baleri estoria

8/3/2019 baleri estoria

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(daIl dottor ivago,Boris Pasternak)La situazione interna precipit il 22 gennaio del 1905a San Pietroburgo. Una grande folla di circa150.000 operai guidati da unpope, Gapon, si rec di fronte al Palazzo d'Inverno, residenza storica deglizar, per consegnare al sovrano una supplica. Nessuno consider che lo zar Nicola II non abitava nellacapitale, ma a Carskoe Selo, e che per di pi non era stato informato della manifestazione. Malgradoquesta fosse pacifica e composta da fedeli sudditi, le truppe di guardia, Ulani e Cosacchi, su ordine del

ministro di palazzo, caricarono la folla facendo uso di fucili esciabole. Al termine dell'eccidio, secondodati della polizia, si contarono circa mille morti e duemila feriti.

Nonostante lo zar, dopo essere stato informato, avesse indetto un'inchiesta per punire i colpevoli, questieventi ebbero un effetto scatenante sulla popolazione ed anche su parte dell'esercito. A San Pietroburgoed aMosca gli operai scesero in sciopero; nelle campagne vi furono sollevazioni di contadini;nell'esercito si ebbero ammutinamenti di reparti a Mosca, inLettonia, negliUrali ed in Polonia. La basenavale diKronstadt, che difendeva la capitale, si ammutin come anche la squadra navale del Mar Nero(a questo evento dedicato il famoso filmLa corazzata Potmkin di Sergej jzentejn).

Tra l'ottobre ed il dicembre 1905 nella capitale, a Mosca ed in altri centri comeNovorossijske Odessasi formarono i primi soviet (consigli) operai; a ita eKrasnojarsk, soviet di operai e soldati (che

giunsero a rovesciare le autorit locali e ad impadronirsi del potere). In tutto documentato il sorgerein quasi tutte le citt industriali della Russia di circa 40 soviet dei deputati operai.

Col passare dei giorni e dei mesi la rivolta and dilagando per tutta la Russia assumendo i connotati diuna vera e propria rivoluzione. A Mosca, vi fu un'insurrezione armata (di circa 8.000 operai) che durin tutto 11 giorni, dal 9 al 19 dicembre. La repressione fu spietata: un migliaio di morti e altrettantiferiti; 2.000 gli arresti.

Il manifesto di ottobre [modifica]

Spaventati da ci che stava accadendo e disperando che il governo riuscisse a riportare l'ordinemalgrado le brutali forme di repressione messe in atto, membri dell'alta borghesia e della nobilt

terriera fecero pressioni sul regime affinch facesse quel minimo di concessioni ritenute necessarie perriportare l'ordine. Nell'ottobre 1905, su pressioni di Sergej Vitte, che era stato nominato primo ministro,lo zar Nicola II pubblic quello che venne poi chiamato il Manifesto di ottobre con cui concedeva unacostituzione e proclamava i basilari diritti civili per tutti i sudditi.

Tra le altre cose il documento prevedeva l'elezione di una Duma ossia di unaparlamento anche se conpoteri limitati ed un sistema elettorale non del tutto equo. Il principale limite ai poteri della Dumarisiedeva nel fatto che i ministri continuavano ad essere responsabili solamente di fronte allo Zar.

Sulla fine del 1905 il governo, che malgrado tutto non aveva mai smesso di funzionare, riusc, anchegrazie ad una pesante opera di repressione, a riprendere il controllo del paese. Lo zar essendo ancheriuscito ad ottenere dalla Francia un nuovo prestito decise, prima che si tenessero le elezioni per la

Duma, di sostituire Vitte con il meno indipendente, e politicamente pi conservatore, Ptr Stolypin.

Lo schieramento politico e la prima Duma [modifica]

I politici che accettarono le condizioni poste dal Manifesto vennero a formare quello che verr poidesignato come partito degli Ottobristi rappresentante gli interessi dell'alta borghesia e della parte menoconservatrice della nobilt.

Anche l'Unione della Libert si era nel frattempo trasformata in un vero e proprio partito denominato
http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_dottor_%C5%BDivagohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_dottor_%C5%BDivagohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_dottor_%C5%BDivagohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Leonidovi%C4%8D_Pasternakhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Leonidovi%C4%8D_Pasternakhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/22_gennaiohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pietroburgohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_(religione)http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_(religione)http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgij_Apollonovi%C4%8D_Gaponhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palazzo_d'Inverno_(San_Pietroburgo)http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_II_di_Russiahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carskoe_Selohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulanihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosacchihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosacchihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciabolehttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciabolehttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eccidiohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eccidiohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammutinamentohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettoniahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettoniahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poloniahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronstadthttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronstadthttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar_Nerohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_corazzata_Pot%C3%ABmkinhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergej_Michajlovi%C4%8D_%C4%96jzen%C5%A1tejnhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novorossijskhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odessahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviethttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Citahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnojarskhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnojarskhttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivoluzione_russa_del_1905&action=edit&section=2http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergej_Jul'evi%C4%8D_Vittehttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zar_Nicola_IIhttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manifesto_di_ottobre&action=edit&redlink=1http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ABtr_Arkad'evi%C4%8D_Stolypinhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ABtr_Arkad'evi%C4%8D_Stolypinhttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivoluzione_russa_del_1905&action=edit&section=3http://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottobristi&action=edit&redlink=1http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_dottor_%C5%BDivagohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Leonidovi%C4%8D_Pasternakhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/22_gennaiohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pietroburgohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_(religione)http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgij_Apollonovi%C4%8D_Gaponhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palazzo_d'Inverno_(San_Pietroburgo)http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_II_di_Russiahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carskoe_Selohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulanihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosacchihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciabolehttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eccidiohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammutinamentohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lettoniahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poloniahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronstadthttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar_Nerohttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_corazzata_Pot%C3%ABmkinhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergej_Michajlovi%C4%8D_%C4%96jzen%C5%A1tejnhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novorossijskhttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odessahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviethttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Citahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnojarskhttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivoluzione_russa_del_1905&action=edit&section=2http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergej_Jul'evi%C4%8D_Vittehttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zar_Nicola_IIhttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manifesto_di_ottobre&action=edit&redlink=1http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ABtr_Arkad'evi%C4%8D_Stolypinhttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivoluzione_russa_del_1905&action=edit&section=3http://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottobristi&action=edit&redlink=1


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Partito Costituzional-Democraticoma conosciuto col nome di Partito dei cadetti, dalla pronuncia russadella siglaKD che identificava il partito.

