bamboo specialty crop

7/29/2019 Bamboo Specialty Crop

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Farm and ForestryProduction and Marketing Profle or

Bamboo (various species)

By Andrew Benton, Lex Tomson,Peter Berg, and Susan Ruskin

Specialty Crops or Pacifc Island Agroorestry (http://agroorestry.net/scps)



Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle or Bamboo by Andrew Benton, Lex Thomson, Peter Berg, and Susan Ruskin 2

USES AND PRODUCTS

Bamboos produce woody culms that may be used whole astimber, or split or a multitude o wood products. Te youngshoots o some species can be eaten. Te major usable mate-rials produced by bamboos are described below.

Whole poles

Whole poles are widely used or construction, or scaold-

ing, rameworks, and other structural components o build-ings (aer proper preservation treatments). Pole sectionsare also or round-pole urniture, handicras, and irrigationsystems. Bambusa vulgaris poles are widely used or tem-porary building structures and ras. Te most promisingconstruction bamboos introduced into the Pacic islandsinclude B. oldhamii, Dendrocalamus asper , D. giganteus andD. latiorus, and Guadua angustiolia. B. tuldoides has excel-lent potential or making strong, long shing poles.

Laths

Laths are thick strips o bamboo wood. Tey may either

be ull thickness splits o a bamboo culm, or be urtherprocessed into plane-sided laths o bamboo wood which

are usually shaped by hand or machine to ensure all oursides are straight, and then pressed together with glues intolaminated boards, which themselves can be shaped intopanels, parquet ooring, door and window rames, and soon. Tese are widely produced in China, Japan, and India.

Splits

Splits are thin strips that are exible enough to be wovenBroad, thin splits are oen woven into mats, which can bepressed together into mat board. Narrower splits are requently used in weaving handicras, urniture, and panelsSplits o Schizostachyum glauciolium are commonly used inFiji or weaving into mats and interior panels.

Sticks

Sticks are produced by splitting laths, or thick splits, depending on the type o stick required. Te process is oenmechanized with hand- or electricity-operated machines.

Veneer

Veneers are produced by longitudinal shaving o the culmVeneers, laminations, and composites are used in suroardsboats, and urniture.

op le: Structural components in a home, North Kona, Hawai‘i. op right: Woven baskets or picking coee, South Kona, Hawai‘iBottom le: Chairs made rom small diameter poles, China. Bottom right: Bamboo ooring.



Specialty Crops or Pacifc Island Agroorestry (http://agroorestry.net/scps) 3

Fibre and pulp

Bamboo bres are long and paper made rom bamboo isusually mixed with 20–30% sowood pulp to give extrastrength. Te bres may also be utilized to make high-valueclothing abrics, using processes similar to those used to

manuacture o rayon. Te chemical composition o bam-boo culms is holocellulose (�–�%), lignin (20–30%), sili-holocellulose (�–�%), lignin (20–30%), sili-ca (0.5–4%), pentosans (�–2�%), and ash (�–5[9])%.

Extracts

Bamboo tar-oil (also occasionally called bamboo vinegar) isused as a component o various medicines.

Medicinal uses

abasheer, a silicaceous concretion ound in the internodeso some species, is used medicinally, as is lea sap which issometimes used as an eye drop. Tere are many other uses

by indigenous peoples, but no commercialisation is known.

Edible shoots

Bamboo shoots are usually harvested at 30–0 cm tall, andare peeled beore cooking. Shoots o many o the clump-orming tropical species contain high levels o cyanogens,and must be boiled well prior to consumption.

Fodder

Bamboo leaves make excellent odder or livestock includleaves make excellent odder or livestock includor livestock includor livestock includlivestock includincluding cows, horses, and pigs.

Charcoal

Waste products, including branches and sawdust, can beused to produce charcoal and charcoal briquettes. Teseburn hot and clean. Bamboo charcoal is also highly adsorptive and is oen used in purication systems, particularlythe sugar industry, and in household odour treatments.

Scale o commercial production worldwide

Te latest data indicates that international trade in bambooproducts is worth US$2.5 billion per annum, the major im2.5 billion per annum, the major imbillion per annum, the major im, the major imhe major importers being the auent nations, particularly the EU andthe U.S. China is the major exporter. It is not known howmuch is imported into or exported rom various Pacic is

lands, but the quantities are expected to be relatively small.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Preerred scientifc names

See ables � and 2.

