ing t h e s e bas ic r e s u l t s .

    O v e r a per iod o f N h o u r s , divided i n t o subin te r-vals o f l e n g t h T s e c o n d s , t h e s y s t e m ca lcu la tes a n ds t o r e s f o r e a c h se lec ted harmonic f r e q u e n c y o f e a c hs e l e c t e d v o l t a g e o r c u r r e n t c h a n n e l , s t a t i s t i c ss e le ct e d f ro m a m o n g :

    M e a n ,M e a n S q u a r e Va l u e ,Va r i a n c e ,M a x i m u m ,M i n i m u m .

    0 8 8 5 - 8 9 7 7 / 8 6 / 1 0 0 0 - 0 0 2 3 $ 0 1 . 0 0 O 1 9 8 6I E E E

    Authorized licensed use limited to: University Colleges of Engineering. Downloaded on October 19, 2009 at 06:31 from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.

  • 8/8/2019 Automated Measurement Statistics and Calculation of Voltage and Current Harmonics

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    2 4

    C o m p o s i t eq u a n t i t i e s s u c h a s Telephone I n f l u e n c eFactor a n d Tota l h I a r m o n i cDis tor t ion m a y a l s o b e c a l -cu la ted o v e r t h e e n t i r e i n t e r v a l . The s y s t e m m a y a l s oc a l c u l a t e probabi l i ty d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f m a g n i t u d ea n d / o r p h a s e a n g l e a s h i s t o g r a m s , a n d j o i n t p r o b a b i l i -t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s r e l a t i n g v o l t a g e o r c u r r e n tm a g n i t u d e s o r a n g l e s o n d i f f e r e n t p h a s e s , a s

    3 - d i m e n s i o n a lh i s t o g r a m s .

    T h e a b ov eopt ions d e f i n e t h e r a n g e o f d a t a c o l -l e c t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s . M o r e d e t a i l s o f t h e d a t ap r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s a n d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o rt h e s t a t i s t i c s a r e presented i n t h e S y s t e m T e s tR e s u l t s s e c t i o n a n d i n t h e A p p e n d i x . P r a c t i c a l i m p l e -m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s wil l b e i l l u s t r a t e db e l o w.

    T h e measurement s y s t e m i s a l m o s t comple te lys o f t w a r e c o n t r o l l e d , a n d a m e n u - d r i v e n s e t u p a lgor i thmi n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e o p e r a t o r t o es tab l i sh t h e m e a s u r e -m e n t c o n d i t i o n s f o r a d a t a r u n . I t i s necessary t oc a r e f u l l y o r g a n i z e t h e s e t u p procedure b e c a u s e o f t h ef l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e s y s t e m a n d t h e l a r g e n u m b e r o f d a t aacquis i t ion o p t i o n s . O p t i o n s t o b e s e l e c t e d i n c l u d e :t r a n s d u c e r t y p e ( C T o r P T ) a nd r a t i o , i n p u t c h a n n e l su s e d , i n p u t g a i n , c u r r e n t s h u n t v a l u e , h a r m o n i e sd e s i r e d o n each c h a n n e l , s t a t i s t i c s d e s i r e d f o r e a c hh a r m o n i c o n e a c h c h a n n e l , t o t a l measurement t i m e , a n dt i m e reso lu t ion f o r e a c h d a t a p o i n t i n t h e m e a s u r e m e n ti n t e r v a l . T h i s s e t u p d a t a i s s t o r e d i n a d i s k f i l ef o r l a t e r re -use o r m o d i f i c a t i o n .

    I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o v e h a r m o n i c s t a t i s t i c s , at i m e d o m a i n waveform dis tor t ion c lass i f ica t ion a n ds t o r a g e s y s t e m i s p r o v i d e d . T h i s p r o d u c e s a d a t a b a s el i b r a r y o f m e a s u r e d v o l t a g e o r current w a v e f o r m s ,t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f o c c u r r e n c e , f o ru s e s r e q u i r i n g k n o w l e d g eo f a c t u a l cur ren t o r vol tagew a v e s h a p e s , s u c h a s p a r t i a l d i s c h a r g e a n a l y s i s .

    I N S T R U M E N T AT I O ND E S I G N

    M e a s u r e m e n tC a p a b i l i t i e s

    T h e d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n h a r d w a r e a n d i t s a s s o c i a t e ds o f t w a r e i s d e s i g n e d t o have t h e f o l l o w i n g charac-t e r i s t i c s :

    1 ) O n e t o s e v e n a n a l o g i n p u t c h a n n e l s , r e p r e s e n t i n ga n y c o m b i n a t i o no f cur ren t s a n d v o l t a g e s ( t y p i c a l l y 3p h a s e v o l t a g e s , 3 l i n e c u r r e n t s , a n d 1 n e u t r a l c u r -r e n t ) ;