In contrapposizione alle posizioni degli Ottobristi i Cadetti continuarono a chiedere il suffragiouniversale.

La prima Duma [modifica]La prima Duma fu eletta nel marzo del 1906. Alle elezioni non parteciparono, ufficialmente, i partitidella sinistra, ma un certo numero di indipendenti legati a tale schieramento scelsero comunque dicandidarsi.

I risultati delle elezioni videro vincitori i Cadetti ed i loro alleati, con i progressisti di sinistra senzapartito leggermente pi deboli degli Ottobristi e dei senza partito di centro destra. Anche un certonumero di delegati socialisti, presentatisi come indipendenti, vennero comunque eletti.

La prima Duma ebbe vita breve e travagliata, le sue relazioni con il governo Stolypin furuno ostili findall'inizio. Lo scoglio principale tra i Cadetti ed il regime rest la riforma agraria. Dopo meno di unanno lo zar, sperando che nuove elezioni portassero ad una Duma pi malleabile, sciolse il parlamento.

Bibliografia [modifica]

Ettore Cinnella, 1905. La vera rivoluzione russa. Della Porta Editori, 2008
http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partito_dei_cadettihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partito_dei_cadettihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragio_universalehttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragio_universalehttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivoluzione_russa_del_1905&action=edit&section=4http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riforma_agrariahttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivoluzione_russa_del_1905&action=edit&section=5http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ettore_Cinnellahttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partito_dei_cadettihttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragio_universalehttp://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragio_universalehttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivoluzione_russa_del_1905&action=edit&section=4http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riforma_agrariahttp://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rivoluzione_russa_del_1905&action=edit&section=5http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ettore_Cinnella


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Xinhai Revolution

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Xinhai Revolution (Revolution of 1911)

Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai; The picture above isNanjing Road after the Shanghai uprising, hungwith the Five Races Under One Unionflags then used by the revolutionaries.

Date From October 10, 1911 to February 12, 1912

Location Chinese Empire

Result

Victory of theChinese Revolutionary Alliance Abdication of the Xuantong Emperor Downfall of the Qing Dynasty Establishment of theProvisional Government of the Republic of China

Outer Mongolia and Tibet proclaim their independence

Belligerents

Qing EmpireTongmenghui

Gelaohui

Commanders and leaders

Xuantong Emperor,Yuan Shikai,

Feng GuozhangMa Anliang,Duan Qirui,Yang Zengxin,Ma Qi,

Various othernobles of theQing Dynasty

Sun Yat-sen,

Huang Xing,Song Jiaoren,Chen Qimei,Li Yuanhong

Strength

200,000 100,000
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing_Road_(Shanghai)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongmenghuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongmenghuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuantong_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Mongolia,_1911-1919http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongmenghuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelaohuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuantong_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shikaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shikaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feng_Guozhanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feng_Guozhanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Anlianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Anlianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duan_Qiruihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duan_Qiruihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Zengxinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Zengxinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Qihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Qihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Yat-senhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang_Xinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang_Xinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Jiaorenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Jiaorenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Qimeihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Qimeihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Yuanhonghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Yuanhonghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xinhai_Revolution_in_Shanghai.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing_Road_(Shanghai)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Races_Under_One_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongmenghuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuantong_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Mongolia,_1911-1919http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongmenghuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelaohuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuantong_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shikaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feng_Guozhanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Anlianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duan_Qiruihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Zengxinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Qihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Yat-senhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang_Xinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Jiaorenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Qimeihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Yuanhong


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Casualties and losses

170,000 ~50,000

[hide]

Xinhai Revolution

Wuchang Uprising Battle of Changsha Battle of

YangxiaThe Xinhai Revolution orHsinhai Revolution (Chinese:;pinyin:Xnhi Gmng), alsoknown as the Revolution of 1911 or the Chinese Revolution, began with theWuchang Uprising onOctober 10, 1911 and ended with the abdication ofEmperor Puyi on February 12, 1912. The primaryparties to the conflict were the Imperial forces of the Qing Dynasty (16441912) and the revolutionaryforces of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance (Tongmenghui). The revolution is named after in thesexagenary cycle of the Chinese calendar; the Xinhai Year.

The revolution was motivated by anger at corruption in the Qing government, frustration with thegovernment's inability to restrain the interventions of foreign powers, and the majority Han Chinese'sresentment toward a government dominated by an ethnic minority; the Manchus.

The revolution did not immediately result in a republicangovernment; instead, it set up a weakprovisional central government over a politically fragmented country. Reactionaries briefly andabortively restored the monarchy twice, leading to a period of military rule. Though the revolutionconcluded on February 12, 1912, when the Republic of China formally replaced the Qing Dynasty,internal conflict persisted. The nation endured a failedSecond Revolution, aWarlord Era and theChinese Civil Warbefore the Communists took control on October 1, 1949.

Discussions of the issues surrounding the Xinhai Revolution are often politically charged, as the eventsthat followed played a role in the histories of both the Republic of China and the People's Republic ofChina. Nevertheless, the Xinhai Revolution was the first attempt to establish a Republic in China thatmanaged to successfully oust the previous government.

October 10 is commemorated in Taiwan asDouble Ten Day (Chinese:), the National Day of theRepublic of China. In mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau, the same day is usually celebrated astheAnniversary of the Xinhai Revolution. Many overseas Chinese also celebrate the anniversary,termed either "Double Ten Day" or "Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution", and events are usuallyheld in Chinatowns across the world.

Background

Self-Strengthening Movement

Main article:Self-Strengthening Movement
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuchang_Uprisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1911)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yangxiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yangxiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yangxiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuchang_Uprisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuchang_Uprisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Puyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongmenghuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagenary_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlord_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlord_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Ten_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Ten_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainland_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Konghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinatownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuchang_Uprisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1911)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yangxiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yangxiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuchang_Uprisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Puyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongmenghuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagenary_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlord_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Ten_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainland_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Konghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinatownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement


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Li Yuanhong in military uniform

The First Opium War(18401842) is generally considered the beginning of modern Chinese history,ending a long period of self-imposed Chinese isolation. Some Chinese officials and intellectualsbecame convinced that China needed to adopt the technologies and commercial practices of Westerncountries if it was to remain a sovereign nation. From the 1860s to the 1890s, theQing dynastyinstituted reforms known as The Self-Strengthening Movement, which aimed to achieve these goals.However, China's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War(18941895) demonstrated that traditionalChinesefeudal society also needed to be modernized if the technological and commercialadvancements were to succeed. Some of the problems with feudal society were illustrated in the banned1905 manhua book,Journal of Current Pictorial.

