baby diapers and incontinence products

Prepared by:The Absorbent Hygiene Products Manufacturers Committee of EDANA

Sustainability Report:Baby diapers and incontinence products

Sustainability Report_ 2

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We are delighted to present EDANA’s first ever ‘Sustainability Report: Baby diapers and incontinence products’, an initiative of our Absorbent Hygiene Products ManufacturersCommittee’s (HAPCO) Environmental Task Force.

This report is a timely document, in line with both today’s global drive for increased sustainabledevelopment and our industry association’s mission ‘to create the foundation for sustainablegrowth of the nonwovens and associated industries through active promotion, education and dialogue’.

Composed of about 200 member companies, EDANA represents, amongst other sub-sectors, the entire supply chain of nonwovens and absorbent hygiene products. Nonwovens are uniqueengineered fabrics offering cost effective solutions for an ever-increasingly wide variety of applications, such as absorbent hygiene products, surgical gowns and drapes, protective suits andmasks, air, liquid and gas filtration, oil spillage products and geotextiles, to name but a few.

We believe this Sustainability Report clearly demonstrates the important role modern disposablebaby diapers and incontinence products play in terms of the three key pillars of sustainable development, namely social progress, responsibility for the environment and maintenance of highand stable levels of economic growth and employment.

There can be no question about the numerous benefits that baby diapers and incontinenceproducts bring to today’s society, in terms of improved quality of life, cleanliness, healthier skin,cost-effective convenience and, of utmost importance to incontinence sufferers, the additionalessential benefits of independence and dignity.

Member companies grouped within EDANA have, for many years, been at the forefront ofindustry environmental management, for example, with the publication of EnvironmentalGuidelines in the early 1990s, even before the introduction of the Eco-Management and AuditScheme (EMAS). We have also established a tradition of voluntary industry cooperation andcodes of practice in various areas such as product safety. In recent years we have demonstratedongoing environmental awareness, with the investment of time and resources in several life cycleanalyses (LCA) on baby diapers and incontinence products.

Foreword

Sustainability Report – Baby diapers and incontinence products


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As a result of this early environmental awareness, and as a consequence of the many innovationsintroduced within this industry throughout the supply chain, the environmental impact of diapersand incontinence products has been measurably reduced over the past two decades, as illustratedby this report.

Our dynamic and fast-growing industry contributes considerably to the European economy andcompetitiveness. We are committed to improving the life of millions of people by providingsuperior and innovative products while continuously striving for improvements in the sustainabilityprofile of our products.

We are proud of these achievements in sustainability to date as well as being ever mindful of our ongoing responsibilities. Our industry supports responsible environmental stewardship in itsmanufacturing processes and acknowledges that our products do contribute to a small fraction of the overall household waste stream. Manufacturers strive constantly to improve the overallenvironmental profile of their products, and waste reduction is a key focus area. Over the past 15 years the industry has achieved around a 40% reduction in the overall weight of baby diapers.Producers have ensured that the products are compatible with prevailing forms of householdwaste management. This commitment and the evidence in this report should be a source ofreassurance for consumers and stakeholders.

EDANA and its member companies endeavour to continue this positive trend and welcome theopportunity for open dialogue with responsible authorities at all levels, as well as with consumerand environmental organisations, to be part of the solution to today’s sustainable developmentchallenges.

The industry, as represented by EDANA is committed to striving for continual improvement in allaspects of social progress, environmental performance and economic growth. We embrace thechallenge of achieving sustainable development and to do so encourage ongoing innovation andnew ways of thinking within our industry.

Knud Waede Hansen Pierre WiertzChairman of the Board of EDANA General Manager, EDANA


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I am very pleased to be able to introduce readers to this document and to be among the first tocommend the absorbent hygiene products industry for taking the initiative to produce this reporton the sustainability performance of disposable baby diapers and incontinence products.

As defined by the WBCSD1: Eco-efficiency is achieved by the delivery of competitively-pricedgoods and services that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life, while progressivelyreducing ecological impacts and resource intensity throughout the full product life cycle. In short, it is concerned with creating more value with less impact.

In order to manage this process of continuous improvement, it is of course necessary to objectivelymeasure what the impacts are, not just from product manufacturing operations, but upstream inraw material use and downstream in the product use and post-use disposal phases.

Reporting on these data and trends in an accessible and transparent way is an essential step inthe process, as stakeholder acceptance is fundamental to industry maintaining its 'licence tooperate' and in ensuring a stable environment for continued long-term investment for innovation.

In taking this initiative to invest their time and resources in compiling this first sustainabilityreport, the absorbent hygiene products industry sector joins the ranks of those leaders who haverecognised and embraced the challenge of integrating the quest for economic growth withparallel efforts to achieve continuous improvements in environmentally sound practices.

I recommend this report to all those with a serious interest in understanding this industry and its commitment to progress.

Bill Duncan,Managing Director ASSURRE2

Preface

Sustainability Report – Baby diapers and incontinence products

1 World Business Council for Sustainable Development.2 ASSURRE, the Association for the Sustainable Use and Recovery of Resources in Europe, is a multi-sector industry-led coalition working

exclusively on evolving European environmental policy and legislation relating to sustainable resource management. It is recognised by European Institutions and business stakeholders as an authoritative and independent source of knowledge and expertise in the field of sustainable development.


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1 World Business Council for Sustainable Development

Contents

Executive summary 8

1 Introduction 15

2 Sustainable development 17

3 The social contribution 19The development of modern diapers and incontinence products 19Product description 20Societal developments and lifestyle 22Skin health benefits 24The industry’s commitment to safety 26The industry’s commitment to corporate social responsibility 27

4 Environmental stewardship 29Life cycle assessment 29Integrated waste management 34Diapers and incontinence products in municipal solid waste 35Environmental policies and instruments 39

5 Prudent use of natural resources 41Sustainable forest management 41Pulp production 42The diaper and incontinence products manufacturing process 42

6 The economic contribution of the diaper and incontinence products industry 44The market 44Employment 45Members of the industry 45

7 Summary 46

Appendix 1 Glossary 48Appendix 2 References 52Appendix 3 Document authors 56


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Introduction

In just about every walk of life todaythe question of sustainability is on theminds of policy makers, scientists,industrialists, local community groups,customers and environmentalists alike.

Issues related to sustainability affecteverything that we do – where we liveand how we live, where we work andwhat we do, what we consume, whatour open spaces look like, how wetravel, how we view the communitieswithin which we live and how wethink about the future. No generationbefore us has focused so sharply onthese issues as we do today.

In this report1 the manufacturers ofdisposable baby diapers and inconti-nence products, who are members ofEDANA, document the role theirproducts and processes play in thethree key areas generally accepted ascritical to sustainable development: • Social progress which recognises

the needs of everyone;• Effective protection of the

environment and prudent use ofnatural resources;

• Maintenance of high and stablelevels of economic growth andemployment.

Modern disposablebaby diapers andincontinence products

The move towards disposable babydiapers began in earnest in theearly 1960s. Before that, diaperswere either cotton towelling orcotton muslin which, withlaundering, could be reused. Theearly disposable diaper comprisedwadding made from cellulose as the absorbent core with a plasticbacking and a synthetic fabricsheeting material as the surfaceclosest to the baby’s skin.

Since then, continuous product innovations including the use ofsuperabsorbent polymers, resealable

tapes and elasticised waist bandshave improved the products consid-erably. They are now much thinnerand much more absorbent as wellas being more comfortable to wearand easier to use. Their widespreaduse has been accompanied by amarked reduction in skin irritationin individual children and adecrease in the spread of infectiousdiseases amongst children in groupcare environments. The productrange has more recently beenextended into children’s toilet-training phase with the introductionof training pants and pant diapers.

Absorbent products specificallydesigned for adult incontinence were introduced into the Europeanmarket in the late 1960s. Whilethey are based on the same

Executive summary

Fluff pulp 43%Superabsorber 27%

Average baby diaper composition 2004

Gra

ph1

Polyethylene 7%

Polypropylene 15%

Adhesive 3% Elastics 1%

Other 4%

1 All data referred to throughout this document has been sourced from the references listed in Appendix 2 or from information supplied by member companies.


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technology as baby diapers, theirdevelopment demanded new anddifferent expertise because of thesize of the product and the diversityof needs to be met by their use. A wide range of products is nowavailable including gender-specificproducts, different sizes to suitvarying body shapes and anatomiesand different levels of absorbency.

Product composition

Modern baby diapers and inconti-nence products have a layeredconstruction, which allows thetransfer and distribution of urine toan absorbent core structure whereit is locked in.

• The topsheet closest to the skin ismade of soft nonwoven fabric andtransfers urine quickly to thelayers underneath.

• The distribution layer receives theurine flow and transfers it on tothe absorbent core.

• The absorbent core structure isthe key component and is madeout of a mixture of cellulose pulpand superabsorbent polymers.

• The backsheet is typically madeof ‘breathable’ polyethylene filmor a nonwoven and film compositewhich prevents wetness transferto the bed or clothes.

Social developments and lifestyle

Modern disposable baby diapers andincontinence products have made animportant contribution to the qualityof life of millions of people.

Disposable baby diapers havebecome the product of choice forover 95 per cent of all families inEurope and are recognised as: • Being healthy for the infant’s skin,

reducing rashes and irritationsand preventing infections;

• Providing superior comfort for thebaby due to their fit, softness,

high absorbency and breathablenature;

• Being easy and convenient to use,readily available and cost-effective;

• Eliminating the need for constantlaundering, and disposable aspart of regular household waste.

Incontinence, which is the inabilityto control the release of urine orfaeces from the body, is experiencedby many otherwise healthy andactive individuals and can be bothdistressing and socially isolating.Adult incontinence products contribute significantly to the quality of life of people sufferingthis condition by: • Providing hygiene, cleanliness and

independence;• Saving sufferers or their carers

the unpleasant task of managing heavily soiled articles;

• Allowing users to maintain theirsense of dignity and enabling themto get out, work, take part insocial activities and lead a fulland satisfying life.

Executive summary

Product innovation and diaper rash reduction

Gra

ph2

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

90

100

3

1.5

2.5

2

1

0.5

0

3.5

%In

fant

s Mean

rash

Cloth Cellulose 1985-1987 1987-1993 1993-1996

Moderate

Severe / Very severe

None / Mild

Mean rash

5 815

5663

35

6053

39

56

29 31

11

28

9

2.66

2.342.15

1.491.33

Diaper type/generation


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Skin health benefits

Scientific evidence shows that theadvances made in diaper technologyover the past 15 years haveproduced real benefits in skin care,dryness and leakage protection.

Many paediatricians and nursesconfirm that the number of infantsseen with diaper dermatitis isdeclining over time. The numberof cases of diaper rash reported ingeneral appears to have decreasedby about 50 per cent since theintroduction of disposable diapers.Noticeably, there has been a largedecrease in the number of severediaper rash cases reported, fallingfrom 67 per cent of all cases seen before the use of disposablediapers to 9 per cent in the 1990s.

Commitment to safety

The principle that our productsmust be safe for consumers,employees and the environmentguides our industry in rawmaterial selection, product design,manufacturing, consumer communic-ations and considerations relevantto the disposal of our products.

We not only comply with the legalframework, but also conduct ourown safety evaluation programmesto ensure that our products aresafe. Baby diapers and incontinenceproducts have an excellent safetyrecord. They and the materials usedwithin them have been proven to besafe for their intended use and havea long history of safe use by millionsof people.

Corporate socialresponsibility

The manufacturers of disposablebaby diapers and incontinenceproducts strive to ensure that werespect and exceed laws and regula-tions wherever we do business; weoperate with due care to health andsafety considerations; we encouragediversity; we deal fairly and weactively manage environmentalstewardship.

We do not conduct our business in avacuum but collaborate closely withthe communities in which we operateto work on projects that addressissues of incontinence, give childrena good start to life, address infanthealth issues and create partnershipson environmental initiatives.

Environmentalstewardship

We are committed to improving the life of consumers by providingsuperior products while continu-ously striving for improvements in the environmental quality of ourproducts by: • Using raw materials that are

safe for consumers and the environment;

• Supporting an integrated solidwaste management approach;

• Producing products which arecompatible with different solidwaste treatment options;

• Working, where technically and economically feasible, toimprove the environmentalprofile of our diaper and adultincontinence products.

Product innovations have not only delivered significant diaperperformance improvements buthave also resulted in measurableimprovements in their environ-mental profile. The average diaperweight has reduced by around 40 per cent during the past 17 years.In an extensive life cycle assessment(LCA) analysis the impact of thisweight reduction on the environmentalprofile of baby diapers along theirentire product life cycle has beenevaluated. Since 1987, 74 per centof the recorded parameters for airemissions have decreased orremained stable and 60 per centof the recorded parameters forwater emissions have decreased.

The environmental impacts of these air and water emissions onglobal warming potential, acidifi-cation potential, nutrificationpotential and photochemical ozonecreation potential are as much as20 per cent less in 2004 than theywere in 1987 (see graph 3).

Assessments have also been undertaken by both industry andindependent authorities comparingthe environmental impacts ofdisposable and cloth diapers. Noneof these evaluations have been able to establish categorically theenvironmental superiority of any onediaper option over the other.

The most recent and most compre-hensive analysis has been undertakenby the UK Environment Agency, theresults of which were published inMay 2005. The major conclusions of the study were that: • None of the diaper systems studied

was more or less environmentallypreferable;


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• There was no significant differencebetween any of the environmentalimpacts of the disposable, homeuse cloth and commercial laundrydiaper systems that were assessedin the study;

• The overall environmental impactsfrom waste management of any

diaper system do not contributesubstantially to the overall totals.

The study identifies where and gives recommendations on howmanufacturers of the differenttypes of diaper can improve theenvironmental impact of their

products. We take these recom-mendations seriously and continueto explore how best our membercompanies can implement furtherimprovements in the design andmanufacture of disposable diapersas part of our continued effortsand commitment to sustainabledevelopment.

LCAs have also been undertakenon incontinence products. Themost recent was undertaken in2004 by an independent researchinstitute in Germany, the IFEU(Institut für Energie und Umwelt-forschung). As a result of theintroduction of superabsorbentpolymers there has been a significantreduction in the use of raw materialsand natural resources. The reductionsin air and water emissions between1995 and 2002 are shown ingraph 4. For example:• Fossil CO2 emissions into the air

have reduced by over 13 per cent;• Consistently, the use of fossil

energy has reduced by just under13 per cent.

Trend for major environmental impact categories 1987-2004

Gra

ph3

Executive summary

80

60

40

20

0

1009

80

60

40

20

0

100

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

1

80

60

40

20

0

70

50

30

10

9 Global warming Acidification Nutrification Photochemical ozonepotential potential potential creation potential

LCIA

resu

lts

rela

tive

to19

87(%

,198

7=10

0%)

8579

69

85

Gra

ph4

40 20 0

20 0 0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

80 70

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 090100

3 1.52.5 2 1 0.5 03.5

Emissions Input

COD

SO2

NO

x

CO2

Proc

ess

wat

er

Nat

ural

gas

Crud

eoi

l

Foss

ilen

ergy

Ener

gy,t

otal

-5.6%

-11.8% -12.2%-13.1%

-4.8%

-12.2%

-14.7%

-12.8%

-10.7%

Reduction in air and water emissions and in use of raw materials for incontinence products 1995-2002

%

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16


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Diapers and incontinence productsin municipal solidwaste

Much of the discussion about diapersand the environment has focused ontheir contribution to solid waste. Onaverage in Europe baby and incon-tinence diapers comprise around2-3 per cent of municipal solid wasteand between 0.3 and 0.4 per centof total solid waste. By comparison,food and garden waste contributesome 10-20 times more to theEuropean average municipal solidwaste stream.

Diapers and incontinence productsare compatible with prevailing wastedisposal and treatment methods:• They can be safely disposed in

landfills where they are readilycompressed and contained;

• They can be incinerated inproperly functioning incinerators;

• They can be processed throughcomposting operations, providedthere is appropriate technologyavailable to separate thebiodegradable, cellulose-basedparts from the synthetic pieces;

• Soiled diapers can be processedusing mechanical-biologicaltreatment (MBT) methods.