    2 ) C u r r e n t a n d v o l t a g e m a g n i t u d eranges d e t e r m i n e db yt r a n s d u c e r s ( c u r r e n t a n d p o t e n t i a l t r a n s f o r m e r s ) ;

    3 ) A n a l o g v o l t a g e g a i n so f

    1 , 2 . 5 , 5 , 1 0 ,2 5 , 5 0

    s w i t c h - s e l e c t a b l e t o a c c o m m o d a t ed i f f e r i n g t r a n s d u c e ro u t p u t s . F u l l s c a l e t r a n s d u c e r o u t p u t ( i n c l u d i n ge f f e c t o f c u r r e n t s h u n t ) m u s t l i e i n t he r a n g e o f 0 . 1t o 1 0 vol t s t o a c h i e v e d e s i r e d a c c u r a c y .

    4 ) Maximuma m p l i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r o f on e p e t c e n to f f u l l s c a l e .

    5 ) M a x i m n u mp h a s e m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r o f i 2 d e g r e e s f o rf u n d a m e n t a l f r e q u e n c y t h r o u g h t h e f i f t e e n t h h a r m o n i c .

    6 ) T wo frequency r a n g e s w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g s a m p l i n gra tes are a v a i l a b l e : a l ow f r e q u e n c y r a n g e ( 6 0 t o1 0 0 0 Hz ) u s i n g 1 t o 7 c h a n n e l s , a n d a h i g h f r e q u e n c yr a n g e u s i n g 1 o r 2 c h a n n e l s .

    7 ) On t h e l o w f r e q u e n c y r a n g e , 3 2 s a m p l e s p e r c y c l eo f t h e 6 0 H z waveforms a re t a k e n ; on t h e h i g h f r e q u e n -c y r a n g e , 1 2 8 s a m p l e s p e r c y c l e a re t a k e n .

    H a r d w a r eD e s i g n

    T he d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h i si n s t r u m e n t a t i o nh a s b e e n g u i d e d b y s e v e r a l f a c t o r s :

    1 ) T h e n e e d f o r por tab i l i ty a n d e a s e o f u s e s o t h a tt h e s y s t e m ma y b e s e t u p a t a h a r m o n i c t r o u b l e s i t eeas i ly a n d q u i c k l y .

    2 ) The n e e d f o r u n a t t e n d e d opera t ion f o r p e r i o d s o fu p t o s e v e r a l d a y s .

    3 ) T h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f modera te c o s t .

    4 ) T h e n e e d f o r o n - s i t e , r e a l - t i m e d a t a r e d u c t i o n t op r o v i d e i m m e d i a t e l y u s e f u l r e s u l t s i n t h e f i e l d , a n dt o a v o i d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r c o l l e c t i n g u n w i e l d y a m o u n t so f r a w d a t a f o r l a t e r r e d u c t i o n .

    5 ) The n e e d f o r a d a p t i b i l i t y t o n ew harmonic m e a s u r e -m e n t t a s k s t o a v o i d o b s o l e s c e n c e .

    These f a c t o r s resu l ted i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f ag e n e r a l - p u r p o s e 1 6 bi t p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r as t h e c e n -t r a l p r o c e s s o r . S i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i sc l a s s o f d e v i c e s i n c l u d e : l o w c o s t , r e a d y a v a i l a b i l i -t y , s t a n d a r d i z e d i n t e r f a c e s , a n d s o f t w a r e ( l a n g u a g ec o m p i l e r s a n d g r a p h i c s o u t p u t ) a v a i l a b i l i t y . A n8 0 8 6 - b a s e d , I B MP C - c o m p a t i b l ec o m p u t e r w a s s e l e c t e d .T h e s y s t e m u s e d here s u p p o r t s f u l l 1 6 bi t d a t at r a n s f e r s , h a s a n 8 M H z c l o c k s p e e d , a n u m e r i cc o - p r o c e s s o r , a n d 6 4 0 X 4 0 0 g r a p h i c s r e s o l u t i o n . A l lo f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e i m p o r t a n t t o m e e t i n g t h eg o a l s o f rea l - t ime s i g n a l p r o c e s s i n g a n d i m m e d i a t ed i s p l a y o f t h e r e s u l t i n g s t a t i s t i c s .