Hundred Days' ReformMain article:Hundred Days' Reform

After 1895, non-government circles became more concerned with national affairs, leading to some callsfrom intellectuals for more far-reaching reforms. Some, including Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao,advocated imitating the reforms of Japan and Russia as examples of how best to work the political andsocial systems under an imperial form of government. In 1898, theGuangxu Emperorinstituted severalreforms. This reformation would eventually be termed the Hundred Days' Reform due to its shortduration. It ended in a coup by the dynasty's conservatives 103 days later. Though the governmentexiled some of the reformers, others advocated a constitutional monarchy similar to that of theUnitedKingdom, which would have allowed the imperial family to retain a role in the political system but

which would have shifted the focus of political power to a democratic government.

Abolition of the Imperial examination

Main article:Imperial examination

After the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion (18991901) by the Eight-Nation Allianceof foreignpowers in China, the Qing government led by the Empress Dowager Cixi began to implement thereforms that had been advocated by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao in the Hundred Days' Reform.Among the changes, the one with the greatest influence was the abolition of theimperial examination
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on September 2, 1905. The government built 60,000 modern colleges between 1905 and 1911. After theabolition of the imperial exams, traditional Chinese literati found they could no longer get governmentposts by merely succeeding in the examination, drastically changing the political environment.

Constitutionalism campaign

The Qing government announced an outline of the Constitutionalism campaign on September 1, 1906.Constitutionalists with high social status from each province urged the government to form a cabinet.The Qing government complied but showed little willingness to give access to power to anyone outsideof the dynasty. In May 1911, the prime minister of the newly formed cabinet was announced to bePrince Qing. Moreover, 9 of the 13 members of the cabinet wereManchu, while 7 of them were fromthe imperial family. All of this came as a disappointment to the constitutionalists. As a result,constitutionalists from different provinces changed their tack, supporting revolution instead ofconstitutionalism in a campaign to save the nation.

Formation of new armies

Beiyang Army in training

In the last years of the Qing dynasty, the manchu old-fashioned "Eight Banners" armies had lost theirstrength. The quelling of the Taiping Rebellion (18501871) had relied mainly on "township forces";the militias of the local elite. Thefirst Sino-Japanese Warhad revealed the obsolescence of thetraditional Eight Banners organization of the Manchu military. The Qing government proposed forming36 modern divisions to replace the old ones. Of the 36 divisions, 6 formed theBeiyang Armycontrolled by Yuan Shikai. To create a new officer corps, many military schools were built in eachprovince. In some of the new divisions, many students who had been educated abroad were appointedas officers. However, Beiyang divisions rarely employed such students.

Anti-Manchu sentiment

The conflict between the ethnic minority Manchu and the ethnic majorityHan Chinesehad been nearlyforgotten during the middle of the Qing dynasty due to the long period of peace under the Qinggovernment. However, with the decline of the Qing government, the Manchu-Han conflict began tosurface again after the Taiping Rebellion. After 1890, writings containing hostility towards theManchus began to resurface. In the years preceding the revolution, leading intellectuals wereinfluenced by books that had survived from the last years ofMing dynasty (13681644), the lastdynasty of Han Chinese. Many revolutionaries even promoted their cause by fomenting anti-Manchu
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sentiments. Although some revolutionaries, like Sun Yat-sen, stressed political and economic reform,rather than ethnic cleansing, the main revolutionary forces in the early part of the 20th century were fullof ideas of "Manchu expulsion". After the overthrow of the Qing government, the slogan of revolutionwas changed from "expel the Manchus" to "harmony among different races" in an attempt to unify thecountry, which was then fragmented.

In 1911 Xinhai revolutionaries proclaimed the equality of Han and Muslims, but deliberately excluded

Manchus in the original proclamation. Critics argue the revolutionaries "can be seen as sanctioning" themassacre of Manchus in Xi'an.[1] After the massacre of Manchu men in Xi'an, the Chinese Muslimsconverted Manchu girls, intermarrying with the Manchu community.[2]

[edit] Organization for revolution

Sun Yat-sen was the first provisionalpresident when theRepublic of China was founded in 1912

Seal for the provisional government president ofRepublic of China

The main revolutionary organizations were theRevive China Society (), Hua Xing Hui (), Guang Fu Hui (), the Tongmenghui (), which was founded later, as well asGong Jin Hui () and Wen Xue She ().

Revive China Society launched their project in Southern China, while Guang Fu Hui was active inJiangsu (), Zhejiang () and Shanghai (). Hua Xing Hui mainly worked in Hunan()and Gong Jin Hui in the Yangtze River() area. TheTongmenghui was a loose organizationdistributed across the country.
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The main revolutionary leaders were Sun Yat-sen (), Huang Hsing(), Sung Chiao-jen(), Ts'ai Yuan-p'ei (), Zhao Sheng (), Zhang Binglin () and Tao Cheng Zhang().

Political views

Main article:Anti-Qing sentiment

The revolutionaries wanted to overthrow the Qing government, reestablish a Han Chinese government,and construct a republic. The Revive China Society, founded in 1894, aimed to "expel the Manchus,restore the Han, and found a united government". The Hua Xing Hui, founded in 1904, proposed"expelling the Manchus and restoring the Han". The Tongmenghui, founded in 1905, advocated"expelling the Manchus, restoring the Han, founding a republic and equally dividing the landownership", which referred to the Three Principles of the People(,Nationalism, Democracy,and Socialism) promoted by Sun Yat-sen.

However, when the revolutionary parties promoted their political view, "expelling the Manchus andrestoring the Han" became the main element, since the anti-Manchu feelings of the people were theeasiest to arouse. More importantly, nationalism appealed to a wide range of factions that had thepower needed to overthrow the government. By contrast, these more powerful factions regardedeconomic, social, and political reforms to be of secondary importanceissues that would beconsidered only after the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty.

History of development

During the 1890s many people began to advocate for aviolent revolutionto ultimately overthrow theQing Dynasty and to establish a republic similar to those ofFrance and United States. The earliestrevolutionaries generally gathered abroad, and the majority of them were students and young overseasChinese. The earliest revolutionary organizations were also established outside of China. Yang Quyun'sFurenwen Society was created inHong Kong in 1890, while Sun Yat-sen's Revive China Society was

established at Honolulu in 1894, with the main purpose of fund-raising to pay for the cost of therevolution. In 1895 these two organizations were combined in Hong Kong, and continued to use thename of "Revive China Society". In the same year, on October 26, the first uprising was held inGuangzhou but was unsuccessful. Yang and Sun were forced to flee abroad. The following year SunYat-sen was kidnapped in London by agents from the Qing government. This incident became aninternational cause clbre. Sun became famous on the international stage. Yang Quyun wasassassinated in 1901 by Qing agents in Hong Kong.