Along with company-specific initiativesundertaken to reduce waste, as anindustry we also play our part infinding new and innovative solutionsto reducing waste in the community.Through our membership of theAssociation for the Sustainable Useand Recovery of Resources in Europe(ASSURRE), we are currentlyinvolved in two projects, theMechanical-Biological Treatment

project and the Sustainable ResourceManagement Through SustainableUrban Management project.Through involvement with projectslike these we want to improve ourunderstanding of waste issues and,in partnership with others, be partof the solution.

Environmentalpolicies and instruments

Local authorities, national govern-ments, the European Union andinternational organisations are allincreasingly using environmentalpolicies and instruments to pursueenvironmental objectives. Wesupport the introduction ofmeasures which will help toreduce the overall environmentalburden. There are some existingand proposed policy instrumentshowever which are cause forconcern for our industry as it isour view that they operate todiscourage innovation or do notmeet their objectives when viewedin a broader context.

Overall, we support the objectives ofschemes such as eco-labels. In ourexperience however, such instrumentscan serve unintentionally to restrictrather than encourage environmentalinnovation. We do not supportusing financial instruments (suchas incentives for particularproducts) as a way of reducingsolid waste. In our view theydistort markets, are against thespirit of free trade, have little tono impact on reducing the overallsolid waste stream and simplytransfer environmental impactfrom one area to another.

Prudent use ofnatural resources

The natural resources used tomanufacture diapers and incontinenceproducts are wood, crude oil, energyand water. The wood pulp used inbaby diapers and incontinenceproducts represents less than 1 percent of total wood consumption. Nowood from virgin tropical forests isused in the manufacture of absorbenthygiene products.

Pulp production is a high-technologymultistage process which extractsthe natural polymer cellulose fromwood. It is largely self-sufficientfrom an energy perspective with by-products of the process being usedto provide most (or even a surplus)of the energy for the productionfacility. Surplus energy can be usedin combined heat and power plants.

Members of EDANA are committedto supporting sustainable managementof forests based on sound ecologicalscience, social responsibility andeconomic viability. We encouragethird-party verification or certificationof compliance with sustainableforestry practices.

The economic contribution

The size of the European marketfor disposable hygiene products iscomparable with the US market.There are, however, significant variations between countries interms of market penetration: • In 2004 the annual volume of

disposable baby diaper productssold was estimated to be


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20.25 billion units with an annualmarket value in 2004 of some4.5 billion euros;

• Over the past 2 years the totalEuropean baby diaper market isestimated to have grown by 2.7per cent. Many of the establishedEuropean markets are mature nowand given current demographictrends are only growing slowly.The newer markets have grownby 9 per cent in the same periodand are expected to continue togrow in coming years;

• The total estimated volume ofincontinence products sold inEurope, the Middle East andAfrica in 2004 is around 5billion units with an estimatedrevenue value to manufacturersof some 1.5 billion euros;

• In total, the members of EDANAwho manufacture baby diapersand incontinence products employsome 100,000 people in Europe;making a substantial contributionto the economic wellbeing offamilies and communities in thecountries of Europe. In 2003/04,some 20,000 of those were directlyemployed in the manufacture ofabsorbent hygiene products inEurope. This is matched by asimilar number upstream withinraw material supplier industries,not to mention those employeddownstream in logistics andcommercial operations.

Conclusion

• Disposable baby diapers andincontinence products havecontributed to social progress interms of quality of life, comfort,convenience, reduction inhousehold chores and skin health benefits;

• Much has been done and still isbeing done to improve environ-mental performance in theproduction and design of babydiapers and incontinence products;

• Today’s products are made in sucha way as to make prudent andefficient use of natural resources;

• The manufacture and distributionof baby diapers and incontinenceproducts contributes positivelyto the economies of Europe.

We believe we can demonstrate a good record of environmentalimprovement to date. We are not complacent, however. Thechallenge of improving the sustainability profile of disposableconsumer goods like diapers andincontinence products is anongoing one. By addressing allaspects of sustainability - social,environmental and economic - we are committed to improvingthe overall sustainability profile of baby diapers and incontinenceproducts, while at the same timecontinuing to offer products thatwill improve people’s lives aroundthe world.

Executive summary

“Sustainable developmentaims to enable all peoplethroughout the world tosatisfy their basic needs

and enjoy a better qualityof life without compro-

mising the quality of lifeof future generations.”


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In just about every walk of lifetoday the question of sustainabilityis on the minds of policy makers,scientists, industrialists, localcommunity groups, customers andenvironmentalists alike.

Issues related to sustainabilityaffect everything that we do –where we live and how we live,where we work and what we do,what we consume, what our openspaces look like, how we travel,how we view the communitieswithin which we live and how wethink about the future. No generationbefore us has focused so sharplyon these issues as we do today.

This report is our first ever attempt,as manufacturers of disposable babydiapers and incontinence productswho are members of EDANA, totake stock of sustainability issuesas they relate to our industry andour products. We seek to assessthe impact of our industry on allaspects of sustainability - be they social, environmental oreconomic. We aim to bring togetherin one place comprehensive referenceinformation about the impact ofour products on quality-of-lifeconsiderations, our stewardship ofresources, the environmental

impact of our processes andproducts, and about the size of our industry and its contributionto the European economy.

We do so for two reasons:

1. to provide open and accessibleinformation to external partiesinterested in sustainabilityissues relevant to our industryand products;

2. to provide a focus for our ownthinking as an industry abouthow we can continue to makeprogress in improving thesustainability of our productsand processes.

The material used in this reporthas been collated by the manufac-turers of disposable baby diapersand incontinence products inEurope who are members of TheHygiene Absorbent ProductsManufacturers Committee (HAPCO)1

of EDANA, the internationalassociation serving the nonwovensand related industries. EDANAexists to create the foundation forsustainable growth of thenonwovens and associated indus-tries through active promotion,education and dialogue. It represents, protects and actively

promotes the common interests ofthe nonwovens and absorbenthygiene products industries andtheir suppliers and provides theumbrella under which industry-wideinitiatives of a non-competitivenature can be undertaken. Wheredata has not been available withinthe public domain we have usedour best endeavours to makeestimations in good faith whilstprotecting commercial confidentiality.We have also drawn on a widerange of resources available withinthe public domain and as a referencefor readers have listed thoseresources in Appendix 22.

Comments on this report arewelcome and should be directed to:

Avenue Eugène Plasky, 157 B-1030 Brussels, BelgiumTel.: +32 2 734 93 10Fax: +32 2 733 35 18e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction1

Introduction

1 For a full list of HAPCO members see www.hapco.edana.org/contacts. For contributors to this report see Appendix 3 of this document.2 All data referred to throughout this document has been sourced from the references listed in Appendix 2 or from information

supplied by member companies.


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What is sustainable development?Sustainable development aims to enable all people throughout the world to satisfy theirbasic needs and enjoy a better quality of life without compromising the quality of life of future generations. Although the idea is simple, the task is substantial. It meansmeeting four objectives at the same time: • Social progress which recognises the needs of everyone; • Effective protection of the environment; • Prudent use of natural resources; • Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment.Source: Sustainable Development - The Government’s Approach - delivering UK sustainable development together -www.sustainable-development.gov.uk


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The concept of sustainable develop-ment or sustainability has been inexistence for a number of decades.It seeks to reconcile economic development with environmentalprotection and social responsibilityaround the world. The 1987Bruntland Report of the UN WorldCommission on Environment andDevelopment offered a definitionof sustainable development whichhas informed much of the debateand discussion that has occurred inensuing years. It defined sustainabledevelopment as 'development thatmeets the needs of the present,without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirown needs'.

For the purpose of this report wetake as our starting point theelaboration of the 1987 definitionwhich has been adopted by the UKgovernment (see page 16).

This is the first ever SustainabilityReport that has been prepared byEDANA. In making it, EDANAhas in particular focused on:• The contribution disposable baby

diapers and incontinence productshave made to social progress whichrecognises the needs of everyone;

• The actions our industry takes toensure and improve environmentalstewardship within our processesand our products;

• The extent to which our industryis making efficient and prudentuse of natural resources;

• The contribution our industrymakes to the maintenance ofhigh and stable levels of economicgrowth and employment.

It is our hope that this report helpsdemonstrate that:• Disposable baby diapers and

incontinence productsundoubtedly have contributed tosocial progress in terms of qualityof life, comfort, convenience,reduction in household choresand skin health benefits;

• Much is being done to improvethe environmental performanceof the production, use anddisposal of baby diapers andincontinence products;

• Today’s products are made in sucha way as to make prudent andefficient use of natural resourcesbe it in the raw materials usedin the products or the processesengaged to make them;

• The manufacture and distributionof baby diapers and incontinence

products contributes in a variety of ways to the economies of thecountries of Europe.

We recognise however that thechallenge of improving thesustainability profile of disposableconsumer goods like diapers andincontinence products is an ongoing one. We believe we candemonstrate a good record ofimprovement to date. Innovationhas delivered products that givebetter skin care and betterperformance, with reducedresource use and reduced environmental impact; all at anaffordable price. However, this is still work in progress; sustainabilityis not static, but rather a continuousprocess of improvement andbalance between its three pillars.By addressing all aspects ofsustainability - social, environmentaland economic - manufacturers are committed to improving theoverall sustainability profile ofbaby diapers and incontinenceproducts, at the same time helpingto improve people’s lives aroundthe world.

Sustainable development2

Sustainable development


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“Modern disposable baby diapers and incontinenceproducts have made an important contribution to thequality of life of millions of people.”


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The development ofmodern baby diapersand incontinenceproducts

Baby diapersBefore 1936 diapers were mainlyeither cotton-based ribbed towellingor a cotton muslin-type materialboth of which, with laundering, couldbe reused. These typically took theform of a square of material whichwas wrapped around the baby andfixed in place with safety pins. The diaper was then covered withreusable plastic or rubber pants with elasticised leg openings.

In the late 1930s, early forms oftissue-based disposable under padsand diaper inserts were introduced inSweden. Developed by PauliströmBruk, a number of versions of thisbasic product emerged between1936 and 1942 including the use ofrubber pants to hold the cellulosepad in place. In 1950 the companyintroduced a new version of theproduct based on bleached cellulosewadding with a knitted-mesh outerlayer which could be inserted into aholding pocket in a rubber pant. Inthe same year Johnson & Johnson

introduced a rectangular under padproduct based on cellulose waddingwith wet-strength tissue as the cover-stock and plastic as the backing. In1957 Mölnlycke (now SCA) intro-duced a ‘pear-shaped’ insert formedfrom defibred wood pulp with aknitted-mesh cover.

The convenient disposable babydiaper is a relatively new invention;credited to Marion Donovan who in1950 cut her shower curtain intoplastic envelopes into which sheslipped absorbent material, usingsnap closures to secure the diaper on her baby. This form of disposablediaper was an immediate success, duelargely to the time saving attractionsit offered to the increasing number ofworking mothers. However, the movetowards disposable baby diapersbegan in earnest in 1961 whenProcter & Gamble introduced the firstPampers in the USA, based oncellulose wadding with a plasticbacking and a nonwoven topsheet.Subsequent developments saw theintroduction of fluff pulps, the additionof adhesive tapes and the use ofplastic backsheets.

Further developments in the mid-1980s owed much to the availability

of improved superabsorbent polymers and better methods to add the polymer to the pulp core, aswell as innovations such as frontaland resealable tapes and elasticisedwaists. The introduction in 1989 ofthe first disposable training pants byKimberly-Clark and of diaper pantsin 1991 marked the start of anextension of the normal diaperingperiod into the child’s toilet-trainingphase. The distinction betweentraining pants and pant diapers origi-nally related to the absorbentcapacity of the product, with trainingpants having more limited absorptioncapacity. This distinction is lessrelevant now, with both types ofproduct available with sufficientcapacity for night-time use.

Disposable diapers today are muchthinner and more absorbent than theirearlier counterparts and as a resultare more effective. They are morecomfortable for the infant to wear andmore convenient for parents to use. Inaddition, their usage has been accom-panied by a marked reduction in skinirritation in individual children and adecrease in the spread of infectiousdiseases amongst children in groupcare environments.

The social contribution3

The social contribution

>


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Incontinence productsAbsorbent products specificallydesigned for adult incontinence arethe newest category of hygieneproducts. Their use in Europestarted in the late 1960s. Thedesign is based on the technologydeveloped for baby diapers andfeminine hygiene protection. Thekey performance requirements suchas protection from leakage,comfort, discretion and skin dryness,are similar in kind but differ indegree according to the severity ofincontinence. A wide range ofproducts is now available to coverthe needs of incontinence sufferersin different sizes to fit different bodyshapes and levels of absorbency.

Originally, adult incontinence diaperswere mostly used in nursing homesand hospitals where they broughtconsiderable advantages to bothpatients and nursing staff: increasedcomfort for the user, fewer skinirritations, fewer infections, easierhandling for the staff, lesswashing, reduced odour problemsand generally a more hygienicenvironment for the care of patients.

In recent years, however, the marketfor incontinence products outsideinstitutions has grown considerably.Current growth rates in institutionalmarkets are now smaller than in thehome care environment where thereis now much greater awareness ofthe benefits of incontinence productsand much less stigma about their usethan in earlier decades. They are animportant tool in enabling peoplewith incontinence problems tomanage within their own homesrather than having to resort to nursing care.

Product description

Baby diapers and incontinenceproducts are engineered to absorband contain urine and faeces ofbabies, children or adults. Theyare designed to keep the skin dryso that they are isolated fromclothing, bedding and thesurrounding environment. Theproducts need to provide maximumcomfort to the user and maximumconvenience to the carer.

Baby diapers and incontinenceproducts are made under high-qualityproduction control standards withover 60 years of safe use by millionsof people. They are made fromreadily available materials withproven safety profiles that arewidely used in a variety ofeveryday consumer products.

Baby diapersThe principle requirement of babydiapers is to provide an effectiveabsorbent structure to receive,absorb and retain urine and faecesduring the first 2-3 years of thebaby’s life. Today, the main type ofdisposable baby diaper is the tapedversion which accounts for morethan 90 per cent of the Europeanmarket. Training pants and pantdiapers are used to help toddlerswith toilet-training by providingback-up protection in case of accidents in the final stage of toilet-training.

Present-day products have alayered construction making itpossible to assign specific functionsto different layers or materialswith the complete product.

>

>

Topsheet:Allows instant transfer of the urinefrom the contact point on the topsurface, through to the acquisitionlayer immediately below andprovides a contact layer to protectthe baby’s skin from chafing orirritation. It provides, together withthe backsheet film, a containmentof the structure of the diaper bothwhen wet and dry. The topsheet,typically made of polypropylene(PP) nonwovens, is in intimatecontact with the baby’s skin, so itshould be very soft to ensure thatthere is no skin abrasion. It is alsothe first layer to have contact withthe urine flow and needs thereforeto be instantly wettable and havehigh fluid permeability. Somemanufacturers apply a lotion on tothe topsheet to provide additionalskin care benefits.

Schematic overview of a modern disposable diaper


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Acquisition/distribution layer(s) (ADLs):Receives the urine flow through the topsheet and effectively transfers it to the storage part of the ADL thereby making best use of the core.A number of different structures and materials are used for this.

Tissue wrap layer:Used in some diaper products around the absorbent core structure or the storage layer. This serves to contain the dry structure duringmanufacture and assists in preventing distortion or collapse of the core when saturated with liquid.

Absorbent core structure:Is the urine storage layer and is the key component in a modern diaper.It receives the urine that has been transported through the topsheet,distributed by the ADL and transferred to be locked within the corestructure. It has to absorb the urine as fast as it is received and has toallow distribution of the liquid through the structure so that the wholecore is utilised. There are normally two principal components in amodern diaper core – fluff pulp and superabsorbent polymers (SAP).The early diaper core was 100 per cent fluff pulp. It acted like a

sponge; consequently, just a small amount of pressure to a saturatedcore could cause the absorbed liquid to be released. The superab-sorbent polymers used today are almost entirely based on cross-linkedpolyacrylate polymers. They now comprise 25 to 30 per cent of thecontent of the core and provide the ‘fluid-locking’ mechanism in thecore – fluff pulp comprises up to 50 per cent of the core. On contactwith the urine the polymer becomes a gel which can absorb many timesits own weight in fluid; the fluid is not released, even under pressure.