Family

Poaceae

Le: Schizostachyum glaucifolium is native to some Pacifc islands and widely introduced to others by ancient Polynesians. SouthKohala, Hawai‘i. Middle: raditional Hawaiian nose ute (‘ohe hano ihu) made rom Schizostachyum glaucifolium. Right: raditionaHawaiian bamboo pattern stamps (‘ohe kapala) or decorating tapa cloth.




Subamily

Bambusae

Common names

Te local names or Bambusa spp., the most commonbamboo o the Pacic, include (PEIR 20�0):

Carolinian: bwai, bwaiChamorro: pi‘ao, pi‘ao palaoan, piao paloan

Chuukese: iichEnglish: bambooFijian: mbitu vavalangiFrench: bambouHawaiian: ‘oheI-Kiribati: te kaibabaKosraean: bambuMaori (Cook Islands): koe, ko‘e, ko‘e papa‘?, ko‘e tinit? Marshallese: bae, kobaNauruan: ebarabaratuNiuean: kaho palangi, kaho papalangiPalauan: bambuu, esel Pohnpeian: pehri, pehri en sapahnPukapukan: koeRakahanga-Manihiki: kohe, koheSamoan: ‘oe, ‘oe Fiti, ‘oe palagiSolomon Islands (Kwara‘ae): ‘i kakoSpanish: caña amarilla, caña verdeahitian: ‘oe, oe, ‘oheongan: koe, pituuvaluan: koe, pampuYapese: moor

See able � or local common names o other indigenous

bamboos o the Pacic.

Brie botanical description

Bamboos are woody grasses that range in height rom 0.5 mto 40 m. Te main structural component is the undergroundrhizome system rom which the above ground stems (called

“culms”) emerge. Tere are two major types o bamboos,based on the type o rhizome they possess. Tose with shortbulbous rhizomes that turn upwards to produce culms romtheir apical buds produce bamboos with culms growingin closely-packed clumps are called “sympodial” bamboos.

Tose with long rhizomes that grow horizontally through thesoil and produce culms rom lateral buds in widely-spacedgroves are called “monopodial” bamboos. here are a ew exceptions: invasive sympodial bamboos that orm hugegroves and monopodial bamboos that orm open clumps,and even a ew bamboos with both types o rhizome.

Culms are woody but hollow, except at the nodes, whichare periodic ring-like thickenings all the way up the culm.he distance between nodes varies with species. Culmsare usually very hard and contain large amounts o silica.

Branch buds are borne only at the nodes and the number obranches that emerge varies by species. Branches also havenodes and internodes, and can produce branchlets. Leavesare borne in groups at the tips o the branchlets.

Bamboo owers and seeds are rare. Individual owers aresmall, but borne in longitudinal inorescences, and seeds omost bamboos are about the size o a grain o rice.

DISTRIBUTION

Native range

Only one bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) is pantropical andmay be regarded as naturalized in many parts o the PacicTis species was introduced into Fiji in �80 and Hawai‘i inthe early part o the �9th century. wo other widely cultivatedand naturalized bamboos in the Pacic islands are Bambusablumeana and B. multiplex . Schizostachyum glauciolium isindigenous (e.g., Fiji) or an ancient Polynesian introduction(e.g., Hawai‘i, Samoa) in the Pacic islands.

Native species recorded or PNG include Neololeba attraand Nastus elatus and or Solomon Islands Nastus obtususand Schizostachyum tessellatum.

Current distribution worldwide

Clump-orming bamboos are native to tropical andsubtropical areas o Asia, Asia-Pacic, Arica, and LatinAmerica. Many species have been introduced to countrieswithin Asia and Latin America, and to Arica, but less than�00 species are grown on a commercial scale worldwideClumping species brought into Fiji (Nadurulolo) in the�950s included Bambusa tuldoides, Dendrocalamus gigan

teus, and Gigantochloa apus, but these species remain rareand localized. Species introduced into Fiji in recent times(200�) in several locations (Pacic Harbour and Colo-ISuva) include Bambusa lako, B. malingensis, B. oldhamii, Btextilis, B. vulgaris cvs. Vittata and Wamin, Dendrocalamuslatiorus, and Gigantochloa atter. Some o these same species and varieties have also been introduced into KiribatiNiue, Samoa, and onga. For a comprehensive compilationo nomenclature and distribution see Ohrnberger (�999).