In 1900 the Boxer Rebellion broke out in northern China. The inability of the Qing Government toinitially suppress the rebellion, followed by the Empress Dowager Cixi's subsequent support for themovement, drastically reduced respect for the government. After it signed theBoxer Protocol, Chineseintellectuals felt even more anxious about the crisis that the Qing court was facing. At the end of theFirst Sino-Japanese Warthe government began to send more students abroad, particularly to Japanwhich at its height had 20,000 Chinese students. Most of them were sponsored by the Imperial Court.Revolutionary thoughts spread among these students, and those who advocated revolution establishedall kinds of organizations and publications to advocate a democratic revolution. Among these students,Zhang Binglin,Zou Rong and Chen Tianhua were very active in Japan. Many of the students laterreturned to China and became the backbone of revolutionary organizations inside the country.

When the Russo-Japanese Warbegan inManchuria in 1904, the Qing decided to abandon certainterritories and allowed these two countries to fight over them, while the Imperial Court stayed
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"neutral". The indifference of the Qing court toward Chinese territory led to more calls for a revolution.The main groups advocating revolt were:(1) Huaxinghui, led by Huang Xing, which was established in Changsha in 1904, with members likeHuang Xing, Liu Kuiyi, and Song Jiaoren, mainly youngsters from Hunan;(2) Guang Fu Hui, established by Tao Chengzhang;(3) Cai Yuanpei, which was established in Shanghai in October 1904 and which consisted of members

like Qiu Jin and Zhang Binglin, mainly youngsters from Zhejiang. There were also many other minorrevolutionary organizations, such as Lizhi Xuehui in Jiangsu, Gongchanghui in Sichuan,Yiwenhui andHanzhudulihui in Fujian, Yizhihui in Jiangxi,Yuewanghui in Anhui andQunzhihui in Guangzhou.Although these organizations were not coordinated and the majority of them had only regionalinfluences, they had a common goal: to overthrow the Manchus and to restore a Han-dominatedgovernment in order to create a republic similar to that of the United States. Their anti-Manchu stancewas consistent with other revolutionary movements that aimed to overthrow the Manchu government.Consequently, many revolutionaries sought funding from these societies; e.g., Hua Xin Hui and the GeLao Hui, Guang Fu Hui andQing Ban, the Revive China Society and Shahehui all had close relations;Sun Yat-sen himself was a member ofHongmenZhigongtang.

Sun Yat-sen successfully united the Revive China Society, Hua Xin Hui and Guang Fu Hui in the

summer of 1905, thereby establishing the Chinese Tongmenghui on 10 August 1905 in Tokyo. Theycalled for: "Get rid of Manchus and restore China, establish the Republic, and equalize the land", as thenewspaperMin Baob[] expressed the group's aims. (The democratic newspaperMin Bao and theroyalist paperXinmincong Bao intensely debated the issues and in the process they justified therevolution.) The Tongmenhui was active in publicizing its leaders' thoughts and strove to rouse publicopinion. At one point, the Tongmenhui split: members disapproved Sun Yat-sen's refusal to acceptfinancial support from the Japanese government so Guang Fu Hui withdrew. Sun Yat-sen and WangJingwei, Hu Hanmin re-established their headquarters in the southern Pacific, while Huang Hsingcontinued to support Sun Yat-sen. Despite this split, the Tongmenhui still had a crucial influence on therevolution.

In February 1906 Ri Zhi Hui convened a conference that was attended by many revolutionary leaders,

including Sun Wu, Zhang Nanxian, He Jiwei and Feng Mumin. Ri Zhi Hui emphasized the spread ofnew knowledge and revolutionary thoughts among students, the new armies and other organizations. Anucleus of attendees of this conference evolved into the Tongmenhui's establishment in Hubei.

In July 1907 several members of Tongmenhui in Tokyo advocated a revolution in the area of theYangtze River.

Liu Quiyi, Jiao Dafeng,Zhang Boxiang and Sun WuestablishedGong Jin Hui. The nature and goals ofGong Jin Hui were essentially the same as those of the Tongmenhui, but it was not part of theTongmenhui. Gong Jin Hui was one of the leading organizations in the Wuchang Uprising.

On 30 January 1911, Zhengwu Xueshe was renamed as Wen Xue She, and Jiang Yiwu was chosen asthe leader. Young men in China's recently reformed army organized Wen Xue She. They infiltrated thearmy to obtain weapons for the revolution. Wen Xue Hui, another revolutionary organization,participated in the Wuchang Uprising.

Strata and groups

The Xinhai Revolution was supported by many groups, including students and intellectuals whoreturned from abroad, as well as participants of the revolutionary organizations, overseas Chinese,soldiers of the new army, local gentry, farmers, and others.[citation needed]
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Newly emerged intellectuals

After the abolition of the imperial examination, the Qing Government established many new schoolsand encouraged students to study abroad. Many young people attended the new schools or went abroadto study. (Students pursuing military studies went to Japan especially.) A new class of intellectualsemerged from those students who had studied overseas or at the new schools. Those who had receivedWestern culture became leaders in the Xinhai Revolution.

In the 1900s, studying in Japan was common among Chinese students. In the years just before theXinhai Revolution, there were over ten thousand Chinese students in Japan, and many of them had anti-Manchu sentiments. When the Tongmenhui was established in Tokyo in 1905, 90% of the participantswere Chinese students in Japan. Members of the Tongmenhui who were in Japan pursuing militarystudies also organized the Zhangfutuan.

These Chinese students in Japan contributed immensely to the Xinhai Revolution. Besides Sun Yat-sen,key figures in the Revolution such as Huang Hsing, Song Jiaoren, Hu Hanmin, Liao Zhongkai, ZhuZhixin, and Wang Jingwei, were all Chinese students in Japan.

Participants of organizations

Near the end of the Qing Dynasty, many secret organizations like Hong Men, Ge Lao Hui, Zhi GongTang, San He Hui and Hong Jiang Hui were the largest organizations leading the public in the struggleagainst the Qing Government. The participants in these organizations included landowners, farmers,workers, merchants, soldiers, and civilians. The organizations, topped by landowners and gentry,generally promoted the ideas of "Resist Qing and restore Ming".