Backsheet:Is either polyethylene (PE) film or, more recently, a nonwoven/filmcomposite. Its role is to prevent wetness transfer to the baby’s bed orclothes. It plays an important role in containment of the wholestructure, especially when wet. This is usually the first material theparent comes in touch with on removing the diaper, so softness isperceived as important. The backsheet has to be sufficiently robust tobe able to fulfil its purpose, but also needs to be thin and noiselesswhen the baby moves. Breathable film backsheets are widely used inmodern-day absorbent products manufactured in Europe. These canhelp to keep the skin drier, which has been shown to have a positiveimpact on the skin condition in the diapered area, particularly in termsof occlusion, diaper dermatitis and Candida albicans superinfections.


Inner PP topsheet

Outer PE (optional:

breathable)

Outer graphic andloop fastener

Inner elastic

FasteningLotion

(optional)


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Baby diapers come in different sizesranging from newborn babies sizesup to a size for 24-36 month oldbabies. Averaging across all sizes, ababy diaper weighs approximately40-42 grams and is primarily madeof pulp (fluff pulp), superabsorbentpolymer (SAP), polypropylene (PP),polyethylene (PE), as well as minoramounts of tapes, elastics andadhesive materials. Over the yearsdiapers have become thinner,lighter, and more efficient. Thecurrent average diaper compositionis given in graph 5, below.

Incontinence productsIncontinence products have thesame requirements as baby diapers– that is to provide an effectiveabsorbent structure to receive,absorb and retain urine and faecalwaste from adults without leakageor skin irritation and with minimumodour. This enables users not onlyto manage their incontinence

effectively and with dignity but alsoto lead as normal a life as possible.Several different products areavailable, catering for differingdegrees of adult incontinence, fromlight to moderate and to heavy. Themain product types are categorisedas two–piece systems (pad andpant) for the whole spectrum ofincontinence needs and insert pads,body-shaped, plastic–backed padseither fitted to the body in speciallydesigned knitted stretch briefs or(for light incontinence) used innormal briefs.

An average adult incontinenceproduct uses practically identicalmaterials to baby diapers but indifferent proportions. As withbaby diapers, adult incontinenceproducts have also becomethinner, lighter, and more efficientover the years. The averagecomposition is illustrated in graph6, below.

Societal developmentsand lifestyle

Baby diapersModern disposable baby diapersand incontinence products havemade an important contribution tothe quality of life of millions ofpeople. Pervasive in their availabilityand acceptance, they provide conven-ience, comfort and skin care benefits.In fact, in a survey carried out by theLouis Harris Research organisationin 1997, respondents with childrenvoted disposable diapers as thesecond greatest improvement incontemporary life (the first being theautomatic washing machine),compared with the generation thatwent before them.

Since their introduction modernsingle-use diaper products haveimproved steadily through scientificadvances in design and basic rawmaterials, becoming lighter, morecompact, more absorbent and easier to use. Originally they werepromoted for use on journeys,holidays and in temporary situationsbut it was not long before parentsrealised how practical andconvenient they were for everydayuse. Today it is estimated that more than 95 per cent of all parents use them – and it is generallyrecognised that: • Modern disposable diapers are

healthier for the infant’s skinbecause their usage results inreduced skin rash incidences, skin irritation and infections;

• Their softness, lightness and thebreathable nature of some of the raw materials provide forsuperior comfort for the baby;

• They are easy to put on andremove, taking up less time, forexample, than using cloth diapers;

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Average incontinence diaper composition 2004

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Polyethylene 10%

Polypropylene 9%


Other 3%80

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Average baby diaper composition 2004

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Polyethylene 7%

Polypropylene 15%


Other 4%

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• They are convenient because theyeliminate the need for constantlaundering, boiling and drying.

Disposable baby diapers havebecome the method of choice fornearly all families across Europe.There can be little doubt that theconvenience of disposable diapers is a huge benefit in today’s busylifestyles where time is a preciousasset. They lessen the burden ofdomestic chores, freeing parents tospend more time on other activities intheir family, social or economic lives.

Incontinence productsMany otherwise healthy, activeindividuals suffer from incontinence.It is a distressing and isolatingcondition. The exact number of

people suffering from the problem isnot known, but the total number ofpeople affected may be far greaterthan current estimates. This isbecause many people fail to reportit, even to their own doctor.

Women are twice as likely as men tohave this condition as a result of theimpact of pregnancy on pelvicmuscle control. In addition, in lateryears of life, when incontinence ismost commonly suffered, it is oftencaused by other conditions, such asstroke or senile dementia.

The inability to control urine is one ofthe most unpleasant and distressingproblems from which a person cansuffer. Faecal incontinence (alsocalled bowel incontinence or anal

incontinence) affects people of allages. It is defined as the involuntaryloss of solid or liquid stool sufficientenough to result in impaired qualityof life for the individual. Both formsoften cause isolation, depressionand physiological problems and cansignificantly impact on social andwork related aspects of thesufferer’s life. In addition, inconti-nence can be a heavy burden forfamily caregivers and thecommunity. It is often a majorcontributing factor in deciding thatageing parents are no longer able tolive independently and need a levelof care that can only be provided innursing homes.

Adult absorbent products are usedby both men and women to manage


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their incontinence, whether resultingfrom temporary or chronic illnessor disability. A wide range ofproducts is available to suit varyingdegrees of incontinence, disabilityand lifestyle. These modernproducts are largely based on thesame technology and materials

developed for baby diapers. Theyare discreet and can be used easilyat whatever age at home, in hospitalor in an institution.

They have had an enormous positiveimpact on the quality of life ofpeople with incontinence. Theyprovide hygiene, cleanliness, comfortand above all, independence. Theyalso save them or their carers theunpleasant task of changing anddisposing of heavily soiled products.They allow users to maintain theirsense of dignity and enable them toget out, work, take part in socialactivities and lead a full and

satisfying life. The importance ofthese products in addressing theproblems created by incontinence isrecognised by the fact that in manycountries incontinence products areavailable on prescription frommedical professionals and the costsare consequently reimbursed either

through health authorities or healthcare insurers.

Skin health benefits Diaper dermatitis (diaper rash) is a non-specific term used todescribe a wide range of inflam-matory reactions of the skin inthose areas of the body covered bydiapers. Secondary superinfectionswith Candida albicans are alsocommon when the skin in thediaper area has been compromisedby diaper rash.

Diaper dermatitis is related toexcessive skin wetness. Reference toit is found in the medical literatureas early as 1877 (see References:Skin health improvements, p. 52).Published clinical and laboratorystudies have shown that increasedskin wetness, higher 'skin pH

alkalinity', and the mixing of urinewith faeces all increase the risk ofdeveloping diaper rash. Enzymes in the faeces can attack the skin,especially if it is already compro-mised by hydration. Ureases, alsocontained in the faeces, can converturea in the urine to ammonia,which increases the pH and enablesthe activity of the lipases andproteases enzymes.

It is generally recognised thatdiaper dermatitis:• Is experienced by almost every

child of diaper-wearing age – it isestimated that one quarter of all

Activating factors• Excess skin wetness• Faeces and faecal enzymes• Interaction of faeces and urine• Increased pH leading to greater

faecal enzyme activity• Increased skin

permeability

Gra

ph7

HEALHEALTHYTHY SKINSKIN

COMPROMISEDCOMPROMISEDSKINSKIN

DIAPERDIAPER RASHRASH

The diaper dermatitis model

Interventions• Frequent diaper change• Fast urine acquisition (ADL)• The use of superabsorbent polymers• Lotion/ointment/cream• Urine isolation from faeces

Etiological factors• Faecal enzymes• Skin friction• Candida albicans

(Yeast infection)


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babies experience diaper rash intheir first four weeks of life whenthe body has yet to develop itsresistance to infection;

• Comprises a series of more or lesssevere inflammatory reactions inthe skin covered by diapers;

• Is frequently associated withCandida albicans superinfectionrequiring medical intervention;

• Is primarily caused by irritants in the urine and faeces.

Graph 7, on the previous page,illustrates the activating factors andscientific causes of diaper dermatitisand the interventions that can betaken to reduce its incidence.

Over the last fifteen years babydiaper technology has advancedconsiderably in the following ways: • The introduction of superab-

sorbent polymers (SAP) hascreated an improved corestructure. SAPs are capable ofabsorbing many times their ownweight in liquid. They help to holdthe urine away from the skin andfaecal enzymes. Comprehensive

scientific safety testing on thesematerials together with a long andsuccessful history of use hasassured that they are non-irritatingand non-allergenic, and safe forconsumers;

• Innovative topsheet materialthrough which urine quicklypenetrates. This provides

increased efficiency in thetransfer of liquid as well ascreating a barrier between themoisture and the surface of theskin. The topsheet has also beenmade softer and its weight hasbeen reduced over time;

• Breathable, microporous outercovers which keep the skin drier

Survival of Candida albicans on human skin underneath breathable and non-breathable diapers

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40

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20

10

0

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50

40

30

20

10

0

90

8

100

8

90

100

Total occlusion


Non-breathable

diaper

OpenHighlybreathable

diaper

72.864.2

24.4

2.4%Su

rviv

alCF

U(C

olon

yfo

rmin

gun

its)

Product innovation and diaper rash reduction

Gra

ph9

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

90

100

3

1.5

2.5

2

1

0.5

0

3.5

%In

fant

s Mean

rash

Cloth Cellulose 1985-1987 1987-1993 1993-1996

Moderate

Severe / Very severe

None / Mild

Mean rash

5 815

5663

35

6053

39

56

29 31

11

28

9

2.66

2.342.15

1.491.33

Diaper type/generation


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and have been shown to have apositive impact on the skincondition in the diapered area,particularly in terms of occlusion,diaper dermatitis and Candidaalbicans superinfections.

The scientific evidence that theseinnovations have produced realbenefits in skin care, dryness, andleakage protection is well estab-lished (see References, Skin healthimprovements pp. 52-53). Clinical studies have demonstratedthe ability of disposable diapersbased on SAP technology to keepthe skin drier and that a morestable skin pH with less dermatitisis achieved with disposable diapersthan with home-laundered clothdiapers. In addition, the isolation ofurine from faecal material in diapersfacilitated by the SAP helps minimisethe formation of ammonia fromurea. SAP technology has also beentested in other clinical studies,using infants with atopic dermatitis(naturally dry and sensitive skin)and in children in day care, tofurther verify its compatibility with these conditions and the skincare benefits.

Babies wearing highly breathabledisposable diapers have also beenshown to experience significantlyless diaper dermatitis comparedwith infants wearing non-breathablediapers in a series of double-blindclinical studies. Severe diaperdermatitis, including confirmedinfection with Candida albicans,was reduced by up to 50 per cent inthe groups of children wearingbreathable diapers. Controlledmicrobiological evaluationconfirmed the inhibitory effect ofbreathable diapers containingsuperabsorbent polymers on the

survival of Candida.It is the view of many paediatriciansand nurses that the number of infantsseen with diaper dermatitis is decliningover time. Indeed, a review ofclinical studies conducted over thepast 15 years in the US andWestern Europe with over 6,500babies supports the view that thediapered skin condition of the babypopulation has improved over theyears. Since socio-economic condi-tions did not change substantiallyover these years in the regions inwhich the clinical studies wereconducted, it is reasonable toassume that better diapertechnologies have played a key rolein the improvement of the skincondition of diapered infants, inparticular in the large decrease insevere diaper rash cases reported.

The industry’scommitment tosafety

The principle that our productsmust be safe for consumers,employees and the environment isparamount within our industry. Itguides us in raw material selection,product design, manufacturing,consumer communications andconsiderations relevant to thedisposal of our products.

Manufacturers must comply with all appropriate technical standards,regulatory prescriptions and safetyguidelines. In order to ensure thesafety of the raw materials used inthe manufacture of these products: • Materials are rigorously

evaluated, often with the help of specialised laboratories for toxicological evaluation, skin

compatibility (ability to induceallergy/irritation), potentialcontamination, stability andageing tests;

• Finished products undergo visualinspection for absence of contam-ination, product integrity testsunder simulated in-use conditionsand routine bio-burden checks;

• Manufacturers also carry out in-use testing on incontinenceproducts and baby diapers to ensure dermatological compatibility.

European Union legislationprovides the legal framework ofmanufacturers’ obligations in thisrespect (e.g. Directive 92/59/EEC& 2001/95/EC on general productsafety) and are implemented atmember state level. Adult inconti-nence hygiene products areclassified as Class I medicaldevices by the European MedicalDevices Directive; 93/42/EEC. Inorder to comply with theEuropean Medical DevicesDirective there are specificISO/CEN technical standardsrequirements for biological safetytesting (the IS0 10993 series)which should be followed. Inaddition, some absorbent hygieneproducts may contain componentswhich can fall under a specificdirective with its own regulatoryand safety requirements; forexample, the lotion part oflotionised diapers has to complywith the European CosmeticsDirective 76/768/EEC and itsamendments.

Our industry does more thansimply comply with the legalframework to ensure that ourproducts are safe. We conduct ourown safety evaluation programmes


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and as individual companies wecontinuously monitor the market,our products in use and anyconcerns consumers may have inusing them. It is not unusual, formajor product changes or on thelaunch of new products, forindependent experts to beconsulted to ensure that allaspects of safety are considered.

All manufacturers have systems inplace to: • Receive communications from

consumers – usually using freephone numbers featured on product packages;

• Receive, investigate and takeappropriate actions in responseto consumer complaints;

• Answer enquiries from consumersand other stakeholders.

In addition, manufacturers haveproduct recall procedures in place torespond to an adverse incident whichaffects the quality or safety of ourproducts. In reality these are extremelyrare events. A product recall action forbaby diapers or incontinence productshas never been necessary for theproducts manufactured and distributedby our member companies, givingtestament to the effectiveness of theproduct safety testing and assurancesystems that are in place.

Disposable baby diapers and inconti-nence products have an extremelygood safety record. They have beenproven to be safe for their intended useand have a long history of safe use bymillions of people. The materials usedin them also have a long history of safeuse in many other product applicationsin society. So, for example, thepolyethylene, polypropylene andpolyester used for the outer cover andthe inner liner, are also used

in food wrap, beverage containers,clothing and plastic bags.Superabsorbent polymers are used infood packaging, cable wrapping,sealing components and horticulturaland agricultural products. All of thesematerials have proven safety profiles.

The industry’scommitment tocorporate socialresponsibility The manufacturers of disposablebaby diapers and incontinenceproducts recognise their responsi-bility for operating in a responsiblemanner in all aspects of their business. While each companyapproaches these responsibilitiesin their own way reflecting theirindividual values and cultures, we strive to ensure that as anindustry we: • Respect and exceed the law

and regulations wherever we do business;

• Respect human rights as theyrelate to our own employeesand to broader issues such aschild labour and workerexploitation;

• Operate our facilities with duecare and consideration to thehealth and safety of the peoplewithin them;

• Encourage diversity, equal oppor-tunities and the development ofhuman potential within ouremployee base;

• Deal fairly with our suppliers; • Demonstrate active management

of environmental stewardship.

We recognise too that we do notconduct our business in a vacuum;that we live and work within

communities. Our membercompanies make many contributionsto the communities where theyoperate. Some examples of thetypes of programmes supportedare activities that:• Give children a good start in life;• Address infant health issues;• Address issues of incontinence

and bed wetting;• Support the development of

better child care facilities;• Create partnerships on

environmental initiatives;• Support local environmental and

regeneration improvements;• Facilitate employee involvement

in local community activities.

Some of our member companiesalready produce their own individualsustainability reports; further information on specific companyinitiatives is available in thesereports or on company websites.



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“Adult absorbent products have an enormous positive impact on the quality of life of people with incontinence. They provide hygiene,cleanliness, comfort and, above all, independence.”


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Life cycle assessment

Life cycle assessment (LCA) hasbecome established in recent yearsas an independent tool for themeasurement and communicationof environmental progress inproduct development or factoryeco-auditing. It is broadly recog-nised by authorities, regulatorybodies, consumer organisationsand other relevant stakeholders. It is not, however, the only tool for managing environmentalperformance; others include riskassessments, life cycle costs andcost-benefit analyses. In the lifecycle assessment approach theproduct is viewed holistically 'from its cradle to its grave', thatis from harvesting the naturalresources to the ultimate disposalof the product after use. Thisensures that all aspects of a

product’s impact can be analysedand assessed. The methodology of life cycle assessment has matured over theyears so that it now includes bothan inventory and an impactassessment. The importance of lifecycle assessment is underscored bythe international standardisationefforts and developments takingplace through the ISO 14040 series.Most EDANA member companieshave been involved from the verybeginning of the standardisationprocesses for LCA and are nowactively involved in the first revisionof the LCA ISO standards.