    F i g . 1 s h ow s t h e f u n c t i o n a l i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n o ft h e m a j o r s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s . O n l y t h e a n a l o g s i g n a lc o n d i t i o n i n g i n t e r f a c e a n d t h e p h a s e - l o c k e dl o o p s y s -t e m r e q u i r e d c i rcu i t d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n . Thesea r e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w . P o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s v o l t a g e sa r e i s o l a t e d b y c u r r e n t a n d p o t e n t i a l t r a n s f o r m e r sf r o m t h e a n a l o g a n d d i g i t a l e l e c t r o n i c s . P o t e n t i a lt r a n s f o r m e r s with s t e p d o w nra t ios o f 4 0 : 1 a r e u s e d i nt h e p r o t o t y p e . T h e s e a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r 1 2 0 v o l tc i r c u i t s , a n d m a y e a s i l y b e rep laced by o t h e r P T ' s f o rh i g h e r v o l t a g e s . C l a m p - o n c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s f o rt h e r a n g e o f 0 t o 1 0 0 A a r e u s e d . T h e s e must b es h u n t e d u s i n g e i t h e r t h e s w i t c h a b l e s h u n t s i n t h ei n t e r f a c e uni t o r e x t e r n a l s h u n t s . T h e o v e r a l l l i n ec u r r e n t t o i n p u t v o l t a g e r a t i o p r o d u c e d b y t h e CT a n ds h u n t mus t be s u p p l i e d t o t h e d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n programf o r p r o p e r c a l i b r a t i o n .

    T h e reso lu t ion o f t h e A / D conver te r wa s s e l e c t e dt o m a i n t a i n a c c e p t a b l e p e r f o r m a n c eon l o w a m p l i t u d eh a r m o n i c s . T h e uant iza t ion noise p o w e r o f a n A / Dconver te r i s S / 1 2 where S i s t h e vol tage s t e p s i z e .S i n c e t h i s n o i s e p o w e r i s u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d overa l l f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e f r e q u e n c y d o m a i no u t p u t , t h enoise p o w e rp e r h ar mo ni c m a y b e f o u n d b y d i v i d i n g b yt h e n u m b e r o f d i s c r e t e f r e q u e n c i e s i n t h e o u t p u tt r a n s f o r m . This i s e q u a l t o N / 2 w h e r e N i s t h e numbero f s a m p l e s t a k e n b y t h e A / D conver te r. H e n c e t h eq u a n t i z a t i o n noise p o w e r a t a n y harmonic i s S 2 / 6 N .T he 1 2 bit A / D conver te r u s e d here mainta ins a t l e a s ta 2 0 d B s i g n a l to q u a n t i z a t i o n n o i s e rat io on harmonicmeasurements over a n i n p u t d y n a m i cr a n g e o f 2 0 0 0 : 1 ont he l o w f r e q u e n c yr a n g e a n d 4 0 0 0 : 1 o n t h e h i g h f r e -q u e n c y r a n g e .

    Seven i n d e p e n d e n t a n a l o g i n p u t c h a n n e l s a r ep r o v i d e d t o a c c o m m o d a t em e a s u r e m e n t o f v o l t a g e h a r m o n -i c s o n 3 p h a s e s a n d cur ren t harmonics o n 4 l i n e s ( 3p h a s e s a n d n e u t r a l ) . A l s o p r o v i d e d o n each c h a n n e la r e f o u r - p o l e active l o w p a s s f i l t e r s t o l i m i t t h e s i g -n a l b a n d w i d t h before s a m p l i n g . P l u g - i n c a p a c i t o r

    Authorized licensed use limited to: University Colleges of Engineering. Downloaded on October 19, 2009 at 06:31 from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.

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    3/8

    F i g . 1 F u n c t i o n a l a n d i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n d i a g r a m ofm a j o r s y s t e m components .

    p a c k s a r e provided s o tha t t he f i l t e r s m a y be opera tedin a w i d e b a n d ( 0 - 3 6 0 0 H z ) or n a r r o w b a n d ( 0 - 1 0 0 0

    H z )m o d e . The n a r r o w b a n d mode i s appropriate for t a k i n gd e t a i l e d magni tude a n d p h a s e m e a s u r e m e n t s on t he f i r s tth rough f i f t e e n t h h a r m o n i c s of 3 - p h a s e c u r r e n t s a n dvol tages w h i l e t he w i d e b a n d m o d e i s appropr ia te f o rana lys i s of h i g h f r e q u e n c y h a r m o n i c s ( a n d o t h e ri n t e r f e r e n c e ) across t h e e n t i r e voice f requency spec-t rum o n 1 o r 2 c u r r e n t or v o l t a g e c h a n n e l s .

    The purpose o f t h e phas e l ock loop ( P L L ) c i rcu i ti s t o s y n c h r o n i z e t h e s a m p l i n g r a t e o f t h e A / D con-v e r t e r t o t he f u n d a m e n t a l f r e q u e n c y o f t he powers y s t e m b e i n g m e a s u r e d . A n y devia t ion from an e x a c ti n t e g e r mul t ip le r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s a m p l i n g r a t e a n dpower l i n e f requency resu l t s i n errors i n t h e ca lcu-l a t e d h a r m o n i c spec t rum. T h e s e s p e c t r u m errors( r e f e r r e d t o as t h e Gibb ' s p h e n o m e n o n a nd t h e "p icke tfence e f f e c t " ) can b e qui te s i g n i f i c a n t even fo r s m a l ldevia t ions i n s a m p l i n g f r e q u e n c y , an d are p a r t i c u l a r l y

    2 5

    t r o u b l e s o m e i n a t t e m p t i n g t o m e a s u r e l o w - a m p l i t u d eh a r m o n i c s .