The Chinese Revival Society and Ge Lao Hui, Guang Fu Hui and Qing Bang, Revive China Societyand San He Hui were all closely connected; as mentioned above, Sun Yat-sen himself was a member ofthe Hong Men. Before 1908, revolutionaries focused on coordinating these organizations in preparationfor uprisings that these organizations would launch; hence, these groups would provide most of themanpower needed for the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty.

After the Xinhai Revolution, Sun Yat-sen recalled the days of recruiting support for the revolution andsaid "The literati were deeply into the search for honors and profits, so they were regarded as havingonly secondary importance. By contrast, organizations like San He Hui were able to sow widely theideas of resisting the Qing and restoring the Ming."[3]

Overseas Chinese

Assistance from overseas Chinese was important in the Xinhai Revolution. They supported andactively participated in the Tongmenghui, funding revolutionary activities, especially by SoutheastAsian Chinese. Some of them even returned to their homeland to establish revolutionary organizations,and participated in many of the armed uprisings. In the first year of the Revive China Society, which

was founded in November 1894 in Honolulu, around 20 of this group's first members were overseasChinese.

The contributions of overseas Chinese were one of the most important factors in the success in XinhaiRevolution. Of the "72 martyrs of Huanghuagang," 29 were overseas Chinese.

Soldiers of the new armies

Beginning in 1908, the revolutionaries began to shift their call to the new armies. Revolutionary FrankWu trained an army of rebels to attack an imperialist fortress. This set off many inspirations to rebel.
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The revolutionaries began to carry out revolutionary activities and propaganda. Because of theabolition of the imperial examination system, many young intellectuals joined the new armies andbecame their backbone.

Wen Xue Hui and Gong Jin Hui, two of the leading organizers of the Wuchang Uprising, establishedrelations with the new armies very early.

Gentry and businessmen

The strength of the gentry in local politics had become apparent. From September to October 1907, theQing Government created some government apparatus to allow the gentry and businessmen toparticipate in politics.

These middle-class people were originally supporters of constitutionalism. However, they becamedisenchanted with the Qing Government when its first cabinets consisted entirely of members of theQing dynasty. After the Wuchang Uprising, the gentry and businessmen began to call for revolution.

Foreigners

Besides Chinese and overseas Chinese, some of the supporters and participants of Xinhai Revolutionwere foreigners; among foreigners, the Japanese were the most active group. Many Chineserevolutionary organizations were established and operated in Japan; for example, the ChineseTongmenghui were brought together and established in Tokyo by Japanese supporters of the revolution.Some Japanese even became members of Tongmenghui. In various uprisings, there were alwaysJapanese who participated directly, and some even lost their lives.

Preparation

During the years 1895 to 1911, the Revive China Society and the laterTongmenghui launched tenuprisings. Guang Fu Hui (Restoration Society) also launched several uprisings. These uprisings were

short-lived, but they established the preconditions for a revolution in China.

First Guangzhou uprising and follow-up

In spring 1895, the Revive China Society, which was based in Hong Kong, planned the firstGuangzhou Uprising. Lu Haodong was tasked with designing the revolutionaries' flag. On 26 October1895, Yang Quyun and Sun Yat-sen led Zhen Shiliang and Lu Haodong to Guangzhou, preparing tocapture Guangzhou in one strike. However, the details of their plans were leaked to the government.The Qing Government began to arrest revolutionaries, including Lu Haodong, who was later executed.The first Guangzhou uprising was admittedly a failure. Sun Yat-sen and Yang Quyun were wanted bythe Qing Government. Under the pressure from Qing Government, the government of Hong Kong

forbade these two men to enter the territory for five years. Sun Yat-sen went into exile, promoting theChinese revolution and raising funds in Japan, the United States, Canada and Britain on behalf of therevolution.

In 1900, the Boxer Rebellion unfolded in China, and the north was in anarchy. The revolutionaries,therefore, decided to prepare for a military uprising. In June, Sun Yat-sen along with Zhen Sholiang,Chen Shaobai, Yang Quyun, and several Japanese people, such as Miyazaki Toten, Heiyama Shu, andRyhei Uchida, arrived in Hong Kong fromYokohama, but the British authorities refused to admitthem. With the support of a Japanese organization, Sun Yat-sen went to Taiwan via Shimonoseki onSeptember 25, and, after meeting with Taiwan's Japanese governor, he gained the governor's promise
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that Japanese officers would support an uprising in Guangzhou. As a result, Sun Yat-sen established acommand center for the uprising. On October 8, Sun Yat-sen ordered Zhen Shiliang and others tolaunch an uprising in Huizhou Sanzhoutian, also known as the Huizhou Uprising or Genji Uprising.The revolutionary army initially numbered 20,000 men, but the Japanese officers changed their mindsand refused to support the revolution, despite the Japanese governor's promise. This uprising thereforealso failed. Revolutionaries, such as Shi Jian and Yamada Ryusei, were killed as a result. Sun Yat-sen

was deported from Taiwan back to Japan.In May 1907, the Revolutionary Party, along with Xu Xueqiu, Chen Yunshen, Chen Yongpo, and YuJichen of Shan He Hui, launched the Huanggang Uprising and captured Huanggang city. Xu Xueqiuand Chen Yunsen worked to persuade Chinese Singaporeans to joinTongmenghui. After the uprising,Qing Government quickly and forcefully suppressed the uprising. Around 200 revolutionaries werekilled, and the Huanggang Uprising, which had spanned six days, failed.[4]

In the same year, Sun Yat-sen sent assistants toHuizhou in Guangdongto attempt a repeat of theHuanggang Uprising. On June 2, Deng Zhiyu and Chen Chuan gathered a few members of Shan HeHui and together they seized Qing arms in Qiniu Lake, 20 km from Huizhou. They killed several Qingsoldiers and attacked Taiwei on the 5th. The Qing Army fled in disorder and the revolutionariesexploited the opportunity, capturing several towns. They defeated the Qing Army once again inBazhiyie. Many organizations voiced their support after the uprising, and the number of troopsincreased to 200 men at its height. The Qing Army hastily shifted more troops to suppress the uprising.The revolutionaries fought nimbly, exhausting the Qing Army. However, after the failure of theHuanggong Uprising, the revolutionaries here lost hope of reinforcement, so in Lianhuaxu it wasdecided to quit the rebellion and dismiss the troops. Some of the revolutionaries fled to Hong Kongwhile the majority retreated into the mountains of Rofu.