LCA has provided diaper and incon-tinence product manufacturers witha rigorous and credible tool forunderstanding the potential environ-mental impacts of their products andprocesses and helps to provide aframework for future improvements.

Disposable baby diapers Product innovation such as theintroduction of superabsorbentsnot only delivered significantdiaper performance improvementsbut also resulted in measurableimprovements in the environmentalprofile of baby diapers. As a resultof such developments, the averagediaper weight has been signifi-cantly reduced by around 40 percent in a period of 17 years, fromaround 68 grams in 1987 toapproximately 40–42 grams in2004. In addition, significantadvances have been made inpackaging, truck loading andtransport efficiency which have allcontributed to achieving improvedenvironmental performance.

Using the life cycle assessment(LCA) technique, the impact ofweight reduction and of productcomposition changes on the environmental profile of diapers has

Environmental stewardship4

Environmental stewardship

>

Natural resources extraction Manufacturing Transportation DisposalUse

Life cycle assessment stages - from raw material extraction to disposal


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been examined along the entireproduct life cycle. In the life cycleinventory (LCI) phase of theassessment some 170 parameterswere defined relevant to emissionsinto air and into water. Theircombined potential impact on theenvironment was then evaluated in alife cycle impact assessment. In addition to publicly available

databases on aspects such as energyproduction and transport, much ofthe data used is industry-specific.These data sets contain bothgeographic and temporal spread ofthe relevant processes; the quality ofthe data is in line with standardrequirements for LCAs. As usualwhen using the LCA technique,only differences in results that

are larger than a certain percentage(here 10 per cent) are reported assignificant. Smaller variations inresults may indicate a trend, but it isnot possible to state with certaintythat they are significant as they mayoccur due to variability in data or inthe calculation process. The resultscan be summarised as follows:

Emissions into airOverall, 74 per cent of the 83recorded parameters for airemission decreased or remainedstable over time. Fossil-based CO2

decreased by approximately 14per cent and renewable-based CO2

emissions decreased by more than60 per cent. This was primarilydue to the significant reduction inpulp content resulting frominnovation in product design. For NOx a significant improvementwas recorded in the order of 30per cent. SOx decreased by 15 percent, while ammonia emissions,for example, remained stable.

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Trend in water and air emissions 1987-2004

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10090

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8

90

100SOx NOx CO2 CO2 COD AOX

fossil renew.

86

LCIr

esul

tsre

lati

veto

1987

(%,1

987=

100%

)

70

86

40

31 30

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

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7,000

8,000

9

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40

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9

1987 1990 1993 1997 2004

67

g/di

aper

59

5147

42

Average diaper weight reduction 1987-2004


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26 per cent of the parametersshowed an increase, amongst them unspecified metals whichincreased by a factor of two. Thisis mainly due to the increased useof superabsorbent polymers andpolypropylene nonwoven materialsin diapers and incontinence products.

Emissions into waterIn this category, some of the mostsignificant improvements have beenrecorded. Important aggregatedparameters such as chemicaloxygen demand (COD) and absorbedhalogenated organic compounds(AOX) decreased by approximately70 per cent. This is mainly aresult of changes in the bleachingprocess, the significant reductionin pulp content and its replacementby superabsorbent polymer.Overall, 62 per cent of the 87recorded parameters improved orremained stable and 38 per centof the parameters increased,amongst them inorganic compoundssuch as sulphates (by 23 per cent);this was due to the increasedusage of superabsorbent polymer.

Life cycle impact assessmentThe technique of life cycle impactassessment (LCIA) was then usedto examine the potential environ-mental impacts of air and wateremissions. Four reliable impactcategories have been evaluated(global warming, acidification, nutri-fication potential and photochemicalozone creation potential). In allimpact categories improvementswere achieved (see graph 12):acidification and nutrificationwere significantly reduced by 20per cent or more; global warming(emission of greenhouse gases)and photochemical ozone creationpotential ('summer smog') potentialsalso improved by around 15 percent. Other impact categories suchas human and eco-toxicity potentialswere not included as the methodsfor evaluating those impacts arestill in development and thereforejudged to be less reliable.

In summary, the changes made tothe composition of diapers and theconsequent reduction in pulp usagehas led to significant weight reduction

over the past 17 years. This in turnhas led to considerable reductionsin water usage and air emissions.Although some of the recordedindicators increased or remainedstable, the majority of indicators(68 per cent) showed a significantimprovement since 1987. Productinnovation during the last 17 yearstherefore not only improvedproduct performance of disposablediapers, but went hand in handwith environmental improvementsfor the majority of the examinedindicators.

The environmental impacts ofdisposable and cloth diapersThere has been an ongoing debateabout the relative environmentalimpacts of disposable and reusablecloth diapers. Some comparisonshave tended to focus mostly on thesolid waste aspect, specifically on the burden of disposable diapers on landfills. However, the environmental considerations of any consumer product, including diapers, need to beevaluated in the context of theproduct’s entire life cycle, from theuse of natural resources, throughmanufacturing, product use anddisposal, not merely at a singlephase. Choosing a diaper systemon the basis of only one environmentalparameter, such as solid waste,ignores the contributions of otherimportant parameters such as airand water pollution and use ofenergy and water.

Independent organisations in severalEuropean countries have evaluatedboth diaper systems, cloth anddisposable. They have concluded thatboth systems impact the environment,albeit in different ways, and that theenvironmental superiority of anyone diaper option over the othercannot be determined.

Trend for major environmental impact categories 1987-2004

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1009

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8,000

9,000

10,000

1

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20

0

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50

30

10

9Global warming Acidification Nutrification Photochemical

potential potential potential ozone creationpotential


85

LCIA

resu

ltsre

lativ

eto

1987

(%,1

987=

100%

)

79

69

86

>


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This has also been demonstrated andquantified in numerous LCI studiesthat have been conducted in manycountries around the world. Thereare various numerical differences inthese studies as a result of differentmethods and assumptions, differentgeographies and differences inregional infrastructure. The overalldiaper LCI record, however, supportsthe general conclusion that none of thediaper options is environmentallysuperior in all its aspects. Both diapersystems cause emissions and use someenergy, water and natural resources.The overwhelming majority of diaperlife cycle studies conclude that clothdiapers consume more water andproduce more waterborne emissionsthan disposable diapers, while dispos-ables produce more solid waste andconsume more natural resources.

This conclusion has been recentlyconfirmed by a comprehensive,independent LCA published in May2005, commissioned by the UKgovernment’s Environment Agency.The study comprised a detailed lifecycle assessment of the environmentalburdens associated with the

production, use and disposal of clothand disposable diapers. In thisassessment the impact of threediapering systems were considered:cloth diapers with home wash, clothdiapers with commercial laundry

and disposable diapers. The study confirms that there is nosignificant difference between anyof the environmental impacts of thedisposable, home-use reusable andcommercial laundry systems that

Incontinence product composition change between 1995 and 2002

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ph13

0

1,000

2,000

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5,000

6,000

7,000

8

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20

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0

90

1

-50% -40% -30% -20% -10% 0 10% 20% 30% 40%

-47%Hot melt

Elastics

Adhesive tape

Nonwovens

PE film

SAP

Pulp

Weight of diaper

-37%

-20%

-14%

-13%

39.5%

-3.5%

-7.5%

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ph14

40 20 0

20 0 0

1,000

2,000

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6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

80 70

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 090100

3 1.52.5 2 1 0.5 03.5

Emissions Input

COD

SO2

NO

x

CO2

Proc

ess

wat

er

Nat

ural

gas

Crud

eoi

l

Foss

ilen

ergy

Ener

gy,t

otal

-5.6%

-11.8% -12.2%-13.1%

-4.8%

-12.2%

-14.7%

-12.8%

-10.7%

Reduction in air and water emissions and in use of raw materials for incontinence products 1995-2002

Waste -10%

%

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

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were assessed. None of the systemsstudied were found to be environ-mentally preferable. The study foundthat for all three systems the impactsfrom waste management do notcontribute substantially to the overalltotals. It also concluded that theglobal warming and non-renewableresource depletion impacts over the2.5 years in which a child is assumedto be using diapers are comparablewith driving a car between 1300 and2200 miles.

The study identifies where and givesrecommendations on how manu-facturers of the different types ofdiaper can improve the environmentalimpact of their products. We takethese recommendations seriouslyand continue to explore how best ourmember companies can implementfurther improvements in the design

and manufacture of disposablediapers as part of our continuedefforts and commitment tosustainable development.

The disposable diaper industry acceptsits responsibility towards the environ-ment. As reported in previous chapters,we have made considerable advancesin the reduction of raw materials,water, and energy usage in babydiapers. Over the past 17 years as aresult of product innovation theaverage weight of a diaper has beenreduced by around 40 per cent,resulting in significant advances inseveral environmental impactcategories such as global warmingpotential and photochemical ozonecreation potential.

Incontinence productsIn 2004 the absorbent hygiene

products industry conducted a lifecycle inventory (LCI) analysis ofan adult incontinence diaper. Thiswas conducted by an independentresearch institute, the GermanIFEU (Institut für Energie undUmweltforschung), comparing anequivalent all-in-one incontinencediaper product from 1995 withone from 2002.

The LCI analysis confirmed thatthere has been very positiveprogress over the 7 year period.Graph 13 shows the change inmaterial composition between theyears 1995 and 2002. Bars at theleft side illustrate reduction andbars to the right illustrate anincrease. The functional unit ofthe LCI is consumption over oneyear of adult diapers for oneperson suffering average inconti-nence problems; estimated to be1,700 pieces. The changes inproduct composition resulted in animprovement in key parameters foremissions to the air and water aswell as for the input of energy to theproduction process.

An analysis of the drivers behindreduced energy consumption showsthat the change is due to improvedproduct design as well as improve-ments in the individual components.

The analysis was divided into threephases: production, usage anddisposal. For many parameters,disposal makes only limited contri-butions to the overall results. Inmost impact categories only around25 per cent or significantly lessresults from solid waste disposal; the majority of the burdens stemfrom other processes for example the extraction of natural resources,manufacturing and transport.

Fossil energy use for incontinence products 1995-2002

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Used incontinence diapers aretreated as part of municipal solidwaste. They are compatible withprevailing waste treatment optionsand can be processed in existingwaste management systems.

With the LCA method we have a toolnot only for monitoring and communi-cating the continuous improvement ofthe product’s environmental impactbut also for identifying potential areasfor improvement.

Integrated wastemanagement

Waste is an inevitable product ofsociety. Solid waste managementpractices were initially developed toaddress the adverse effects on publichealth of the ever growing amountsof solid waste being discardedwithout appropriate collection ordisposal. Managing waste effectivelybecomes an increasingly importantchallenge to modern society. As asociety we have to focus onproducing less waste while at thesame time ensuring we have aneffective system for managing thewaste that is produced.

There are four major considerationsin developing sustainable wastemanagement systems. They need to:1. Ensure human health and safety;

they must be safe for workers andmust safeguard public health bypreventing the spread of disease;

2. Be environmentally effective; thewaste management system mustreduce as much as possible theenvironmental burdens of wastemanagement (emissions to land,air and water, such as CO2,

CH4, SOx, NOx, BOD, COD andheavy metals);

3. Be economically affordable; thewaste management system mustalso operate at a cost acceptableto the community, which includesall private citizens, businesses andgovernment;

4. Be socially acceptable; the wastemanagement system must operatein a manner that is acceptablefor the majority of people in thecommunity. This is likely torequire an extensive dialoguebetween municipal authoritiesand many different groups toinform and educate, developtrust and gain support.

Deciding the point of balancebetween environmental burden,cost and social acceptability will be a challenge and will inevitablygenerate debate; there will alwaysbe the need for trade-offs. What is certain, however, is that betterdecisions can be made if compre-hensive data on environmentalburdens and costs are available and are shared openly amongst the interested parties. Indeed, suchdata can often prompt ideas forfurther improvements.

In Europe the development of more sustainable wastemanagement systems is charac-terised by the adoption of anintegrated approach to wastemanagement system design. For the purposes of this reportintegrated waste management isdefined as a system which includes: •All types of solid waste materials;the alternative of focusing onspecific materials, either becauseof their ready recyclability (e.g.aluminium) or their public profile(e.g. plastics) is likely to be less

effective in both environmentaland economic terms than taking amulti-material approach;

•All sources of solid waste; wastessuch as domestic, commercial,industrial, institutional,construction and agricultural.Hazardous waste needs to be dealtwith within the system, but in aseparate stream. Focusing on thesource of a material (on packagingor domestic waste or industrialwaste) is likely to be less productivethan focusing on the nature of thematerial, regardless of its source.

An integrated system needs toinclude an optimised waste collectionsystem and efficient sorting, whichis then followed by one or more ofthe options below in order torecover value as either materials,organics or energy prior tolandfilling the residues:•Materials recycling, which willrequire access to reprocessing facilities;

•Biological treatment of organicmaterials to produce marketablecompost and to reduce volumesfor disposal. Anaerobic digestionalso produces methane that canbe burned to generate energy;

•Thermal treatment such as incin-eration, which will reduce volume,render residues inert and shouldinclude energy recovery;

•Landfill, which will either increaseamenity via land reclamation orwill, through well-engineeredsites, at least minimise pollutionand loss of amenity.

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recycling, composting and thermaltreatment all leave some residualmaterial that needs to be landfilled;however, it recovers almost novalue from the waste. Use of theother options is necessary prior to landfilling in order to divert the key recoverable parts of thewaste stream. This approach willreduce the volume and improve the physical and chemical stabilityof the final residue. This will reduceboth the space requirement and theenvironmental burdens of the landfill.

Diapers andincontinence productsin municipal solidwaste

Much of the discussion about babydiapers and the environment hasfocused on their contribution tosolid waste. In those householdswhere baby diapers are used, theynaturally seem to represent asignificant proportion of what goesinto the bin. However, only one in14 households on average will beusing diapers at any one time.

Current estimates are that babydiapers make up about 2 per centof municipal solid waste (MSW)in Europe. By comparison, paper and board, garden waste and food waste each comprise between 18 and 20 per cent ofMSW. It is difficult to be preciseabout municipal solid waste data inEurope because of the differentdata sources available across theregion. It is estimated, however,that municipal solid waste comprisesaround 8-15 per cent of all wastein Europe (depending on what isincluded in its definition).

Therefore waste from baby andincontinence diapers only comprisesbetween 0.3 and 0.4 per cent oftotal solid waste.

LandfillLandfill stands alone as the only waste disposal method thatcan accept all materials in thesolid waste stream. It is alsoconsidered the simplest, and in

many areas the cheapest disposalmethod and has historically beenrelied on for the majority of solidwaste disposal. In severalEuropean countries (the UK,Ireland, Spain, Greece), the USAand virtually all developingcountries, landfilling continues tobe the principal waste disposalmethod. As land prices andenvironmental pressure increase,

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however, it is becoming moredifficult to find suitable landfillsites, and so this position showssigns of changing.

The principal objective of landfillingis the safe long-term disposal of solidwaste, from both a health andenvironmental viewpoint. Today,landfills in most industrialisedcountries, and increasingly in thedeveloping world (as economic andsocial conditions allow), areconstructed with environmentalprotection as a first priority. Theselandfills use clay or plastic linerswhere solid waste is added in aseries of layers and covered withheavy soil, thereby preventing waterfrom seeping through it and perco-lating into underground watersupplies. Many sites today aredesigned to capture the methane gas(CH4) which builds up inside and touse it as fuel.

Diapers and incontinence productsbehave like other forms of MSWand are readily compressed andcontained in landfills. Testsconducted under a variety ofconditions simulating landfillsdemonstrate that these materialsdo not present any public healthor environmental safety risk (seeReferences, Solid wastemanagement and disposal p. 54).