Lists o species growing in and recommended or Pacicislands are given in ables � and 2. Note that o the most

useul genera, experience in the Pacic indicates that Gi gantochloa spp. seems to be adaptable over a wider rangeo environments than Dendrocalamus spp. (which generally require more water) and can grow in soils o higher pHBambusa vulgaris may be regarded as naturalized throughthroughghhout the Pacic, as indicated by the extensive list o its comthe Pacic, as indicated by the extensive list o its com, as indicated by the extensive list o its common names presented above.




Range

Asia and OceaniaWest to east: Japan to India (possibly Pakistan); and north tosouth: South Korea to Northern Australia.

Arica

Senegal to Madagascar, Ethiopia to Zimbabwe.

Americas

Baja Caliornia to Eastern Brazil, southern Chile to southernU.S.

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES AND

TOLERANCESClimate

Bamboos grow at latitudes between 4N and 4S and elN and 4S and elN and 4S and elS and elS and elelevations rom near sea level to 4,500 m ASL, in the tropicalsubtropical, and temperate regions o Australasia, OceaniaArica, Asia, and the Americas. Te vast range o bamboospecies means that a wide range o climates are suitable, demeans that a wide range o climates are suitable, derange o climates are suitable, deo climates are suitable, de, depending on species.

Table 1. Bamboos that are indigenous to Pacifc islands.

Species name HeightCulmdiameter

Common Englishname(s)

Local names in South Pacifc Brie description

Bambusa atra/Neoleleba atra 8–�0 m 2–4 cmNew Guinea thinwalled bamboo

koya (PNG) Small- medium sized bamboowith long internodes (35–0 cm).

Bambusa vulgaris 8–20 m 5–�0 cmCommon bamboo bitu vavalagi (Fiji); ‘oe Fiji

(Samoa); ‘i kako (SolomonIslands)

Medium sized bamboo, openclumps, internodes 25–35 cm,culms oen not straight.

Nastus elatus to 20 m n/a New Guinea greenbamboo konya (PNG) Internodes short, 30–40 cm

Nastus obtusus to 20 m 5 cmNew Guinea ediblebamboo

‘i ka‘o (Solomon Islands) Internodes long, 0–80 cm,scandent.

Schizostachyum glauciolium 9–�2 m n/aNative bamboo,Polynesian bamboo

bitu dina (Fiji); ‘oe Samoa (Samoa)

n/a

Schizostachyum tessellatum n/a n/aAnyone in SPknown/a

‘i keketo (Solomon Islands) n/a

Species namePropaga-tion system

Flowering habits Main uses Notes YieldsApproxi-mate plant-ing density

Bambusa atra/Neoleleba atraOsets,culm andbranchcuttings

Not known—no

gregarious oweringreported

Basketry and handicras,

thatching

Grows well on slopes

on wet soils and watermargins. Excellentor developing villagehandicra industries.

n/a n/a

Bambusa vulgaris All

Never known toower gregariously,only very occasionalreports o sporadicowering

Construction, urniture,handicras, paper andpulp, ornamental

Very adaptable species,good on poor or oodedland. Cultivars includeWamin and Striata.

20 M/ha + × + m

Nastus elatus n/aNot known Shoots can be eaten raw.

Hollow stems sometimesused as water containers.

Light green culms turnyellow when older. n/a n/a

Nastus obtusus n/a Only sporadicowering reported

n/a n/a n/a n/a

Schizostachyum glaucioliumOsetsand culmcuttings

n/a

Te ash is used to treatsores and abscessesmixed with Diospyros andCyperus, and culms areused or nose utes, rattles,and household items

n/a n/a 3 × 3 m

Schizostachyum tessellatum n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a




ropical clumping bamboos oen have broad climatic tol-oen have broad climatic tol-erances, although the vast majority are sensitive to rost.Minimum annual rainall o about 00 mm is adequate orsome species, but most preer �,200 mm or more.

Soils

Bamboos will grow in most types o soil, except extremely sandy, saline, or waterlogged soils. In the Pacic, experienceindicates that well drained soils are best or bamboos grownor timber, and moister soils are better or those grown orshoots. Bamboos preer soils with slightly acidic pH, but

some o the Gigantochloa spp. can handle alkaline soils withpH o up to 8. Tey preer ertile soils with high organicmatter content. Bamboos have a brous root system, with80% o their rhizome and root systems growing in the top50 cm o soil, and accordingly can grow well on relatively shallow soils. Once established, bamboos respond well toheavy (ideally bulky organic) ertilizer application and evenhave a great capacity to absorb nutrients rom wastewater.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

New culms emerge during the rainy season rom rhizomes

produced the previous year. While culm extension in mono-podial species can reach � m per day, the sympodial bambooculms grow much slower. Te shooting season in Hawai‘iis generally summer (approximately May–October), regard-less o the rainy season, which varies in dierent parts o theislands. For the most part, the tropical clumping bambooswill reach 80% o their potential height within a couple o months. Te remaining 20% o growth can take a ew moremonths to complete. At the end o each growing season it isnormal or some new shoots to abort.