On July 6, 1907, Xu Xilin of Guang Fu Hui led an uprising in Anqin,Anhui. Xu Xiling at the time wasthe police commissioner as well as the supervisor of the police academy. During the academy'sgraduation ceremony, he assassinated the Qing governor and led the students, such as Chen Boping, ina fight with Qing Army. They were defeated after four hours of struggle, and Xu Xilin was executed

after being arrested. Qiu Jinwas apparently involved in the uprising and was executed as well.In August, three counties in Guangdong Qinzhou (which currently lies in Guangxi) resisted thegovernment because of heavy taxation. Sun Yat-sen sent Wang Heshun there to assist them andcaptured the county on September. After that, they attempted to besiege and capture Qinzhou, but theywere unsuccessful. They eventually retreated to the area of Shiwandashan while Wang Heshun returnedto Vietnam.

In December, Sun Yat-sen sent Huang Mintang to monitor Zhennanguan, a pass on the Chinese-Vietnamese border, which was guarded by a fort. With the assistance of supporters among the fort'sdefenders, the revolutionaries captured the cannon tower in Zhennanguan. Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xingand Hu Hanmin personally went to the tower to command the battle. Qing Government sent 4,000 mento counterattack, and the revolutionaries were forced to retreat into mountainous areas. After the failureof Zhennanguan Uprising, the Qing Government attempted to pursue Sun Yat-sen in Vietnam, and Sunwas forced to move to Singapore. He did not return to the Chinese mainland until the WuchangUprising.

In February 1908, Huang Xing launched a raid from a base in Vietnam and attacked the cities ofQinzhou and Lianzhou in Guangdong. The struggle continued for 14 days and was known as theQinzhou, Lianzhou Uprising.

In April 1908, another uprising was launched in Yunnan Hekou. Huang Mingtan led 200 men fromVietnam and attacked Hekou on 30 April 1908. The defenders in Hekou supported the mutiny, and
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Huang Xing joined the mutiny and helped command. The fighting continued until the 26th when QingArmy captured Hekou. Part of the revolutionary army then retreated back to Vietnam. In 1910, HuangXing, Hu Hanmin, and Ni Bingzhang of the New Army advocated a mutiny of the New Army inGuangzhou, but the Qing Government learned of their plan before the mutiny could begin, so themutiny was unsuccessful.

Second Guangzhou uprising

Main article:Huanghuagang Uprising

On 13 November 1910, Sun Yat-sen, along with several leading figures of the Tongmenhuisuch asZhao Shen, Huang Hsing, Hu Hanmin, and Deng Zerugathered for a conference in the Malayas.Having experienced countless failures in previous uprisings, they plotted a decisive battle inGuangzhou against the Qing Government.

On 27 April, Zhao Shen and Huang Hsing commenced the uprising in Guangzhou. The revolutionairesfought fiercely with the Qing Army in the streets, but the rebels were eventually outnumbered and lost.The remains of 72 rebels were later collected by members of Tongmenhui and interred together atHuanghuagang.

Revolutionary activities in Malaya

Main article:Chinese revolutionary activities in Malaya

Sun Yat-sen arrived in Singapore for the last time on December 16, 1911, residing in the Golden BellMansion (pictured).

At this timeMalaya, which included what is now Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, had the largestChinese population outside of China itself, many of which were rich. Thus, Sun Yat-sen traveled toMalaya numerous times and called for the support of revolution from the local Chinese residents. Manyof them responded generously, and as a result, Malaya was one of the main centres for revolutionaryactivities in the late Qing era.

Wuchang UprisingMain article:Wuchang Uprising

The Literature Society and Gong Jin Hui were revolutionary organizations that had arisen amongChina's new class of intellectuals. Realizing that the New Army had the potential strength to launch therevolution, these two revolutionary organizations worked persistently to recruit the soldiers in localNew Army units to the revolution's cause. In March, New Army units in Wuhan established localbranches of the Literature Society. Gong Jin Hui focused mainly on recruiting soldiers in 32nd NewArmy. By the time Wuchang Uprising began, more than 5,000 soldiers had joined these two
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organizationsone third of all the troops in the local army units.

On May 9, 1911 the Qing Government implemented several policies regarding nationalization of therailroads. The government also announced its plan to nationalize the Yuehan Railway and ChunhanRailway, which had been built with private funds. This proposal angered the people of Hubei, Hunan,Sichuan, and Guangdong. To protect the railroads from seizure, they launched a movement, which wasparticularly active in Sichuan.

On June 17, civilian organizations in Sichuan established the "Sichuan Railroad Protection Society"and elected the head of the local assembly, Pu Dianjun, as the president of the Society, and his assistant,Ro Run, as the vice president. These two men had notices posted, made speeches at various locales, andeven went to Beijing to protest. From August 5 to September, these civilians held severaldemonstrations and strikes. On September 7, the Qing Governor of Sichuan Zhao Erfengarrested theleader of the Railroad Protection Society, and shut down the corporation and the Society. The result ofthis move was a large demonstration at the Governor's office. Governor Zhao ordered soldiers to quellthe protest; as a result, 30 civilians were killed. On September 8, the members of the Society along withthe local Ge Lao Hui and Tongmenghuiorganized an uprising and besieged the provincial capital. Thenearby counties followed the uprising soon after, and the total number of participants grew to 200,000.On September 25, Wu Yuzhang, Wang Tianjie, and other members of Tongmenghui led anothersuccessful uprising in Rong county. Upon realizing that Chengdu was besieged as a result of the massuprising, the Qing Government became alarmed and immediately ordered Duan Fang to suppress theuprising in the province of Sichuan using New Army units that were stationed in the province of Hubei.

Jiang Yiwu (left) and Sun Wu (right)

When Duan Fang led Hubei's New Army units into Sichuan in order to suppress the uprisings of theRailroad Movement, Wuhan, the capital city of Hubei province, was left virtually defenseless. Therevolutionaries decided that this was the perfect opportunity for an uprising.

The troops remaining in Wuhan could be relied upon to be sympathetic to the revolution: The NewArmy units of Hubei had originally been the "Hubei Army," which had been trained by Zhang Zhidong.Many of the officers had received military training in Japan. While in Japan, Chinese revolutionariesresiding in Japan had sought to recruit these officers to the revolution's cause.

On September 24, the Literature Society and Gong Jin Hui convened a conference in Wuchang alongwith 60 representatives from local New Army units. During the conference, they established aheadquarters for the uprising. The leaders of the two organizations, Jiang Yiwu and Sun Wu, wereelected as the commander and the chief of staff. Liu Gong of the Gong Jin Hui was in charge of thedepartment of political preparations. The command post was set in Wuchuang, whereas the preparationpost was set in Hankou. Initially the date of the uprising was to be October 6, 1911. It was laterpostponed to October 16 due to insufficient preparations.