    A n y P LL s y s t e m c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e m a j o rc o m p o n e n t s : a v o l t a g e cont ro l led osc i l la tor ( V C O ) ,at w o - i n p u t p h a s e c o m p a r a t o r , a n d a l o w p a s s f i l t e r .T h e s e a r e connec ted i n a c l o s e d - l o o p f e e d b a c k ar range-m e n t s o t h a t a n e r r o r s ig na l g e ne r a t e d i n t h e p h a s ec o m p a r a t o r b y an y mismatch o f p h a s e ( o r f r e q u e n c y )b e t w e e n t h e i n c o m i n ga n d V C Os i g n a l s i s f i l t e r e d an dused t o a d j u s t t h e VCO f r e q u e n c y . I n t h e l o c k e d c o n -di t ion t h e n , t h e V C Op h a s e e x a c t l y matches t h e p h a s eo f t h e i n c o m i n g s i g n a l ( e x c e p t p o s s i b l y f o r a k n o w na n d c o n s t a n t p h a s e o f f s e t ) . N o t e t h a t s i n c e f r e q u e n c yi s t h e t i m e d e r i v a t i v e o f p h a s e , p h a s e l o c k i m p l i e sf r e q u e n c y l o c k . P L L ' s m a y b e i m p l e m e n t e don e i t h e r a na n a l o g o r a d i g i t a l b a s i s . I n t h e d i g i t a l case , t h ei n p u t s i g n a l i s s h a p e d ( o f t e n b y c l i p p i n g ) i n t o al o g i c - v a l u e d square wave , a n d t h e V C 0 g e n e r a t e s a s i m -i l a r s q u a r e w a v e r a t h e r t h a n a s i n e w a v e .

    T h e P LL used here i s o f t h e d i g i t a l f o r m a n de x t e n d s t h e bas ic c o n c e p t p r e s e n t e d a b o v e b y r a i s i n gt h e V C Oc e n t e r f r e q u e n c y t o 2 5 6 t i m e s t h e n o m i n a l l i n ef r e q u e n c y, a n d a d d i n g a d i v i d e b y 2 5 6 c i r c u i t b e t w e e nt h e V C Oo u t p u t a n d p h a s e c o m p a r a t o ri n p u t . T h e s y s t e mo p e r a t e s a s b e f o r e , b u t n o w w e d e r i v e a c l o c k f r e q u e n -cy o f 2 5 6 t i m e s t h e l i n e f r e q u e n c y , b u t e x a c t l ys y n c h r o n i z e dw i t h i t . T h i s c lock m a y b e u s e d d i r e c t l yt o t r i g g e r a n A / D conver te r r e s u l t i n g i n 2 5 6 s a m p l e spe r c y c l e o f t h e l i n e f r e q u e n c y , o r t h e c lock o u t p u tm a y b e d i v i d e d b y an y i n t e g e r i f f e w e r s a m p l e s pe rc y c l e a r e d e s i r e d . I n f a c t t h i s s y s t e m r e q u i r e se i t h e r 3 2 s a m p l e s per c y c l e i n t h e nar rowband m o d e( h a r m o n i c s1 - 1 5 ) or 1 28 s a m p l e s pe r c y c l e i n t h e w i d e -b a n d m o d e ( h a r m o n i c s 1 - 6 0 ) . T h e s y s t e m s o f t w a r ea d j u s t s t h e m u l t i p l e x e r a d d r e s s i n g t o p r o v i d e t h e c o r -r ec t number o f s a m p l e s i n e a c h case w i t h n o hardwarea d j u s t m e n t s .

    T h e p u l l - i n range o f t h e P L L i s f r o m 5 8 t o 6 2 H z ,w h i l e t h e t r a c k i n g range i s f r o m 5 2 t o 6 8 H z . T h i s i sa m p l e f o r commercial A C p o w e r s y s t e m s .

    I n p u t d a t a i s t a k e n d u r i n g 1 / 6 0 s e c . t i m e win-d o w s , s a m p l e d a t e i t h e r 3 2 o r 128 samples pe r 1 / 6 0s e c . , a n d q u a n t i z e d t o 4 0 9 6 l e v e l s . T h e r e p e t i t i o nr a t e o f t h e s e windows i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o fs t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e s s i n g reques ted i n t h e p a r t i c u l a rd a t a r u n . A t y p i c a l v a l u e i s approximate ly o n e d a t aw i n d o w pe r s e c o n d .