Incineration (thermal treatment)Thermal treatment of solid wastewithin an integrated wastemanagement system can include atleast three distinct processes: massburn, refuse-derived fuel burn, andpaper and plastic fuel burn. Themost well known is mass-burning, or incineration, of mixed municipal

solid waste (MSW) in large incinerator plants. There are twoadditional ‘select-burn’ processeswhereby combustible fractions fromthe solid waste are burned as fuels.These fuels can be separated frommixed MSW either mechanically toform refuse-derived fuel (RDF), orcan be source-separated materialsfrom household collections such aspaper and plastic, which have beenrecovered but not recycled. Theincineration of solid waste canfulfil three distinct objectives:1. Volume reduction; depending on

its composition, incineratingMSW reduces the volume ofsolid waste to be disposed of byon average 90 per cent and itsweight by 70-75 per cent. Thishas both environmental andeconomic advantages since thereis less demand for final disposalto landfill, as well as reducedcosts and environmental burdensfrom transportation if a distantlandfill is used;

2. Stabilisation of waste; incineratoroutput (ash) is considerablymore inert than incinerator input (MSW), mainly due to the oxidation of the organiccomponent of the waste stream.This leads to reduced landfillmanagement problems since it is the organic fraction that isresponsible for landfill gasproduction and the organiccompounds present in landfillleachate. Incinerator output canalso be used for other purposes;for example the larger partic-ulate ash is used to make hardcore for road building;

3. Recovery of energy from waste(EfW); this represents a valor-isation method, rather than just a pretreatment of waste prior

to disposal. Energy recoveredfrom burning waste is used togenerate steam for use in on-siteelectricity generation or exportto local factories and districtheating schemes. Combined heatand power (CHP) plants increasethe efficiency of energy recoveryby producing electricity as wellas utilising the residual heat.Often viewed as a ‘renewableresource’, burning solid wastecan replace use of fossil fuels forenergy generation. As a largepart of the energy content ofMSW comes from trulyrenewable resources (biomass),there should be a lower overallnet carbon dioxide productionthan from burning fossil fuels,since carbon dioxide is absorbedin the initial growing phase ofthe biomass.

Diapers and incontinence productscan be incinerated in all modernincinerators, including thosedesigned for energy recovery.Relative to average municipalsolid waste, they do not adverselyaffect safety or regulatedemissions from waste to energyincineration processes, and arecompatible with waste to energyoperations and energy recoverysystems in incinerator plants.Diapers and incontinence productsconsist of commonly used materialswhich can be safely incineratedunder a variety of combustionconditions. They do not formunusual or uniquely toxic emissionproducts. In fact, they can positivelycontribute to the effectiveness ofthermal treatment because:•The high quality of diapermaterials positively affects theoverall ash quality in terms of

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heavy metal load because of thelow amounts of heavy metalscompared to average municipalsolid waste;

•The low ash content of diapersensures a very high weight/volumereduction (approximately 90 percent) during incineration. Ash production from diapers isless than 10 per cent by weightcompared to 25 per cent or morefor average municipal solid waste.

Biological treatmentBiological treatment can be used totreat both the organic and the non-recyclable paper fractions of solidwaste. Biological treatment can beseparated into two distinctprocesses – aerobic and anaerobictreatment – and therefore twomain treatment types exist;

composting (aerobic) and biogasifi-cation (anaerobic). Either can beused as a pretreatment to reducethe volume and stabilise materialfor disposal in landfills or as a wayof producing valuable productsfrom the waste stream such ascompost and (from biogasification)biogas plus compost.

Biological treatment involves using naturally occurring micro-organisms to decompose thebiodegradable components ofwaste. If left to go to completion,biological processes result in theproduction of gases (mainly carbondioxide and water vapour fromaerobic processes and carbondioxide and methane from anaerobicprocesses) plus a mineralisedresidue. Normally the process is

interrupted when the residue stillcontains organic material, thoughin a more stable form, comprisinga compost-like material.

Almost any organic material can betreated biologically. It is particularlysuitable for many industrial wastesfrom such sources as breweries,fruit and vegetable producers andprocessors, paper mills, sugarmills, and leather, wool and textileproducers. Biological treatment ispreferable to other treatmentssuch as incineration and landfillingfor wet organic material whosehigh water content and putresciblenature can cause problems. At thelocal community level, it is widelyused to treat sewage sludge andorganic waste from parks andgardens. It is estimated that some


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50-85 per cent (depending ongeography) of MSW could betreated by such methods. Compostingof biowaste and the non-recyclablepaper fraction has been shown to haveno negative effect on the compostingprocess or compost quality.

Today’s diaper and incontinenceproduct raw material composition iscompatible with compostingprovided there is appropriatetechnology available to separate thebiodegradable, cellulose-based partsfrom the synthetic pieces. There areoperations in Europe that acceptdiapers as part of the compostablehousehold waste, in most cases.However, diapers and incontinenceproducts are unsuitable for homecomposting.

Mechanical-biologicaltreatment (MBT)Mechanical-biological pretreatmentis a hybrid technology. It is a combination of mechanical sortingand biological treatment, andsometimes a processing stage toconvert the residual material intorefuse-derived fuel (RDF).

The mechanical stage separatesrecyclables and rejects (batteries,tyres, etc.) to leave an organic fraction. The reject fraction canbe incinerated or landfilled. Theorganic fraction is sent for treatmentusing composting or anaerobicdigestion techniques. The remainingmaterial is of low compost qualityand is required to be incinerated orcan be landfilled if it is biologicallyinert. This process significantlyreduces the weight (through lossof moisture) and organic contentof the output; this in turn resultsin significant reductions in both

the material sent to landfill and inthe methane production fromlandfills. Novel MBT plants offernew approaches to reduce energyrequirements, increase valuerecovery and reduce environmentalimpacts of the system.

The MBT process is clearly able toaccept used disposable diapers. Theshredding process will effectivelyseparate the various raw materialfractions of the diaper. Further downthe process the human waste and pulpwill biodegrade. The remaining inertfraction (e.g., plastic material) willleave the MBT facility as biologicallyinactive residue that can be incineratedor landfilled with reduced volume.

RecyclingMaterial recycling is a valuablecomponent of an integrated solidwaste management strategy. It canhelp conserve resources, it can divertwaste from final treatment anddisposal and it involves the generalpublic in waste management (e.g., cans, paper, bottles). Unlikereuse, recycling typically involves anindustrial process which differs fromthe original process, primarily in thatsome of the virgin resources havebeen replaced by secondary ones.

In public perception, recycling isalways presumed to be environmen-tally preferable. Recycling is acomplex process, however, whichitself consumes resources (totransport, sort, clean and reprocess)and generates waste. In addition,the collection method selected forrecovering recyclables has a majorinfluence on the overall costs ofrecycling as well as on the environ-mental impacts of recycling. Theoverall benefits (societal, economic

and environmental) of recycling arehard to quantify; they depend onmany varying parameters such asmarketability of recyclables,separate collection infrastructureand technical effort.

While recycling as a wastetreatment option might be technicallyconceivable for baby diapers andincontinence products, there is ahigh level of uncertainty about themarketability or reuse of the endproducts. The economic feasibility ofrecycling diapers and incontinenceproducts would be constrained by thehigh costs of collecting the soiledproducts as an individual fraction ofwaste. In addition, the environmentalbenefits for separate recycling of arelatively small waste fraction suchas baby diapers and incontinenceproducts are questionable and wouldbe disproportionately small inrelation to the economic costs.

Industry playing its part to find solutionsThe manufacturers of disposablebaby diapers and incontinenceproducts take their responsibilitiesfor reducing waste very seriously.Individual member companies workhard to reduce the waste that isgenerated in their development andmanufacturing processes as well asin the finished article itself. Werecognise that we can also help tofind new and innovative solutions forreducing waste in the community.

Through EDANA’s membership ofthe Association for the SustainableUse and Recovery of Resources inEurope (ASSURRE), an industry-led multi-sector association whichpromotes sustainable resourcemanagement, we are addressing

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the external challenges of externalwaste. We are currently involvedin two projects:• The Mechanical-Biological

Treatment project is documentingthe technological capabilities ofthis emerging waste treatmentmethod to determine its wasteminimisation potential and itscompatibility with existing infra-structures. This study wascompleted and published inMarch 2005;

• The Sustainable ResourceManagement Through SustainableUrban Management project isa case study of integrated wastemanagement usage in leading citiesin Europe in order to identifythe key drivers that promote thedevelopment of sustainableresource management systemsand to provide examples of whatis possible at local, national andEU policy development levels. It commenced in 2004 and willrun for 12-18 months.

Through involvement with projectslike this we want to improve ourunderstanding of waste issues and in partnership with others be part of the solution.

Environmentalpolicies and instruments

Local authorities, national govern-ments, the European Union andinternational organisations are allincreasingly using environmentalpolicies and instruments in order to pursue environmentalobjectives and to ensure that theseobjectives are integrated intoother sectoral and economicpolicies. Such policies and instruments include: • Taxes and tradable permits;• The extension of producer

responsibility to the post-consumer phase of a product;

• Green public purchasingprogrammes and initiatives;

• Voluntary approaches such asnegotiated agreements, voluntarypublic programmes and unilateralcommitments by firms.

We welcome opportunities to workwith local authorities, nationalgovernments and the EuropeanUnion to identify ways to improvethe environmental efficiency andeffectiveness of our products andactivities. Our experience is thatthe most successful policies andprocedures are developed inpartnership with the relevantparties so that all of the implicationsand consequences can be consideredupfront and policies developedaccordingly.

There are some existing andproposed policy instruments



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(such as eco-labelling andfinancial incentives) which arecause for concern for our industryas it is our view that they operateto discourage innovation or do notmeet their objectives when viewedin a broader context.

While EDANA fully supports theobjectives of prevention andreduction of environmentalburdens, we are concerned theseeco-labelling schemes fail toinform the consumer fully about

the environmental impact ofproducts. Focusing only on onepart of the life cycle of a product,they ignore the other veryimportant dimension of efficientproduct use.

We would like to see more focuson the development of instrumentswhich in our view have a largerpotential for success. Internationalstandards would provide a wayforward – they would providebetter and greater opportunities

for industry involvement in thedevelopment of the standards. Thiswould result in the development of consistent and meaningfulinformation being available toconsumers. Environmentalcommunication in line with productdeclarations (consistent with ISO 14025 Type III/ environ-mental declarations) could also be a possible way forward ascould statements on packaging as prescribed either by laws orindustry voluntary agreements.

“Innovation is the key togreater prosperity. To

innovate is to sustain, socomplacency is not an

option. While innovators bear the upfront cost of

action, society would bear the longer-term costs

of inaction.”

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Sustainable forestmanagement

The use of wood pulp in babydiapers and incontinence productsis a comparatively small part oftotal wood consumption. Paperproducts including newspaper,copy paper, household and hygienepaper consume about 15 per centof the total, worldwide, commercialwood production. Only a very smallamount, less than 1 per cent, isused globally for manufacturingdisposable diapers, feminine careproducts and adult incontinenceproducts.

Fluff pulp is the common namegiven to the cellulosic part of theabsorbent cores in many absorbenthygiene products including diapersand incontinence products. Thereare many different grades of woodpulp derived from different speciesand processes. Hardwood is derivedfrom species classed as Angiospermae(including eucalyptus and oak).Softwood is derived from speciesclassed as Gymnospermae (includingconifer and pine). While mostpaper making processes use bothtypes of wood, fluff pulp uses onlysoftwood fibres. This is because

softwood contains coarse, bulky, long fibres which provide increasedfluid retention and liquid distribution.

Most of the softwood used in babydiapers and incontinence productsmanufacture is grown in the northernhemisphere, mainly in North Americaand Europe. No wood from virgintropical rainforests is used in themanufacture of absorbent hygieneproducts.

Sustainable production of timberis at the core of pulp production.Forests fix carbon in growing treesand well-managed forests actuallyresult in a net increase in thestanding volume of timber overunmanaged forests. Well-managedforests will typically address thefollowing considerations: • Biodiversity conservation;• Sustainable production;• Forest health and vitality;• Soil and water quality;• Global carbon cycles;• Socio-economic benefits;• Cultural heritage.

One of the mechanisms for ensuringforests are well managed is throughthird-party verification of forestmanagement, including environ-

mental and social considerations. We closely follow the development ofdifferent forest certification schemesboth on an international andnational level. There are severalnational, regional and internationalvoluntary schemes including: • The Forest Stewardship Council

(FSC);• The Pan European Forest

Certification (PEFC);• The Sustainable Forestry Initiative

(SFI) in the United States;• The Canadian Standards

Association (CSA).

Members of EDANA are committedto supporting sustainable managementof forests based on sound ecologicalscience, social responsibility andeconomic viability. We encouragethird-party verification or certificationof compliance with sustainableforestry practices when it contributesto improvement in practices. Weencourage development of standards,performance measures, and continualimprovement in best practices forforest ecosystems. We recognisethe benefits the methods employedby certification schemes bring toforest product companies sincemost schemes create a formalorganisational framework for the

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setting of goals and operations as awhole. However, we do not specifycertification by any single organisation.

Pulp production

Pulp production is a high-technologymulti-stage process aimed atextracting the natural polymercellulose from wood. Wood comprises: • cellulose (40-55 per cent);• hemi-cellulose (8-30 per cent);• lignin (20-30 per cent);• other compounds such as lipids,

waxes, resins and proteins (1.5-5 per cent).

Bark is removed from the treesusing a rotating mechanicaldebarker and the bark, togetherwith recovered lignin, can be usedto provide most (or even asurplus) of the energy for the millor can be sold to a combined heatand power plant. The wood is thenbroken down into chips, which areput in to the pulping process. Thelignin (a component of the cellwall), provides the strength andrigidity of the plants and needs tobe removed from the pulp. This isachieved through a number ofprocesses. The woodchips are‘cooked’ in a digester withchemicals, which removes some ofthe lignin. The recovered lignin iseither used for energy or processedand used for a variety of purposessuch as road surfacing and animalfeeds. The cooking chemicals arerecovered and reused. In fact,many mills are largely self-suffi-cient in their energy requirements,reducing the environmental impactof their overall operations.

The pulp is then diluted and bleached,which removes the remaining

lignin and creates the propertiesrequired for the end product. Theelemental chlorine-free (ECF)method uses chlorine dioxide toremove lignin with no persistent,toxic and bio-accumulativecompounds as by-products.Bleaching can also be performedusing non-chlorine basedcompounds such as oxygen,hydrogen peroxide and/or ozone.This is called totally chlorine-free(TCF) bleaching. ECF and TCFproduce pulps with differentproperties, but neither process isenvironmentally superior to theother. Waste products from boththe ECF and TCF methods can berecycled, further reducing anyenvironmental effects.

The resulting pulp can be used onsite in the manufacture of finalproduct or alternatively the watercan be removed and the pulpformed into sheets or reels. This isthen packaged and transported bylorry, ship or rail to customers forfurther use.

Some incontinence products usechemithermomechanical pulp(CTMP) instead of fluff pulp. In this process, woodchips arechemically treated and then heatedand mechanically separated in arefiner. Altering the chemicalconcentrations and temperaturemeans that the properties of thefinal product can be customised.

The baby diaper and incontinenceproducts manu-facturing process

There are three basic processes inthe manufacture of diapers andincontinence products. They are:• The fiberisation of the fluff pulp,

addition of superabsorbentpolymer and absorbent padformation;

• Lamination with films, nonwovensubstrates and elastic elements;

• Shaping, cutting, folding and packaging.

These three elements have remainedthe same over the past two decadeseven though the processes havechanged dramatically with the intro-duction of new technologies. Majorsteps have been taken by manufac-turers to increase production lineefficiency and reduce manufacturingwaste. In terms of raw materialselection, each must be capable ofbeing supplied with consistent quality to support high-speed manufacturing processes.

The technology required for productdevelopment and manufacturing ishighly complex. There are a largenumber of specialist equipment andmaterial manufacturers who workwith the industry to drive processand product efficiencies. A majorconsideration in deciding onmachinery, product and materialdesign innovations is whether theyhave the capacity to consume lessand use thinner, lighter materials.This contributes not only to a betterproduct, but also to better environ-mental performance – a measurethat the industry is committed tocontinue to improve.