On October 9, Revolutionaries intent on overthrowing the Qing dynasty had built bombs and one
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accidentally exploded. Revolutionaries managed to escape, but the documents and banners for theuprising were taken away by the police along with several suspects. Sun Yat-sen himself had no directpart in the uprising and was traveling in the United States at the time in an effort to recruit moresupport from among overseas Chinese. He found out about the uprising by reading a newspaper report.After being informed about this incident, the Qing Viceroy of Huguang Duan Zheng ordered a curfewto be imposed on the entire city, so that the police could track down and arrest the revolutionaries. As a

result, Jiang Yiwu of the Literature Society decided to launch the uprising that very night. Hedispatched messages to each of the local battalions of the New Army; however, the command post wasdiscovered by the Qing Government and several members were arrested and executed on the morningof October 10.

Artillerymen of the Revolutionary Army take aim in the Battle of Yangxia.

Squad leader Xiong Bingkun and others decided not to delay the uprising any longer. Companycommander Wu Zhaolin acted as the Provisional chief commander of the uprising while Xiong acted asthe staff officer. Around 8 p.m. on October 10, a Squad Leaderordered soldiers to stand before theirbeds and check their bullets, when check one of squad bullets were lose 3 bullets, Squad Leader andthis soldier fight on ground, Xiong Binkun take his handgun shooting for aid this soldier but shootdown a lamp in the room,the first shot was fired in Wuchang, a borough of the city of Wuhan. TheWuchang Uprising,[5]had begun. The sapper battalion of the local New Army led the first wave,capturing the armory in Chuwantai. (Other New Army units that sympathized with the revolutionaries'cause condoned these actions later.) Wu Zhaolin and Xiong Binkun led the rebels and attacked the

viceroy's office (gunners rebels take guns by horses and climb to the Snake hill, outside city ), and withthe assistance of the South Lake Artillery, the revolutionaries captured the office before the morning ofthe next day. The Qing Viceroy of Huguang, Duan Zheng, escaped.

During the morning of October 11, the revolutionaries gathered for a conference to discuss theestablishment of a military government, as well as the selection of a provincial governor. Theconference chose Li Yuanhong as the governor, a choice that the constitutionists strongly supported.Part of the revolutionaries consented to this choice because the candidates whom they favoredHuangXing, Song Jiaoren, and other important leaderswere absent.

Flag of the iron blood and eighteen stars
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Establishment of Republic of China Hubei Government on October 11, 1911

The entire city of Wuchang was captured by the revolutionaries by the morning of October 11. In theevening that day, they established a tactical headquarters and announced the establishment of the"Military Government of Hubei of Republic of China." They also announced a new name for thenation, the "Republic of China"; they abolished the Qing emperor's title; and they adopted the old-stylecalendar of the Huangdi Era, according to which the year was 4609. The Military Governmentestablished tactical, military, political and foreign affairs departments. They used the QingGovernment's Politic Department as their office building, and used the Banner of 18 stars as theirmilitary flag. The Tactics department broadcast to the entire nation "The Telegram of the

Announcement to the Nation," "Notices to All Provinces," and other documents under the name of theMilitary Government.

On October 12, the Revolutionaries Hu Yuzhen, Qiu Wenbin, and others led New Army units intoHanyang, a borough of Wuhan, and captured that borough; the revolutionary Zhao Chenwu led theother New Army units and captured Hankou, another borough of Wuhan. All three of Wuhan's mainboroughs were then under the control of the revolutionaries.

Genocides againstManchu people happened for about three days and spread to some cities, Henan,Xi'an,Hangzhou and Guangzhou.[6][7][8][9][10] The new established government posted notices andstopped it.

After the Wuchang Uprising

Echo from the provinces

After the successful Wuchang Uprising, the Qing Government sent the Beiyang Army south to assaultHankou, reinstatingYuan Shikai to stabilize the Beiyang Army, since Yuan was the head of the Beiyangsystem.[11] The revolutionaries lost the battle of Hankou: around ten thousand were killed over forty-nine days of fighting. However, the rebels held on to the city of Wuchang, and because of this, fifteenprovinces announced their independence during these seven weeks. In most of these provinces localpolitical activists led the uprisings; in only a few places did the revolutionaries lead the uprisings.

On October 22, 1911 two members named Jiao Dafeng and Chen Zuoxin of the Hunan Gong Jin Huiled an armed group consisting partly of party members and partly of New Army units in a campaign toextend the uprising into Changsha. They captured the city and killed the local Imperial general. Thenthey announced the establishment of Hunan Military Government of the Republic of China, andannounced their opposition to the Qing Empire. On the same day, a member of Shaaxi's Tongmenghui,Jing Meijiu, as well as Jing Wumu and others including Ge Lao Hui, launched an uprising and capturedXi'an after two days of struggle. They established the Qinlong Fuhan Military Government, and electedas the military governor Zhang Fengxiang, a member of the Yuanrizhi Society and an officer in theNew Army.
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On October 23, Lin Sen, Jiang Qun, Cai Hui, and other members of the Tongmenghui in the provinceof Jiangxi plotted a revolt of New Army units in Jiujiang. After they achieved victory, they announcedtheir independence. The Jiujiang Military Government was established the next day, electing Ma Yubaoof the New Army as the military governor.

On October 29, Yan Xishan of the New Army along with Yao Yijie, Huang Guoliang, Wen Shouquan,Zhao Daiwen, Nan Guixin, and Qiao Xi led an uprising in Taiyuan, the capital city of the province of

Shanxi. They managed to kill the Qing Governor of Shanxi, Lu Zhongqi, and announced theestablishment of Shanxi Military Government with Yan Xishan as the military governor. (Yan Xishanwould later become one of the warlords of the warlord era.)

On October 30, Li Genyuan of the Tongmenghui in Yunnan province joined with Cai E, Ruo Peijing,Tang Jiyao, and other officers of the New Army, and launched an armed rebellion. They capturedKunming the next day, and established the Yunnan Military Government, electing Cai E as the militarygovernor.

On October 31, the Nanchang branch of the Tongmenghui led New Army units in a local uprising andsucceeded. They established the Jiangxi Military Government and elected Li Liejun as the militarygovernor.

On November 3, Shanghai's Tongmenghui, Guang Fu Hui, and merchants led by Chen Qimei, LiPingsu, Li Xie, and Song Jiaoren organized an armed rebellion in Shanghai. They recruited varioussquads, and received the support of local police officers. The rebels captured the Jiangnan Workshop onthe 4th, and captured Shanghai soon after. On November 8, they established the Shanghai MilitaryGovernment of the Republic of China, and elected Chen Qimei as the military governor.