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    S o f t w a r e f o r t h e s y s t e m c o n s i s t s o f th ree p r i m a r yprograms: S E T U Pw h i c h a s s i s t s t h e user i n c o n f i g u r i n gt h e s y s t e m f o r a d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n r u n , A C Q U I R Ewhicha c t u a l l y acqui res

    t h e c u r r e n t a n d v o l t a g e d a t a an dp e r f o r m s rea l - t ime p r o c e s s i n g , a n d D I S P L AY w h i c ha c c e s s e s t h e s t o r e d s t a t i s t i c s f r o m A C Q U I R E ,fo rmatsa n d d i s p l a y s t h e m i n c o n v e n i e n t f o r m . A t t h e hear t o ft h e d a t a acquis i t ion s o f t w a r e i s t h e e f f i c i e n t sp l i trad ix F a s t F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r ma l g o r i t h m which p r o d u c e sh a r m o n i c a m p l i t u d e s a nd p h a s e a n g l e s f r o m t h e i n p u tt i m e d o m a i n d a t a .

    F o r normal s y s t e m u s e , t h e o p e r a t o r i s n otr e q u i r e d t o have a n y k n o w l e d g eo f t h e i n t e r n a l d e t a i l so f a n y o f t h e programs . H o w e v e r , t h e s y s t e m i sd e s i g n e d f o r a d a p t i b i l i t y t o n e w m e a s u r e m e n tt a s k s , i nwhich case s o m e r e p r o g r a m m i n g will b e n e e d e d . A l ls o f t w a r e i s w r i t t e n i n t h e PASCALl a n g u a g e . F i g . 2s h o w s a f l o w diagram o f t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t s o f t h eA C Q U I R Eprogram. I t i s s i m p l e i n c o n c e p t , b u t f a i r l yc o m p l e x i n rea l i ty b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e n u m b e r o fopt ions which must b e a c c o m o d a t e d .

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    F i g . 3 s h o w s a screen pr in tou t i l l u s t r a t i n g t h emanner i n w h i c h t h e p r o g r a m a s s i s t s t h e u s e r . T h i sd i s p l a y s u m m a r i z e s t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a p r o d u c e d i n t h e

    d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n p r o g r a m w i t h respec t t o a n a l o g c h a n -n e l s u s e d , h a r m o n i c s s t u d i e d , a n d s t a t i s t i c s ga thered .

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    To d e m o n s t r a t e a n d ver i fy t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h eh a r d w a r e a n d s o f t w a r e w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f t h em e a s u r e d v o l t a g e s a n d cur ren t s , a n e t w o r k o ft i m e- va r yi n g , h a r m on i c - p ro d u ci n g l o a d s was c o n s t r u c t e di n t h e l abora to ry. I t employs S C R ' s w h o s e f i r inga n g l e s are c o n t r o l l e d by a m i n i - c o m p u t e r so t h a t theyvary i n a p s e u d o - r a n d o m , b u t r e p e a t a b l e pa t te rn .C u r r e n t s a n d v o l t a g e s are m e a s u r e d us ing t h e s t a n d a r dt r a n s d u c e r s so t ha t a comple te s i m u l a t i o n of a c t u a lf i e l d condi t ions , bu t w i t h k n o w n " r a n d o m n e s s " i sc r e a t e d . T he s i m u l a t o r may be o p e r a t e d w i t h any com-b i n a t i o n o f one a n d t h r e e - p h a s e l o a d s , w i t hth ree -phase l o a d s o p e r a t i n g w i t h a n y a m o u n t o f u n b a l -

    F i g . 3 E x a m p l e o f CR T ou tpu t d i s p l a y i n g t y p e s o f s t a -t i s t i c a l d a t a ava i l ab le from a d a t a run f o rs pe ci f ic c ha n ne l s a n d h a r m o n i c f requenc ies .Ke y t o abbrev ia t ions : a : ampl i tude ( p wouldi n d i c a t e phase a n g l e ) ; V : vol tage ; I :cur ren t ; m : mean; m: m i n . a n d max.values; T H D : to ta l h a r m o n i c d i s to r t ion ; EPS:

    enve lope power s p e c t r u m ; I P S / P : in te rphases t a t i s t i c s on phase a n g l e .

    a n c e . T e n i n d e p e n d e n t l y v a r i a b l e c h a n n e l s area v a i l a b l e f o r c o n t r o l of f ir in g a ng le ( th ree c h a n n e l sare n e e d e d p e r t h r e e - p h a s e l oad ) . Te s t s r e p o r t e d h e r ewere p e r f o r m e d i n t h e s i n g l e - p h a s e m o d e .

    T h e e q u i p m e n t a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e h a r m o n i c t e s tg e n e r a t o r is s h o w n i n Fig . 4 . T h e compara to r a n ds t e p - d o w n t r a n s f o r m e r supp ly t o t he m i n i - c o m p u t e r adig i ta l s q u a r e wave s i g n a l s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e A Cl i n e vol tage waveform. U s i n g t h i s i n p u t , t h e outputSCR t rig ge r s igna l i s s y n c h r o n i z e d t o zero c r o s s i n g sof t h e A C vol tage . T h e output i s d e l i v e r e d a t T TLl o g i c l e v e l s vi a a 1 6 - b i t p a r a l l e l I / O p o r t , a n d b u f -f e r e d by inverters .