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Prudent use of natural resources

The manufacturing process itselfproduces little environmentalimpact. The fluff fiberisation andpad formation process generatesheat, noise and some dust. Normal good manufacturingpractice (often referred to as GMP)requires that these conditions shouldbe controlled within the facility bysoundproofing, ventilation, dust and fibre recycling and air filtrationsystems. There are no significantatmospheric or waterborneemissions caused as a result ofnormal operating conditions.

Lamination of substrates isprimarily achieved by hot meltadhesives; thus avoiding the use ofsolvent-based adhesives and theirassociated environmental and

physiological effects. Typicaladhesive melting temperatures aregenerally in the 130-160 degreescentigrade range. Currently, lowermelting point adhesives are beingdeveloped which may help reducethe energy consumption required tokeep the glue molten.

Creating an anatomic shape inmany hygiene products does createsome offcut waste. However, withappropriate processes in place, thismaterial can be reused or recycledas no contaminants are present.The remaining cut-off material thatcannot be used is safely disposed ofin line with existing and applicableregulations; for example, it can beused as refuse derived fuel.


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The market

Modern baby diapers are used forbabies and young infants untiltoilet-trained. Usage averages at3600-4250 units per child duringthe 'cuddling' period, up to 30months, concentrated mainly in thefirst 18 months, but with theincreasing use of pant diapers andtraining pants, extending into thechild’s toilet-training phase.

Adult incontinence productsincluding fitted briefs, shields andpads, are used by men and womenin cases of illness, temporary orpermanent incapacity and handicapas well as effects of ageing.

The main difference between themarkets served by these twoproducts is that baby diapers areused for the first 2-3 years of theinfant’s life whereas adult use isgenerally long term.

Based on 2002 data, the populationof Western Europe (EU-15, EEAand Switzerland) was around 391million including 21 million infantsfrom 0-4 years and 64 millionadults over 65 years. The accessionof new member states is estimatedto have increased the total

population by 100 million people. The number of children from 0-4years in the European Union isexpected to decline gradually fromaround 20.6 million in 2005 to 19.2 million by 2020. TheEuropean market comprisesdifferent countries forming anumber of regional sub- markets.Overall the European market isabout the same size as the USmarket. There are significantvariations between countries interms of market penetration ofbaby diapers and incontinenceproducts. There is considerablegrowth potential, particularlyamongst the newer member states.

In 2004 the annual volume of babydiaper products sold was estimatedto be 20.25 billion units. Thisestimate includes taped diapers,training pants, pant diapers andinserts. Taped diapers representover 95 per cent of the babydiaper market. The annual marketvalue in 2004 was estimated to bebetween 4 and 5 billion euros.

Over the past 2 years the totalEuropean baby diaper market isestimated to have grown by 2.7per cent. The four largest marketsfor baby diapers are Germany, the

United Kingdom, France and Italy,which together represent 58 percent of the current market. Theseare mature markets which, giventhe demographic trends mentionedabove, are only growing slowly ataround 1.3 per cent. The fastest-growing markets in Europe are theCzech Republic, Sweden, Turkey,Poland and Slovakia which,although currently representingonly 13 per cent of the totalmarket, between them have grownby 9 per cent over the past twoyears and are forecast to continueto grow in the coming years.

In 2004, the total estimated volumeof incontinence products sold was 5 billion pieces which includesbody-worn all-in-one products,(briefs or pants, mostly for severeincontinence), body-worn inserts(light, medium or severe incontinence)and under pads (bed or chair pads).The retail market is becoming anincreasingly important market forthese products and is growing at amuch faster rate than the institutionalmarket. In 2004 it was estimatedthat the value of the market forincontinence products in Europe,the Middle East and Africa tomanufacturers was around 1.5billion euros.

The economic contribution of the diaper and incontinence products industry

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Economic contribution

Increased longevity and the ageingof the baby boomer generation indeveloped markets will continue toincrease demand for age-relatedincontinence products. In addition,the significant transition in distribution from chemists andpharmacies where these productshave been traditionally sold toincreasingly growing mass marketdistribution, will further stimulategrowth.

Employment

In total, the members of EDANAwho manufacture baby diapers andincontinence products employ some100,000 people in Europe; makinga substantial contribution to theeconomic wellbeing of families andcommunities in the countries ofEurope. In 2003/04, some 20,000of those were directly employed inthe manufacture of absorbenthygiene products in Europe. This ismatched by a similar numberupstream within raw materialsupplier industries, not to mentionthose employed downstream inlogistics and commercial operations.

Members of theindustry

EDANA/HAPCO membersManufacturers of absorbent hygiene products

Accantia Health and Beauty www.accantia.com Arbora & Ausonia www.arbora-ausonia.comArquest www.arquest.com Artsana www.artsana.comFater www.fater.it Georgia-Pacific www.gp.com Hayat www.hayat.com.trHyga www.hyga-int.deHygiene Oederan www.hysalma.de Johnson & Johnson www.jnj.com Kimberly-Clark www.kimberly-clark.comLaboratorios Indas www.indas.es Linette www.linette.comOntex www.ontex.bePaper-Pak www.paperpak.com Paul Hartmann www.hartmann-online.comProcter & Gamble www.pg.com – www.eu.pg.com Rostam www.rostam.co.il S.I.L.C. www.silc.itSantex www.santex.itSCA Hygiene Products www.sca.comTyco www.tycohealthcare.fr


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Through this report we have aimedto share information and dataabout how our industry addressessustainable development. We havesought to extend the amount ofinformation available within thepublic domain about our industryand its impact on social, environ-mental and economic aspects of lifein modern society. We believe suchopenness and accountability canonly serve for a better dialogue asit will help to better inform policymakers and company actions.

Baby diapers and incontinenceproducts are an important elementof modern-day life in Europe andwill continue to be so for theforeseeable future. Our industry isvibrant and active, always seekingto bring increased benefits to theusers of our products while at thesame time striving to optimise theefficiency of our resource utilisationand to minimise the environmentalimpact of our processes and ourproducts. We are proud of ourachievements to date as well as being ever mindful of ourresponsibilities.

In baby diapers and incontinenceproducts we produce products that

fulfil an essential purpose in today’sworld. They:• Enhance the quality of life of

babies, parents, disabled people,older people and their carers;

• Have significant skin care benefits;• Have an established safety

profile so they can be used with confidence;

• Meet real consumer needs intoday’s world.

Our industry, although small incomparison to some others, is animportant contributor to theEuropean economy. We:• Employ approximately 100,000

people and, specifically in thebaby diapers and incontinenceproducts sector, employ some20,000 people;

• Have a network of suppliers andbusiness partners researching anddeveloping specialist equipmentand materials, which in turncontributes to Europe’s researchcapabilities and base of practicalknow-how;

• Invest in new technology andinfrastructure in the newlyemerging economies of Centraland Eastern Europe;

• Generate revenues of some 6 billion euros each year.

We are aware of and active infulfilling our social responsibilities.We:• Have policies and procedures in

place for managing corporategovernance and compliance issues;

• Recognise and respond to societalconcerns such as human rights,child labour, worker exploitation,diversity and equal opportunityissues;

• Believe in fair dealing and faircompetition and abide by theseprinciples wherever we operate;

• Listen to our consumers to ensurethat we are addressing theirconcerns in the products thatare brought to the market;

• Contribute actively to thecommunities in which we operate.

Our industry is a minor contributorto solid waste in comparison withother industries and activities. Itrepresents between 0.3 and 0.4 percent of total solid waste and around2 per cent of municipal solid waste.By comparison, food and gardenwaste contribute approximately 10-20 times more to the Europeanaverage municipal solid waste streams.Nevertheless, the industry acceptsits environmental responsibilitiesand works hard to fulfil them.

Summary7


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Summary

We have already made significantenvironmental advances: • The average weight of a baby

diaper has been reduced byaround 40 per cent since 1987;

• We work with our suppliers toensure good practice insustainable forest management;

• We use life cycle assessmenttechniques to assess the environ-mental impact of our productsand processes so that actions can be taken to improve environ-mental performance at all stagesof the product process.

Product innovations resulted in significant environmentalimprovements:• On air emissions, fossil-based CO2

has decreased by 15 per cent andrenewable-based CO2 emissionsdecreased by 60 per cent since1987. For NOx a significantimprovement was recorded in theorder of 30 per cent and SOx

decreased by 15 per cent; • On water emissions, important

aggregated parameters such aschemical oxygen demand (COD)and absorbed halogenatedorganic compounds (AOX)decreased by 70 per cent;

• On four environmental impactcategories we have achievedsignificant reductions since 1987;acidification and nutrificationhave significantly reduced by 20per cent or more, global warmingpotential (greenhouse gas) andphotochemical ozone creationpotential (summer smog) haveimproved by around 15 per cent;

• We work with regulatory author-ities to ensure that environmentalstandards are meaningful;

• We work with others, for examplethe Association for the SustainableUse and Recovery of Resources in Europe, to help find new andinnovative solutions to reducingwaste in the community.

Diaper and incontinence productsmanufacturers know there is stillmuch to do in order to pursue thegoal of sustainable development.We are committed to playing ourpart. We will continue as anindustry to push the boundaries ofour environmental achievementsbecause we recognise that by doingso we will not only work towardsthe important longer-term goal of‘not compromising the ability offuture generations to meet theirneeds’, but it will also help us tomeet the needs of our current andfuture consumers.

In our individual company initiativesand through the work we undertakecollectively as an industry we willcontinue to look to:• Increase the efficiency of our use

of natural resources;• Reduce the amount of waste

we produce;• Reduce the amount of energy

we use;• Reduce our fossil-based CO2

emissions.

We do not and cannot act alone.We need to work in partnershipwith governments at local, nationaland European levels as well aswith consumer and environmentalorganisations and we welcomeopportunities to do so.


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Appendix 1: Glossary

Absorbable halogenated organic (AOX): A standard measurement of organic halogens used for indication of theenvironmental effect of bleach plant effluents. Halogen refers to all thefive elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. In practiceit is a measure of organically-bound chlorine.

Absorbent core: The central component of a diaper or incontinence product to which thefluid is transferred and in which it is then retained.

Absorbent hygiene products: Products designed to absorb bodily fluids through various stages of life.The market is segmented into three major areas: infant and child care,feminine care and adult care; the products include baby diapers, trainingpants, pant diapers, sanitary napkins, panty liners, tampons, incontinencebriefs, inserts and pads.

Acidification: The process whereby air pollution – mainly ammonia, sulphur dioxide andnitrogen oxides – is converted into acid substances.

Acquisition/distribution layer (ADL): The component of a diaper or incontinence product through which thefluid is transferred and distributed within the absorbent core.

Anaerobic digestion: Anaerobic digestion is a biological process that produces a gas principallycomposed of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) otherwise knownas biogas. These gases are produced from organic wastes such aslivestock manure, food processing waste, etc. Anaerobic digestion reducesthe odour and liquid waste disposal problems and produces a biogas fuelthat can be used for process heating and/or electricity generation.

Backsheet: The layer of a diaper or incontinence product made of either polyethylenefilm or nonwoven film composite designed to prevent wetness transferfrom the wearer to their bed or clothes.

Bio-burden: The number and nature of micro-organisms on a product.

Biogenic: Produced by living matter.

Biological oxygen demand (BOD): A standard measurement for the oxygen that wastewater or effluent willconsume by the action of natural bacteria.

Breathable: Allows air circulation.

Candida albicans: Yeast-like organism that can infect the mouth, the skin, the intestines orthe vagina.

Cellulose wadding: A soft, thick (almost cloth-like) material made from paper.

Cellulose: One of many polymers found in nature. Wood, paper and cotton allcontain cellulose which is a fibre made of repeating units of the monomer glucose.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD): A standard measurement for the equivalent oxygen amount that wastewater or effluent will consume when oxidised chemically. The COD valueis an estimation of the total amount of dissolved organic matter.


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Colony forming unit: A measure of viable micro-organisms.

Coverstock: The outer layer of a diaper or incontinence product that is in directintimate contact with the user’s skin. It allows instant transfer of theurine from the point of contact to the inside of the product. Sometimes also referred to as the topsheet.

Defibred wood pulp: Wood pulp that has been put through a hammer mill to separate the fibres into ‘fluff’ which increases the bulk and, as a result, the absorbency of the pulp.

Diaper dermatitis: An irritation of the skin covering the groin, lower stomach, upperthighs and buttocks.

Diaper: Article worn by babies to absorb urine and contain faeces.

Dissolving grade wood pulp: The technical name for fluff pulp.

EDANA: The international association serving the nonwovens and related industries. It protects and actively promotes the common interests of nonwovens andabsorbent hygiene product industries and their suppliers.

Elemental chlorine-free (ECF): A bleaching process that substitutes chlorine dioxide for elemental chlorinein the bleaching process. Compared to elemental chlorine bleachingprocesses, ECF bleaching reduces the formation of many chlorinated organic compounds.

Etiological factors: Scientific factors.

Fiberisation: The separation of wood and other plant material into fibres or fibre bundlesby mechanical (sometimes assisted by chemical) means.

Fluff pulp: The common name for wood pulps used in the absorbent core ofpersonal care products such as diapers, feminine absorbent pads and air laid absorbent products.

Global warming: An increase in the average temperature of the earth's surface, whichoccurs following an increase in greenhouse gases.

Good manufacturing practices (GMPs): Good manufacturing practices (GMPs) are guidelines that describe themethods, equipment, facilities and controls required for producing safeproducts. They require a quality approach to manufacturing, enablingcompanies to minimise or eliminate instances of contamination, mix-ups and errors.

HAPCO: The Hygiene Absorbent Products Manufacturers Committee is run under the auspices of EDANA. It currently consists of 22 companieslocated throughout Europe who represent a dominant share of theproduction of disposable hygiene products: baby diapers, feminine careand absorbent incontinence products. The purpose of HAPCO is topresent a clear understanding of absorbent hygiene products and thebenefits they offer to society.


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Hot melt adhesives: A solid thermoplastic adhesive that melts rapidly when heated and sets toa relatively low-strength bond when cooled. Unlike many other adhesives,hot melt adhesives do not set due to the evaporation of a solvent.

In vivo: In a living organism, as opposed to in vitro (in the laboratory).

Lamination: Bonding thin sheets together.

Life cycle assessment (LCA): A technique for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impactsassociated with a product throughout its entire life cycle, from rawmaterial acquisition through production, use and disposal. An LCAconsists of four steps: goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory (LCI),life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), and interpretation.

Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA): See above.

Life cycle inventory (LCI): See above.

Lignin: A naturally occurring component of plants that helps provide strength inplants. Its presence in paper may contribute to chemical degradation ofthe paper, so it may be removed during paper manufacturing.

Lipases: Enzymes which are active in the digestion of fats.

Nappy: Term used for a diaper in the United Kingdom.

Natural resources: Substances extracted by man from the earth. Examples are iron ore,crude oil, water and wood.

Nitrogenous: Of or relating to or containing nitrogen.

Nonwoven fabrics: Sheet or web structures bonded together by entangling fibres or filaments(and by perforating films) mechanically, thermally or chemically. They areflat, porous sheets that are made directly from separate fibres or frommolten plastic or plastic film. They are not made by weaving or knitting anddo not require converting the fibre to yarn. They are suitable for productsthat have limited life or are single-use, and have specific functions includingabsorbency, liquid repellence, resilience, stretch, softness and strength.

Nonwoven substrates: See above.

Nutrification: The process of phosphorus enrichment causing over-enrichment of lakes and riverswith nutrients, leading to excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants.

Occlusion: A term indicating that the state of something, which is normally open, is nowtotally closed.

pH: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a fluid. The pH of any fluid isthe measure of its range from 0 to 14 on a logarithmic scale, where 0 ismost acid, 14 most alkaline and 7 is neutral.

Photochemical ozone creation potential: The emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can produce ozonein the lower atmosphere by reaction with nitrogen oxides in the presenceof sunlight. This photochemical reaction results in the formation of the


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so-called 'summer smog'. Releases of VOCs to air can be compared onthe basis of their potential to create ozone relative to ethylene.

Polyethylene film: Thin plastic that comes in sheets of different thicknesses and sizes, rolled or folded.

Polypropylene: A thermoplastic material similar to polyethylene but somewhat stifferand with a higher softening point (temperature).

Proteases: Enzymes which cause proteins to break into smaller pieces.

Raw materials: Components of a product. Examples are fluff pulp, nonwoven fabrics and superabsorbent polymer.