On November 4, Zhang Bailin of the revolutionary party in Guizhou led an uprising along with NewArmy units and students from the military academy. They immediately captured Guiyang andestablished the Dahan Guizhou Military Government, electing Yang Jinchen and Zhao Dequan as thechief and vice governor. During the same day, the revolutionaries in Zhejiang urged the New Armyunits in Hanzhou to launch an uprising. Reinforcements arrived from Shanghai and laid siege to

Hanzhou. Zhu Rei, Wu Enyu, Lu Gongwang of the New Army, and Wang Jinfa of the dare-to-diesquads captured the military supplies workshop. Other dare-to-die squads led by Chiang Kai-shek andYin Zhirei along with others captured most of the government offices. On November 5, Hanzhou wasin the control of the revolutionaries, and the constitutionist Tang Shouqian was elected as the militarygovernor.

On November 5, Jiangsu constitutionists and gentry urged the Qing Governor Cheng De to announceindependence, and established the Jiangsu Revolutionary Military Government with Cheng himself asthe governor. Members of Anhui's Tongmenghui also launched the uprising on that day, and laid siegeon the provincial capital. The constitutionists persuaded Zhu Jiabao, the Qing Governor of Anhui, toannounce independence. On November 8, the Anhui politics department presented Anhui'sindependence to the public, and Zhu Jiabao and Wang Tianpei were elected the chief and vice military

governor.On November 6, the Guangxi politics department decided to secede from the Qing Government,announcing Guangxi's independence. The Qing Governnor, Shen Bingdan, was allowed to remaingovernor; however, he was subsequently removed by a general named Lu Rongting, who led a mutiny.

On November 9, members of Fujian's branch of the Tongmenghui along with Sun Daoren of the NewArmy launched an uprising against the Qing Army. The Qing viceroy, Song Shou, committed suicide,and on November 11, the entire Fujian province was in the hands of the revolutionaries. The FujianMilitary Government was established, and Sun Daoren was elected as the military governor.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan_Xishanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan_Xishan


19/29

Near the end of October, Chen Jiongming,Deng Keng,Peng Reihai, and other members ofGuangdong's Tongmenghui organized local militias to led the uprising in Huazhou, Nanhai, Sunde andSanshui of the Guangdong province. On November 8, after being persuaded by Hu Hanmin, general LiHuai and Long Jiguang of the Guangdong Navy agreed to support the revolution. The Qing viceroy ofLiang-guang was forced to discuss with the local representatives a proposal for Guangdong'sindependence. They decided to announce Guangdong's independence the next day. On November 9,

Chen Jiongming captured Huizhou. At the same day, Guangdong announced its independence, andestablished a military government. They elected Hu Hanmin and Chen Jiongming as the chief and vicegovernor.

On November 13, persuaded by revolutionary Din Weifen and several other officers of the New Army,the Qing Governor of Shandong Sun Baoqi agreed to secede from the Qing Government andannounced Shandong's independence.

On November 17,Ningxia the Tongmenghui launched the Ningsha Uprising and established theNingsha Revolutionary Military Government on the 17th.

On November 21, Guanganzhou organized the Dahanshubei Military Government. The XichuanMilitary Government was established in Chongqin the very next day. Two days on the 27th, the Hubei

Army in Xichuan rebelled against the Qing Army. During the same day, the Dahan Xichuan MilitaryGovernment was established, headed by revolutionary Pu Dianjun.

On November 8, plotted and supported by the Tongmenghui, Xu Shaozhen of the New Armyannounced an uprising in Molin Pass, 30 km away from Nanjing City. Xu Shaozhen, Chen Qimei, andother generals decided to form a united army under Xu to strike Nanjing together. On November 11, theunited army headquarter was established in Zhenjiang. Between November 24 and December 1, underthe command of Xu Shaozhen, the united army captured Wulongshan, Mufushan, Yuhuatai, TianbaoCity, and many other strongholds of the Qing Army. On December 2, the Nanjing City was captured bythe revolutionaries.

The Gelaohui revolutionary organization infiltrated the Chinese army. It was anti-Manchu, and anti-

foreign, committing attacks against foreigners.[12][13]The Muslim General Ma Anliang led over 20 battalions ofHuiMuslim troops to defend the Qingdynasty by attacking Shaanxi, which was held by the revolutionaries under Zhang Fenghui. Hedefeated the revolutionaries in combat, but then when the qing emperorPuyi abdicated, Ma agreed tojoin the new Republic of China government under the Kuomintang.[14]One of Ma Anliang'ssuboordinate Generals crushed the Gelaohui in Ningxia, when the city was seize by them.[15] Therevolutionaries invited the Muslim Sufi Jahriyya leaderMa Yuanzhang to join them in overthrowingQing, but instead of joining them, Ma Yuanzhang sent the Jahriyya militia to help the Qing MuslimGeneral Ma Qi defeated the revolutionaries in Ningxia.[16] Ma Qi was the one who crushed theNingxia Gelaohui, sending their heads rolling.[15]

The deceased famous General Dong Fuxiang's family, his wife Tung Chao-shih (Dong Zhaoshi),nephew Tung Wen (Dong Wen), and grandson Tung Kung (Dong Gong fought for the Qing dynastyduring the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 in Gansu.[17]

In Xinjiang, during the Xinhai Revolution in Xinjiang, the last Qing dynasty governor Yuan Dahua fledand handed over his resignation to Yang Zengxin because he could not handle fighting therevolutionaries and did not want to work for the Republic of China.[18] The Ili revolutionaries and theGelaohui were eliminated by Yang. Yang appointed Ma Fuxing as military commander of 2,000Chinese Muslim troops, to crush Yang's rivals. PresidentYuan Shikai recognized his rule, appointinghim Governor of Xinjiang.[19]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Jiongminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Jiongminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deng_Keng&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deng_Keng&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peng_Reihai&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang-guanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningxiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Anlianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hui_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hui_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaanxihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuomintanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuomintanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-CUP_Archive-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-CUP_Archive-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahriyyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Yuanzhanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Qihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-CUP_Archive-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dong_Fuxianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution_in_Xinjianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelaohuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Fuxinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hui_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shikaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shikaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Jiongminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deng_Keng&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peng_Reihai&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang-guanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningxiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Anlianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hui_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaanxihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puyihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuomintanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution#cite_note-CUP_Archive-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahriyyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M

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