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    The PASCALc od e f o r t h e s i m u l a t o r c o n t a i n s f i v em a j o r f u n c t i o n s : r a n d o m n u m b e r g e n e r a t o r ; d i g i t a lf i l t e r t o a d d any d e s i r e d a m o u n t o f cor re la t ion a m o n gc h a n n e l s ; genera t ion o f f i r i n g t i m e s w i t h r e s p e c t t oA C v o l t a g e z e r o c r o s s i n g s f r o m t h e f i l t e r e d randomn u m b e r s ; s t o r a g e t o RA Mf o r f a s t r e c a l l ; o u t p u t v i a ad i g i t a l p a r a l l e l I / O p o r t .

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    i l l u s t r a t e di n t h e s e c t i o n o n w a v e s h a p e d a t a . E x a m p l e s o f t h em e a s u r e m e n t a n d d a t a r e d u c t i o n a n d presenta t ion c a p a -b i l i t i e s a re i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e s .D a t a were p r o d u c e du s i n g t h e p s e u d o - r a n d o mh a r m o n i c sg e n e r a t o r d e s c r i b e d a b o v e .

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    T i m e t rend plo ts o f h a r m o n i c a m p l i t u d e p r o v i d et h e m o s t b a s i c d a t a d i s p l a y c a p a b i l i t y . E a c h s t o r e da n d p l o t t e d p o i n t represen ts a n a v e r a g e o v e r t h e s a m -p l e d h a r m o n i c a m p l i t u d e s i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n gt i m ei n t e r v a l t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m a x i m u ma n d m i n i m u m valuesi n t h a t i n t e r v a l . F o r e x a m p l e , F i g . 5 i l l u s t r a t e sf u n d a m e n t a la n d

    t h i r d h a r m o n i c c u r r e n t a m p l i t u d e s f o ra 3 h o u r p e r i o d w i t h e a c h p o i n t r e p r e s e n t i n g 1 . 8m i n u t e a v e r a g e s Each 1 . 8 minute a v e r a g e i s f o r m e d f r o mm e a s u r e m e n t o f 2 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l c y c l e s . T h e o n l y b a s i cl i m i t on t i m e r e s o l u t i o n i s t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a s t o -r a g e . F o r m o s t p u r p o s e s i t i s n e i t h e r p r a c t i c a l n o rn e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e very h i g h t i m e r e s o l u t i o n ( l e s st h a n 1 m i n . ) on very l o n g ( o n t h e o r d e r o f d a y s ) d a t ar u n s .

    T o val ida te t h e A / D c o n v e r s i o n , F F T, a n d d a t ap r o c e s s i n g h a r d w a r e a nd s o f t w a r e , a t i m e t r e n d p l o tf r o m t h i s s y s t e m i s compared t o a p l o t produced on as t r i p c h a r t recorder us in g a n a n a l o g wave a n a l y z e r i nF i g . 6 . T he o n l y d i s c e r n i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s appear t ob e d u e t o t h e p h y s i c a l r e s p o n s e t i m e l i m i t a t i o n s o ft h e a n a l o g char t r e c o r d e r . I t should b e noted t h a tt h e a n a l o g sys tem i s only

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    Ti m e t r e n d d a t a are u s e f u l i n c o r r e l a t i n gobserved problems w i t h h a r m o n i c l eve l s , a n d f o r a i d i nu n d e r s t a n d i n g t he sources o f h a r m o n i c s . However,o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s such as h i s t o g r a m s or c u m u l a t i v eprobabi l i ty d i s t r i b u t i o n s more d i r e c t l y r e l a t e t o h a r -monic e f f e c t s such as t e l e p h o n e i n t e r f e r e n c e ,

    capac i to r fa i lu res , o r t r a n s f o r m e r overhea t ing . Thed a t a o f F i g . 5 are r e p e a t e d as h i s t o g r a m s i n Fig. 7 .O f t e n t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t i m e dur ing w h i c h a h a r m o n i ci s above some par t icu la r value i s s i g n f i c a n t ; t h i si n f o r m a t i o n may e a s i l y b e p r o d u c e d by n um e r ica li n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o g r a m d a t a t o produce c u m u l a -t i v e dis t r ibu t ion plo t s .