Single-use product: A product designed to be discarded after one use.

Superabsorbent polymers (SAP): Granular crosslinked sodium polyacrylates used to absorb aqueous fluids,most commonly in baby diapers, adult incontinent products, femininehygiene products and other products in the personal care markets.

Superinfections: An infection following a previous infection, especially when caused by micro-organisms that have become resistant to the antibiotics used earlier.

Thermal treatment: The treatment of waste in a device which uses elevated temperatures as the primary means to change the chemical, physical, or biologicalcharacter or composition of the hazardous waste. Incineration is anexample of thermal treatment.

Tissue wrap layer: Used in some diaper products around the absorbent core structure or the storage layer. This serves to contain the dry structure during manufacture and assists in preventing distortion or collapse of the core when saturated with liquid.

Topsheet: The outer layer of a diaper or incontinence product that is in direct intimate contact with the user’s skin. It allows instant transfer of theurine from the point of contact to the inside of the product. Sometimesalso referred to as the coverstock.

Totally chlorine free (TCF): A virgin pulp bleaching process that uses oxygen-based compoundsinstead of chlorine-based compounds and chlorine derivatives.

Urea: One of the chief waste products of the body. When the body breaks downfood, it uses what it needs and eliminates the rest as waste. The kidneysflush the waste from the body in the form of urea, which is in the urine.

Valorisation: The capture of energy from incineration.

Wet-strength tissue: Tissue that has been modified by the addition of ‘wet-strength resins’ sothat the tissue does not break up on contact with water.

Wood pulp: Fibre from wood with varying degrees of purification that is used for theproduction of paper, paper board and chemical products.


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Appendix 2: References

Sustainable development1. Our Common Future, 1987.The World Commission on

Environment & Development, Oxford University Press. 2. Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions,

1998. Opportunities for Change: A Consultation Paper on a Revised UK Strategy for Sustainable Development,London, UK.

3. Sustainable Development: The Government’s Approach. - delivering UK sustainable development together -www.sustainable-development.gov.uk

Societal development & lifestyle / skin health improvements1. 1. Perrot, J., 1877. Clinique des nouveux-nés, l’Athrepsie,

Masson & Cie, Paris, 199 2. Literature Summary, "Research Update: Etiology of Diaper

Dermatitis", by Procter & Gamble.3. Campbell, R.L., J.L. Seymour, L.C. Stone and M.C. Milligan,

1987. Clinical Studies with Disposable Diapers ContainingAbsorbent Gelling Materials: Evaluation of Effects on InfantSkin Condition. Journal of the American Academy ofDermatology, 17-978.

4. Seymour, J.L., B.H. Keswick, J.M. Hanifin, W.P. Jordan andM.C. Milligan, 1987. Clinical Effects of Diaper Types on theSkin of Normal Infants and Infants with Atopic Dermatitis.Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 17-988.

5. Campbell, R.L., A.V. Bartlett, F.C. Sarbaugh and L.K.Pickering, 1988. Effects of Diaper Types on Diaper DermatitisAssociated with Diarrhea and Antibiotic Use in Children inDay-Care Centers. Pediatric Dermatology, 5-83.

6. Lane, A.T., P.A. Rehder and K. Helm, 1990. Evaluations ofDiapers Containing Absorbent Gelling Material withConventional Disposable Diapers in Newborn Infants. AmericanJournal of Diseases of Children, 144-315.

7. Austin, A.P., M.C. Milligan, K. Pennington and D.H. Tweito,1988. A Survey of Factors Associated with Diaper Dermatitisin Thirty-Six Pediatric Practices. Journal of Pediatric HealthCare 2-295.

8. Hillis, S.D., C.M. Miranda, M. McCann, D. Bender and K.Weigle, 1992. Day Care Center Attendance and DiarrhealMorbidity in Columbia. Pediatrics, 90-582.

9. Ekanem, H.L. DuPont, and L.K. Pickering, 1983. TransmissionDynamics of Enteric Bacteria in Day-Care Centers. AmericanJournal of Epidemiology 118-562.

10. Morrow, A.L., I.T. Townsend and L.K. Pickering, 1991. Risk ofEnteric Infection Associated with Child Day Care. PediatricAnnals, 20-8.

11. Shapiro, C.N. and S.C. Hadler, 1991. Hepatitis A andHepatitis B Virus Infections in Day-Care Settings. PediatricAnnals; 20-8.

12. Pass, R.F., 1991. Day-Care Centers and the Spread ofCytomegalovirus and Parvovirus B19. Pediatric Annals 20-8.

13. Van, R., C. Wun, A.L. Morrow and L.K. Pickering, 1991. TheEffect of Diaper Type and Overclothing on Fecal Contaminationin Day-Care Centers. Journal of the American MedicalAssociation 265-1840.

14. Berg, R.W., 1993. Containment Performance: a Comparison ofCloth and Paper Diapers. Technical Association of the Pulp andPaper Industry Journal. 76-142.

15. Novotny,T.E., R.S. Hopkins, P. Shillam and E.N. Janoff, 1990.Prevalence of Giardia lamblia and Risk Factors for Infectionamong Children Attending Day-Care Facilities in Denver. PublicHealth Reports 105-72.

16. Donowitz, L.G. (Ed.), 1991. Infection Control in the Child CareCenter and Preschool.

17. American Academy of Pediatrics and the American PediatricHealth Association, 1992. Caring for Our Children - NationalHealth and Safety Performance Standards: Guidelines for Out-of-Home Child Care Programs.

18. American Hospital Association, 1992. Diapering and HealthCare: A Research Update. (Videotape).

19. Help for Incontinent People Fact Sheet, 1990. 'HIP's PositionStatement Regarding Availability of Disposable AbsorbentProducts'.

20. American Paper Institute Fact Sheet, 1991. "23 Facts aboutDisposable Diapers".

21. Osterholm, M., 1990. Letter to Minnesota Hospital Association.22. Hartway, S., 1991. Letter to Maternal Child Nursing 16-178.23. 'Diaper Decisions', 1991. Consumer Reports, August, 551.24. 'Welche Halten dicht?' 1992. Stiftung Warentest, October, 63-67.25. Hershkowitz, A. ,1990. Natural Resources Defense Council,

Mothers and Others Newsletter.26. EDANA, 2001. Diapers: Health Benefits and Environmental

Aspects, Belgium.27. Akin, F., M. Spraker, R. Aly, J. Leyden, W. Raynor and W.

Landin, 2001. Effects of breathable disposable diapers: reducedprevalence of Candida and common diaper dermatitis,Paediatric Dermatology. 2001 Jul-Aug; 18(4):282-90.

28. Bonifazi, E., G. Scanni, I. De Bartolo, M. Carriera, C.DiCagno and R. Filotico, 1987. Results of an Efficacy ClinicalDiaper Study with Superabsorbent Panty Diaper, in: “DiaperDermatitis: later insights into pathogenesis, prophylaxis andtherapy ”, Proceedings of the 2nd international conference ondiapering and infant skin care, 30th May, Dortmund, TronnierH., Schmitt G.J. (Eds), Verlag medical concept Jochen Knips,Neufahrn, 107.

29. Contemporary Paediatrics, Disposable Diapers: Effective andSafe, Supplement to March 2000 issue (3/00), 18 pages.

30. Mesuere, K. and I. Hatzopoulos, 1997. AchievingEnvironmental Progress in the Absorbent Hygiene Industry.Proceedings EDANA’s 1997 Nordic Nonwovens Symposium,XVII/1-9. EDANA, Brussels, Belgium.

31. Runeman, B., Borres, M.P., Faergemann, J., Larkö, O., 2000.European Journal of Pediatric Dermatology, Vol 10, 17-24.

32. Wolff, H.H., 1987. The Skin Care Effectiveness of Diaper Pantswith Highly Absorbent Pads, in “Diaper Dermatitis: LaterInsights into Pathogenesis, Prophylaxis and Therapy.“Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Diaperingand Infant Skin Care, 30th May, Dortmund.

33. Tronnier, H. and G.J. Schmitt (Eds), 1999. Verlag MedicalConcept Jochen Knips, Neufahrn

34. Atherton, D.J., 2004. A Review of the Pathophysiology,Prevention and Treatment of Irritant Diaper Dermatitis.Current Medical Research Opinion; 20(5):645-9.

35. Baldwin, S., M.R. Odio, S.L. Haines, R.J. O'Connor, J.S.Englehart and A.T. Lane, 2001. Skin Benefits from ContinuousTopical Administration of a Zinc Oxide/Petrolatum Formulationby a Novel Disposable Diaper, Journal of the EuropeanAcademy of Dermatology and Venereology; 15 Suppl 1:5-11.

36. Odio, M. and S.F. Friedlander, 2000. Diaper Dermatitis andAdvances in Diaper Technology, Current Opinion in Pediatrics;12(4):342-6.

37. Odio, M.R., R.J. O'Connor, F. Sarbaugh and S. Baldwin, 2000.Continuous Topical Administration of a Petrolatum Formulationby a Novel Disposable Diaper. 2. Effect on skin condition, 3:Dermatology 200(3):238-43.

38. Atherton, D.J., 2001. The Aetiology and Management ofIrritant Diaper Dermatitis, Journal of the European Academyof Dermatology and Venereology; 15 Suppl 1:1-4.

39. Kazaks, E.L. and A.T. Lane, 2000. Diaper Dermatitis,Pediatric Clinician North America 47(4):909-19.

40. Kubiak, M., B. Kressner, W. Raynor, J. Davis and R.E.Syverson, 1993. Comparison of Stool Containment in Cloth andSingle-Use Diapers using a Simulated Infant Faeces. TheAmerican Academy of Pediatrics, Volume 91, Issue 3, 632-636.

41. Campbell, R.L., A.V. Bartlett, F.C. Sarbaugh and L.K.Pickering, 1988. Effects of Diaper Types on Diaper Dermatitisassociated with Diarrhoea and Antibiotic Use in children inDay-Care Centers. Pediatric Dermatology; 5 (2): 83-87.


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42. Van, R., C.C. Wun, A.L. Morrow and L.K. Pickering, 1991. The Effect of Diaper Type and Overclothing on FaecalContamination in Day-Care centres. Journal of the AmericanMedical Association; 265 (14); 1840-1844.

43. Davis Dyer, The Winthrop Group Inc., 2005. Seven Decades of Disposable Diapers: A record of Continuous Innovation andExpanding Benefit, EDANA, Brussels.

Commitment to safety1. Rittmann, B.E., J.E. Sutfin and B. Henry, 1992.

Biodegradation and sorption properties of polydisperse acrylatepolymers. Biodegradation 2: 181-191.

2. Obenski, B., 1994. Superabsorbent Polymers - A growingspecialty commodity. Nonwovens Industry.

3. SRI International: Chemical Economics Handbook 1987:Marketing Research Report, Synthetic Water-Soluble Polymers.

Life cycle assessment/disposable and cloth comparisons1. ISO 14040 Series (LCA Standards). International

Standardization Organization.2. Haskoning, Learning Experience with Life Cycle Assessment

taking Diaper LCA studies as an Example, 1996. A StudyPrepared for Procter & Gamble GmbH.

3. Haskoning, 1993. Further Research Environmentally ApprovedDiapers, Prepared for the Dutch Foundation for theEnvironmental Product Labelling, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.

4. Dall, O., Toft., J 1994. Environmental Impact Assessment ofDiapers. Final Report I/S Okoannalyse, Denmark.

5. Sandgreen, J., 1993. Screening Life Cycle Assessment forComparison of Cloth and Disposable Diapers used in Norway.Technical Report to the Norwegian State Pollution ControlAuthority, Det Norske Vertas Industri Norge AS, ProjectNo.92302019, Hovik, Norway.

6. Sauer, B. J., C.C. Hildebrandt, W.E. Franklin and R.G. Hunt,2004. Kozmiensky, K.J., Resource and EnvironmentalToxicology and Chemistry of Children's Diapering Systems.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 13(6):1003-1009.

7. Lentz, R., Franke, M. and Thome-Kozmiensky, K.J., 1989.Vergleichende Umweltbilanzen für Produkte am Beispiel vonHöschen- und Baumwollwindeln. In: Konzepte in derAbfallwirtschaft 2. EF Verlag für Energie- und UmwelttechnikGmbH (Schenkel, W. und Thome-Kozmiensky, K.J., ed.).

8. MRI, 1974. Resource and Environmental Impacts of PampersDisposable Diapers and Cloth Diapers. Final Report to theProcter & Gamble Company. MRI Project No 3746- D,Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City, Missouri.

9. Nylander, G., 1991. Disposable Diapers Cloth Diapers. A Comparison. STFI, Stockholm Sweden10.Vizcarra, A.T., P.H. and Lo, K.V., 1994. “A Life CycleInventory of Baby Diapers Subject to Canadian Conditions"Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 13(10):1707-1716.

11. Fava, J. A., M.A. Curran, I. Boustead and I. Parrish, 1991.Peer Review Panel’s comments on Franklin Associates, Ltd'sReport: Energy and Environmental Profile Analysis ofChildren's Disposable and Cloth Diapers". Dated July 1990.

12. Franklin Associates Limited, 1992. Energy and EnvironmentalProfile Analysis of Children's Disposable and Cloth Diapers".Revised Report.

13. Dean, W, R., (Consulttech), 1992. Technical Report, "HygieneDisposable Products and the Environment: A Responsibility and Partnership".

14. European Disposables and Nonwovens Association (EDANA), TheEDANA LCA Project, A Case Study, 1997, Brussels, Belgium.

15. Hatzopoulos I. Pampers Baby Diapers EnvironmentalInformation P&G Internal Information 1999.

16. Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie e.V. (BDI) Federationof German Industries, 1999. Implementation of Life CycleAssessments (LCIs) to inform the public and politicians.

17. Consumentengids (1997). Alle baby’s blij. May edition.18. UK Environment Agency, 2005. Life Cycle Assessment of

Disposable and Reusable Nappies in the UK, HMSO London.19. Giegrich, J., Böß, A., Fehrenbach, H., 2004. Life Cycle Data

for Incontinence Products, IFEU (Institut für Energie undUmweltforschung), Heidelberg, Report for EDANA, Brussels.

20. Pant, R., B. Spak and I. Hatzopoulos, 2005. A Life CycleAssessment Trend Analysis of Disposable Baby Diapers. Posterat the 15th annual meeting of the Society of EnvironmentalToxicology and Chemistry (SETAC, Europe), Lille (France),23.05.2005.

Integrated waste management1. White, P.R., M. Franke and P. Hindle, 1998. Integrated Solid

Waste Management - A Life Cycle Inventory, BlackieAcademic & Professionals, Chapman & Hall.

2. McDougall, F., P.R. White, M. Franke and P. Hindle, 2001.Integrated Solid Waste Management - A Life Cycle Inventory,2nd Edition, Blackwell Science.

3. Area Metropolitana de Barcelona, 1997. ProgramaMetropolita de Gestio de Reisus Municipals. (1997-2006).

4. Brinson I.E., 1997. Assessing the Waste Hierarchy - a SocialCost-Benefit Analysis of Municipal Solid Waste Management inthe European Union. AKF, Institute of Local GovernmentStudies, Denmark. Available at www.akf.dk/eng.

5. Department of Environment (DOE), 1995. Making WasteWork; a strategy for sustainable waste management in Englandand Wales. Department of the Environment. HMSO, London.117 pages.

6. Coopers & Lybrand, 1996. Cost-benefit Analysis of theDifferent Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems:Objectives and Instruments for the Year 2000. Final Report for European Commission, DGXI.

7. UK Environment Agency, 1998. Life Cycle Programme forWaste Management. Programme profile. Environment Agency.

8. European Recovery and Recycling Association (ERRA),Briefing Paper: Polluter Pays - The Case for Variable Pricing of Household Waste; - Brussels, Belgium; also available atwww.erra.be.

9. European Recovery and Recycling Association, (ERRA)Briefing Paper: The Case of Integrated Waste Management ;Brussels, Belgium ; also available at www.erra.be.

10. European Recovery and Recycling Association (ERRA) Report:Towards Integrated Management of Municipal Solid Waste -Case Studies; A study by the University of Louvain-la-NeuveBusiness School; Brussels, Belgium.