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    Fas t Four ie r Tr a n s f o r m ( F F T ) method o f f r e q u e n c y ana-l y s i s . I n s i n g l e phase s i tua t ions t h e m e a s u r e m e n ts y s t e m produces phase a n g l e h i s t o g r a m s of t h e samefo rm as t h e h a r m o n i c a m p l i t u d e h i s t o g r a m s p r e v i o u s l yd e s c r i b e d . However, such a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l fo rm i sn o t conven ien t t o d ep ic t p ha se a n g l e r e l a t i o n s amonga l l p h a s e s o f a convent iona l t h r e e - p h a s e s y s t e m . Fort h i s s i t u a t i o n a th ree-d imens iona l graph ics d i s p l a ywas d e v e l o p e d . C h o o s i n g phase A as t he r e f e r e n c e , t hex an d y d i r e c t i o n s o f t h i s 3 - D c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e mr e p r e s e n t phase a n g l e s o f p h a s e s B a n d C , respec t ive -l y , a n d t h e z d i r e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e number o foccurences o f each pa i r o f phase a n g l e s o f p h a s e s Ba n d C . Fo r e x a m p l e , t h e or ig in r e p r e s e n t s 0 0 o f p h a s es h i f t o f p h a s e s B a n d C w i t h r e s p e c t t o A . The c o l u m no f he igh t z=n l o c a t e d a t x=120 , y=-120 r e p r e s e n t s noccurences o f t h e s t a n d a r d f u n d a m e n t a l f r e q u e n c y p h a s er e l a t i o n s i n a t h r e e phase s y s t e m .

    F i g . 8 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s g r a p h i c a l d i s p l a y schemefo r t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a n d th i rd h a r m o n i c on a t h r e ephase s y s t e m . I n t h i s l abora tory s i t u a t i o n t h e vol-

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    K n o w l e d g e o f the t i m e v a r i a t i o n a n d s t a t i s t i c s o fharmonic p h a s e a n g l e s , on e i t h e r a s i n g l e - p h a s e ort h r e e - p h a s e bas i s , m a y be d e s i r a b l e i n s e v e r a l s i t u a -t i o n s . T h e s e i n c l u d e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t y p e a n dl o c a t i o n of h a r m o n i c s o u r c e s , i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f harmon-i c c a n c e l l a t i o n w i t h mul t ip le h a r m o n i c s o u r c e s , a n d

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    Time-Dependent S t a t i s t i c s

    The f o l l o w i n g s t a t i s t i c s a r e c a l c u l a t e d an dp r e s e n t e d versus t i m e o v e r t h e d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n in te r-v a l : m e a n , m e a n s q u a r e v a l u e , e x t r e m e s , v a r i a n c e .Each s t a t i s t i c i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e s p e c i f i e d subin-t e r v a l l e n g t h ( r e f e r r e d t o a s T seconds h e r e ) a n ds t o r e d . T h e comple te d a t a acquis i t ion per iod i sd i v i d e d in to M s u b i n t e r v a l s , s o t h a t t h e t o t a l obser-vation t i m e i s e q u a l t o M *T s e c o n d s . Stor ing t h e d a t ai n t h i s wa y e n a b l e s t i m e var ia t ions over t h e observa-t ion p e r i o d t o b e p r e s e n t e d .

    T h e m e a n f o r each sub in te rva l i s d e f i n e d a s :

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    where K m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e t a k e n dur ing e a c h s u b i n t e r v a la n d X n represen ts t h e r m s va lue o f t h e current o r vol-t a g e harmonic n f r o m each m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e m e a nsquare v a l u e i s c a l c u l a t e d s i m i l a r l y :

    X- l / K ( X n )i = l

    From t h e a b o v e va lues t h e variance a n d s t a n d a r d devia -t ion m a y b e f o u n d :

    [ g (- 2 ] 1 /2[x X - ( X n ) ]T h e maximum a n d minimum values a re e a s i l y f o u n d :

    X n m a x Max[ X n ] o v e r K m e a s u r e m e n t s

    X n m i n = M i n [X n] over K m e a s u r e m e n t s

    E a c h o f t h e a b o v e values i s s to red with r e s p e c tt o a n i n d e x r e p r e s e n t i n g t i m e from t h e b e g i n n i n g o ft h e o b s e r v a t i o n i n t e r v a l so t h a t a c t u a l c lock t i m e m a yb e a s s o c i a t e d with e a c h d a t a p o i n t .

    T i m e - I n d e p e n d e n tS t a t i s t i c s

    S a m p l e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s ( o f t e n r e f e r r e d

    t o as h i s t o g r a m s ) m a y b e p r o d u c e df o r a n y cur ren t o rv o l t a g e h a r m o n i c ove r t h e en t i re o b s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d .T h e y a re c a l c u l a t e d b y c r e a t i n g a n i n i t i a l l y e m p t yarray H n ( i )o f e l e m e n t s i n d e x e d b y i o v e r t h e rangefrom i = l t o i= L where each e l e m e n t indexed b y i i sa s s o c i a t e d with a r a n g e o f harmonic a m p l i t u d e s . I n d e xi = 1 i s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e smal les t a m p l i t u d e ( X m i n )

    which i s e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r , a n d i=L i s assoc ia ted w i t ht h e l a r g e s t ampl i tude ( X m a x ) . T h e a m p l i t u d e rangea s s o c i a t e d w i t h each e lement i s then ( X m a x- X m i n ) / L=D X a n d t h e ampl i tude o f t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r a n g e a t apar t icu la r i n d e x m a y b e found from

    X i= X m i n+ D X ( i 1 / 2 )The his togram s o f t w a r e o p e r a t e s by c o m p a r i n g eachm e a s u r e d value t o t h e ampl i tudes cor responding t o eachi n d e x , a n d increment ing t h e value s to red i n t h a ti n d e x e d loca t ion by o n e . O n comple t ion o f t h e obser-va t ion i n t e r v a l , t h e s u m o v e r a l l ar ray loca t ions i se q u a l t o t h e number o f m e a s u r e m e n t s , a n d e a c h l o c a t i o nc o n t a i n s t h e number o f occur rences o f t h e cor respond-i n g a m p l i t u d e r a n g e . H e n c e a probabi l i ty d is t r ibu t ionm a y b e o b t a i n e d by div id ing e a c h l o c a t i o n value by t h et o t a l number o f measurements .

    N o t e t h a t t h e m a x i m u m a n d m i n i m u m h i s t o g r a ma m p l i t u d e s must b e es tab l i shed a t s e t u p t i m e . I fl a rger o f s m a l l e r ac tua l values o c c u r , the i r va luescannot b e inc luded i n t h e his togram. To m o n i t o r t h e s ee v e n t s , a counte r i s i n c r e m e n t e d f o r each measurementwhich exceeds t h e his togram r a n g e . T h e his togram i s

    p l o t t e d a s a ba r gra ph w i t h bar he igh t represen t ingre la t ive f requency o f occurence o f each a m p l i t u d e .

    T h e his togram concep t m a y b e e x t e n d e d t o moret h a n o n e d i m e n s i o n t o i n d i c a t e t h e probabi l i ty re la -t ion b e t w e e n t w o ( o r m o r e ) v a r i a b l e s . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,i t i s of ten des i rab le t o compare q u a n t i t i e s among t h et h r e e p h a s e s o f a power b u s . T h e di rec t approachwould r e q u i r e a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l a r r a y , w i t h e a c he l e m e n t represen t ing a par t icu la r s e t o f a m p l i t u d e s( o r p h a s e a n g l e s ) a m o n g t h e t h r e e p h a se s . H o w e v e r , bynormal iza t ion o f t h e m e a s u r m e n t s t o o n e o f t h e phases ,t h e i m p o r t a n t informat ion on d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m t h a tp h a s e m a y b e s t o r e d i n a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l array w h i c hi s m o r e compac t a n d m o r e e a s i l y d i s p l a y e d . Rela t ivep h a s e a n g l e in format ion a m o n g p h a s e s A , B , a n d C i si m p o r t a n t i n e n g i n e e r i n g s t u d i e s a n d d i a g n o s i s o f har-monics p r o b l e m s ; t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e s e his togramsw i l l b e d e s c r i b e d .

    T h e p r o c e d u r e i s e x a c t l y a n a l o g o u s t o t h es i n g l e - v a r i a b l e c a s e . Phase A wil l b e c h o s e n a s t h ep h a s e t o which t h e o t h e r phase a n g l e s a re n o r m a l i z e d .A n ar ray H n ( i , j )i s u s e d , where i n d e x i r e f e r s t o t h ea n g l e o f p h a s e B n o r m a l i z e db y t h e a n g l e o f p h a s e A( 0 B - O A )a n d i n d e x j re fe r s t o t h e a n g l e o f p h a s e Cn o r m a l i z e d b y t h e a n g l e o f p h a s e A ( O C- 0 A ) . I n t h ecase o f p h a s e a n g l e s ( w h i c h r ange b e t w e e n - 1 8 0 a n d+ 1 8 0 d e g r e e s ) t h e r e i s n o o v e r f l o w p r o b l e m . F o r e a c hm e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e s e l e c t e d q u a n t i t y ( c u r r e n t o r v o l -t a g e o f a p a r t i c u l a r h a r m o n i c ) t h e p h a s e a n g l e onp h a s e A i s s u b t r a c t e d from t h e p h a s e a n g l e s o n p h a s e sB a n d C , a n d t h e i n d e x e s i a n d j c o r r e s p o n d i n gt o t h i sp a i r o f p h a s e s i s f o u n d . T h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e i n d e x e dl o c a t i o n i s t h e n i n c r e m e n t e db y one . T h e r e s u l t i n gh i s t o g r a m i s t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l , with two d i m e n s i o n sr e p r e s e n t i n g p h a s e s B a n d C , a n d t h e t h i r d d imens ionr e p r e s e n t i n g t he n u m b e r o f o c c u r r e n c e s o f e a c h n o r m a l -i z e d p h a s e a n g l e p a i r .