11. European Recovery and Recycling Association (ERRA) 1998.Variable Pricing: Effectively Managing the Impact ofHousehold Waste. Review, Issue 5 Brussels, Belgium, alsoavailable at www.erra.be.

12. Franke, M., McDougall, F. and Sher, F., 1999. IntegratedWaste Management in European Analysis of 11 Case Studies.Conference Proceedings in English and Chinese presented at the United Nations Chinese Mayors Conference on MunicipalSolid Waste Management and Landfill Gas Utilization, March23-25, 1999, Nanjing.

13. Franke, M. and F. McDougall, 1999. LCA and its PracticalUse; Conference proceedings in English and Spanish presentedat Aires "1st International Seminar about Waste Minimizationand Recycling" ARS (Asociation Para El Estudio De LosResiduos Solidos), May 3-4, 1999, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

14. London, Ontario, Council Report, 1997. Overview: TheRecommended Waste Management Strategy forLondon/Middlesex.

15. McDougall, F. and J. Fonteyne, 1999. Interpretation of Datafrom Case Studies of European Waste Management Systems;ERRA - European Recovery and Recycling Association,Brussels, Belgium.

16. McDougall, F.R. and P.R. White, 1998. The Use of LifecycleInventory to Optimize Integrated Solid Waste Management


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Systems: A Review of Case Studies. Paper presented at Systems Engineering Models for Waste Management.Gothenburg, Sweden.

17. Nelson, N., P.R. White and J. Fonteyne, 1998. Trade andCompetition Issues: Extended Producer Responsibility andCompetition. Paper presented at OECD workshop on EPRPhase 3, No.2. Helsinki.

18. Steele, A., N. Sherwood, J. Powell and T. Robson (in press),Using Life Cycle Inventory Analysis in the Development of aWaste Management Strategy for Gloucestershire, UK.

19. Thorneloe, S.A. et al., U.S. EPA, 1995. Overview of Researchto Conduct Life-Cycle Study to Evaluate Alternative Strategiesfor Integrated Waste Management. Presented at Solid WasteManagement: Thermal Treatment and Waste-to-EnergyTechnologies, Washington D.C.

20. Thurgood, M., 1998. Modeling Waste Management. AnEnvironmental Life Cycle Inventory and Economic CostAnalysis Model for Municipal Solid Waste Management.Warmer Bulletin 58: 4-7.

21. Union of Industrial and Employers' Confederations of Europe(UNICE), 1999. Position Paper on IRWM - IntegratedResource and Waste Management, Brussels Belgium.

22. Union of Industrial and Employers' Confederations of Europe:1999 UNICEs Agenda for Promoting Sustainability -Memorandum to the European Institutions, also available atwww.unice.org.

23. Waste Management Information Center, 1995. A CleanLand...the Danish Solution, No. 3 Incineration, Rendan A/S,376 Gladsaxevej, DK-2860 Soborg, Denmark.

24. Wilson, E., 1998. Life Cycle Inventory Tools in Pamplona.Warmer Bulletin 58:13-15.

Solid waste management and disposal1. Price Waterhouse Coopers, 1998. The Facts: A European

Cost/Benefit Perspective. Management Systems for PackagingWaste. Utrecht.

2. VROM, 1996. Environmental and Technical-EconomicAssessment of Diaper/Inco Waste Treatment Options in TheNetherlands. Final Report 1996/24. Ministry of Housing, SpatialPlanning and the Environment, The Hague, The Netherlands.

3. National Environmental Technology Center, 1995. The NationalHousehold Waste Analysis Project. Phase 2, Volume 3, ChemicalAnalysis Data. Report No. CMW/087/94. Department of theEnvironment, Wastes Technical Division, London, UK.

4. Vogtmann, H., K. Fricke and T. Turk, 1993. Quality, PhysicalCharacteristics, Nutrient Content, Heavy Metals and OrganicChemicals in Biogenic Waste Compost. Compost Science &Utilization, 1(4), 69-87.

5. Maricou, H., W. Verstraete and K. Mesuere, 1998. HygienicAspects of Biowaste Composting: Airborne MicrobialConcentrations as a Function of Feed Stock, Operation andSeason. Waste Management & Research, 16(4), 304-311.

6. Jager, E., Rüden, H., and B. Zeschmar-Lahl, 1994.Kompostierungsanlagen. 2. Mitteilungen: AerogeneKeimbelastung an verschiedenen Arbeitsbereichen vonKompostierungsanlagen. Zentralblatt für Hygiene undUmweltmedizin, 196, 367-379.

7. Sulfita, J., et al., 1992. The World’s Largest Landfill. A Multidisciplinary Investigation. Environmental Science &Technology, 26 (8), 1486-1495.

8. Huber, M. S., et al., 1994. Study of Persistence of EntericViruses in Landfilled Disposable Diapers. Environmental Science& Technology, 28(9), 1767-1772.

9. Gerba, C.P., et al., 1995. Occurrence of Enteric Pathogens inComposted Domestic Solid Waste Containing Disposable Diapers.Waste Management & Research, 13, 315-324.

10. Organic Waste Systems, 1997. Integrated Treatment ofDisposable Diapers with Biowaste. Dranco biogasification plantin Brecht, Belgium. Technical report to P&G.

11. Pearce, F., 1997. Burn Me. New Scientist, 31-34 (22 November).

12. White, P. R., 1997. LCA: A Waste Policy Tool? Warmer Bulletin,54, 20-21.

13. European Commission, 1997. Economic Evaluation of the DraftIncineration Directive. A Report Produced for the EuropeanCommission, DGXI. Office for official publications of theEuropean Communities.

14. European Commission, 1998. Proposal for a council directive on the incineration of Waste. Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, C 372/11-26.

15. Schmeken, W., 1993. Technische Anleitung Siedlungsabfall.Deutscher Gemeindeverlag und Verlag W. Kohlhammer.

16. European Commission, 1997. Proposal for a Council Directive on the Landfill of Waste. Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, C 156/10-26.

17. Light, K.L., D.G. Chirmuley and R.K. Ham, 1995. A LaboratoryStudy of the Compaction Characteristics of Disposable Diapers ina Landfill. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 13, 89-96.

18. Schroll, M., 1998. The German Packaging Ordinance:Questionable Effects of a Fragmentary Solid Waste ManagementApproach. Berichte aus der Angewandten InnovationsforschungNo 175. An der Ruhr-Universität Bochum.

19. UCL, 1998. Towards Integrated Management of Municipal SolidWaste. Universite catholique de Louvain, Institutd’Administration et de Gestion, Centre Entreprise-Environnement. August 1998.

20. European Recovery and Recycling Association, 1998. Directive94/62/EC and Beyond: Towards a Reform of EU Waste Policy.Report: ERRA 1998 Symposium, Brussels, Belgium.

21. Van Tuijn, J., et al., 1994. Afvalverwerking in Nederland. VolopNieuwe Technieken: Wie Durft? Mileukrant, 8, May 94.

22. Anonymous, 1998. Signs of Change? Warmer Bulletin, 59, 8-9.23. EEWC, 1997. Integrated Waste Management in Practice. A

Case Study of the GAVI Plant - Wijster, the Netherlands.Powerpoint, Winter issue, 1-2.

24. Brown, M., 1996. Cogeneration - Maximising Energy Recovery.Powerpoint, Spring issue.

25. Meier, W.P. 1997. Modern Baby Diapers: Health benefits andenvironmental considerations. Nonwovens World.

26. Franke, M. and A. Garmendia,1999. The Application ofExperience in European Integrated Waste Management to LatinAmerican Conditions.

27. Dean, W.R., (Consulttech, UK), 1992. Technical Report, "HygieneDisposable Products and the Environment: A ResponsiblePartnership".28. White, P.R., M. Franke and P. Hindle, 1995. ALaboratory Study of the Compaction Characteristics ofDisposable Diapers in a Landfill. Resources Conservation andRecycling, 13:89-96.

28. 28. White, P.R., M. Franke and P. Hindle, 1995. A LaboratoryStudy of the Compaction Characteristics of Disposable Diapers ina Landfill. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 13:89-96.

29. Miyamori, K., 1991. Incineration Test for Disposable Diapers,EDANA's 1991 International Nonwovens Symposium, Monte- Carlo.

30. Scherer, P., R. Lentz and R. Carra, 1990. "Co-biogasification ofWastepaper Products With Separately Collected MSW, CompostScience & Utilization. 3:31-35.

31. Jager, J., T. Obermeier, and von Ohlen, S., 1990. Co-Komposting von Hochenwindeln und Bioabfall imKompostwerk Allar. Endbericht, ITU (Ingenieurgemeinschafttechnischer UmweltschutzGmbH).

32. Gellans, V., J. Boelens and W. Verstaete, 1995. SourceSeparation, Selective Collection and in Reactor Digestion of Biowaste.

33. Verschut, C. and T.D. Brethouwer, 1994. "Composting of aMixture of VFG Waste and Used Paper Diapers, TNO Report.

34. Eurostat, 1994. Europe's Environment 1993: StatisticalCompendium. Statistical Office of the EC.

35. IEA International Energy Agency Integrated Solid WasteManagement. Info Sheet No. 3 Materials recycling.

36. IEA (International Energy Agency) ISWM Info Sheet No.4Biological treatment.


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37. Franklin Associates 1992, Energy and Environmental ProfileAnalysis’s of Children’s Single Use and Cloth Diapers, AmericanPaper Institute Diaper Manufacturers Group, Kansas, USA.

38. Sufita, J .M., et al. (1992). Environmental Science andTechnology, 26, 1486-1495.

39. Huber, M. S. (1994). Environmental Science and Technology 28,1767-1772.

40. Boelens, J. et al: (1996). Compost Science & Utilization, 4(1): 60-72.

41. Beyea, J., L. DeChant, B. Jones and M. Conditt, 1992.Composting Plus Recycling Equals 70 percent Diversion.BioCycle May: 72-75.

42. Gellens, V., J. Boelens and W. Verstraete, 1995. SourceSeparation, Selective Collection and in Reactor Digestion ofBiowaste. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 67: 79-89.

43. Poore, P. ,1992. Disposable Diapers are OK. Garbage Oct./Nov.:27-31.

44. Rathje, W. L. and C. Murphy,1992. Rubbish! The Archaeology ofGarbage. Harper-Collins Publishers, pp. 151-167.

45. OECD Environmental Data ; Waste Statistics Compendium 2002. 46. Pahren, H. R., 1987. Microorganisms in Municipal Solid Waste

and Public Health Implications. CRC Crit. Rev. Environ. Control,17, 187-228.

47. Engelbrecht, R.S. and Amirhor., 1975 .Inactivation of EntericBacteria and Viruses in Sanitary Landfill Leachate. University ofIllinois.

48. Engelbrecht, R.S., 1974. Biological Properties of Sanitary LandfillLeachate. Virus Survival in Water and Wastewater systems.

49. Sobsey, Wallis, and Melnick, 1974. Enteric Viruses in MunicipalSolid Waste Landfill and Leachate. Baylor College of Medicine.

50. Clark, G.S., et. al., 1979. Incidence of Viral Infections amongWaste Collection Workers. Institute of Environmental Health,University of Cincinnati Medical Center.

51. Ware, S.A., 1980. A Survey of Pathogen Survival duringMunicipal Solid Waste and Manure Treatment Processes. EPA-600/8-80-034.

52. Mbithi, J. N., et. al., 1991. Effect of Relative Humidity and AirTemperature on Survival of Hepatitis A Virus on EnvironmentalSurfaces. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57, 1394-1399.

53. Huber, M.S., et.al., 1994. Study of Persistence of EntericViruses in Landfilled Disposable Diapers. Environmental Scienceand Technology 1767-1772.

54. Peterson, M. L., 1974. Soiled Disposable Diapers: A PotentialSource of Viruses. American Journal of Public Health 64-9.

55. Juniper Consultancy 2005. Mechanical-Biological Treatment. AGuide for Decision Makers.(http://www.assurre.org/Innovation_and_technology/Mechanical-Biological_Treatment.aspx)

Resource utilisation and management1. UNECE/FAO, 2003. Forest Products Annual Market Analysis

2002-2004. 2. EDANA/ETS, 1999. Independent Forest Management

Assessment of Pulp Suppliers to EDANA/ETS MemberCompanies.

3. S. Nilsson, 1991. Forestry Resources, Forestry Management andDiaper Fluff vs. Other Wood Uses. IIASA (International Institutefor Applied Systems Analysis.

4. Pulp and Paper International, 1996.5. FAO Report, 1997. State of the World’s Forests.6. Owens, J.W., 1991. The Hazard Assessment of Pulp and Paper

Effluents in the Aquatic Environment: A Review. EnvironmentalToxicology and Chemistry, 10, 1511-1540.

7. Shimp, R.J and J.W. Owens, 1993. Pulp and Paper Technologiesand Improvements in Environmental Emissions to AquaticEnvironments. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry,40, 213-233.

8. Corbitt, R.A.,1990. Standard Handbook of EnvironmentalEngineering, McGraw Hill, Inc.

9. Finch, P. and J.C. Roberts, 1985. Enzymatic Degradation ofCellulose. In T.P. Nevell and S.H. Zeronian (eds.). CelluloseChemistry and its Applications. Ellis Harwood Ltd. Public.,313-343.

10. Lindsay, A. and C. Woodings, 1991. Anaerobic Biodegradationof Nonwoven Products. Managing Nonwoven Products Waste,78-87.

11. Park, B., J.W. Bozzelli, M.R. Booty, M.J. Bernhard, K.Mesuere, C.A. Pettigrew, J. Shi and S.I. Simonich, 1999.Polymer Pyrolysis and Oxidation Studies on a Continuous Feedand Flow Reactor: Cellulose and Polystyrene. EnvironmentalScience & Technology 33, 15, 2584-2592.

12. TÜV Rheinland, 1985. Institut für Materialprüfung und Chemie.13. Vinzant, T.B., W.S. Adney, K. Grohmann and C.J. Rivard,

1990. Aerobic and Anaerobic Digestion of Processed MunicipalSolid Waste. Effects of Retention Time on CelluloseDegradation. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 24-25,765-772.

14. American Forest and Paper Association, 1994. "ForestManagement Principles and Implementation Guidelines."

15. Nappy Information Service,www.nappyinformationservice.co.uk.

Economic aspects1. Absorbent Hygiene Products Manufacturer’s Association,

2004. Average Nappy Composition Data. United Kingdom.2. Euromonitor International, 2005. Disposable Paper Products,

London, UK.


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Appendix 3: Document authors

EDANA Environmental Task Force:Dr Ioannis Hatzopoulos PROCTER & GAMBLE (COORDINATION)Dr Andreas Bitterhof PAUL HARTMANN Phill Davies ARQUEST Marc Guiraud EDANADr Diana Heelis KIMBERLY-CLARKElisabeth Olofsson SCA HYGIENE PRODUCTS

Additional contributors:Dave Challis KIMBERLY-CLARKBengt Johansson SCA HYGIENE PRODUCTSCatherine Lennon EDANADr Forbes McDougall PROCTER & GAMBLEDr Rana Pant PROCTER & GAMBLEEllen Riise SCA HYGIENE PRODUCTSBjörn Spak SCA HYGIENE PRODUCTSTracy Stewart AHPMA (ABSORBENT HYGIENE PRODUCTS MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION)Dr Christian Wicenec PAUL HARTMANN Dr Peter White PROCTER & GAMBLE

Text editor & review:Sarah Portway ASPIRE COMMUNICATIONS


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EDANA157, Avenue Eugène Plasky B-1030 Brussels, Belgiumwww.edana.org Tel.: +32 2 734 93 10Fax: +32 2 733 35 18e-mail: [email protected]

Copyright and publication details – published in 2005

About the publisher:EDANA is the international association serving the nonwovens and related industries. EDANA exists to create the foundation forsustainable growth of the nonwovens and associated industriesthrough active promotion, education and dialogue. It represents,protects and actively promotes the common interests of the nonwovens and absorbent hygiene product industries and theirsuppliers and provides the umbrella under which industry-wideinitiatives of a non-competitive nature can be undertaken.

Published by EDANAInternational Association Serving the Nonwovens and Related Industries157, Avenue Eugène PlaskyB-1030 Brussels, BelgiumTel: +32 2 734 93 10Fax: +32 2 733 35 18e-mail: [email protected]

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