Te height and diameter o culms in a clump increases incrementally with age over a period o up to –8 years, depending on propagation method employed and growingconditions, up to a species-determined maximum. Eachsucceeding generation o culms will normally show an increase in height and diameter until a maximum is reachedor that species in its particular environment.

Culms are too so to use when young, and are usually har vested when they are 3–4 years old. For recently propagatedbamboos, selected harvesting o shoots can begin aer 3years, and culms aer 4 years, but yields will be low, andover-harvesting can signicantly reduce the long-term productivity o the plant. Culms can be harvested year-roundexcept during the shooting season when harvesting maycause damage to emerging and young shoots. Shoots shouldbe harvested shortly aer they emerge in the rainy seasonwhen they are about three times as high as they are wide atthe base.

Branching occurs rom buds at the nodes usually once extension growth has been completed, and lasts a ew monthsCulms o older plants oen do not have buds at the lowernodes, resulting in clear culms or many metres and a clearly

dened canopy layer above.

Flowering and ruiting

Te owering habits o most species o bamboos are toopoorly known to state with certainty. In general, three typeso owering behaviour are recognized:

Gregarious owering

Populations o one species ower, produce seed, and diesimultaneously over very large areas (oen many square

Le: Guadua angustifolia culms, North Kona, Hawai‘i. Right: Guadua sp., Ecuador.




kilometres), to be replaced by ospring grown rom theirseed. Tere are only about 20 species whose owering is su-ciently well known to be placed in this group. Exampleso gregariously-owering economic species are Melocannabacciera (48 years), Bambusa bambos (45–48 years), Den-drocalamus strictus (3–44 years), and Tyrsostachys sia-mensis (48 years).

Sporadic owering

Tis is the most commonly seen type o owering, and in-cludes a wide range o owering behaviours, rom a handulo plants owering and ruiting on all culms, setting seedand the plant subsequently dying, to a single culm oweringand dying on just one plant. In some cases, especially whereseed set is low or nonexistent, the owering culm may sur-

vive. Examples o this type o owering include many o theBambusa, Dendrocalamus, and Gigantochloa species.

Continuous owering

Some o the equatorial species ower all the year, and the

culms do not die. Tis behaviour is oen recorded in tropi-cal Schizostachyum species.

One bamboo, Bambusa vulgaris, almost never owers, andhas never been recorded as owering on more than ew culms when it does. B. vulgaris is one o the most vegeta-tively vigorous and easy to grow o all bamboos.

Fruit (seed) usually has short viability under dierentconditions. One month is common in subtropical regionsbut those in tropical regions may retain viability or a ewmonths, such as those o the genera Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa, and Guadua. Seeds o species with largeeshy seeds, such as Melocanna bacciera, may remain viableup to months or more. Seed viability can be extended byrerigerating or reezing dried seeds. Flowering habits areincluded in ables � and 2.

AGROFORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

SERVICES

Agroorestry/interplanting practices

Intercropping is easily accomplished with wide range o annual crops during the early years o establishing a bambooplantation in which the annual crops can provide cash income while the bamboo is maturing sufciently to be har

vested. Practices or intercropping mature plantations withtimber species exist.

Tere is limited deliberate cultivation o bamboos on amily arms in Pacic islands. Given the increased interest ingrowing bamboos or multiple products in various Pacicislands, including Hawai‘i, Fiji, and Samoa, the new exoticspecies will be increasingly incorporated into multi-speciesmultipurpose agroorestry systems as supplies o plantingmaterials become available.

Tree promising species used or construction timber and edible shoots. Le: Gigantochloa atter. Middle: Bambusa lako (lesser timber quality). Right: Dendrocalamus asper ‘Betung Hitam’. All photos rom North Hilo, Hawai‘i.




Table 2 (part 1). Characteristics o suggested priority species or Pacifc islands.

Species name HeightCulmdiam-eter

Status (see key below)

CommonEnglishname(s)

Brie descriptionPropagationsystem

Flowering habits

Bambusa lako x–20 m x–�0 cmIntroduced—F, H, W&F

imor black bamboo

Medium sized bamboowith black culms

Osets, culmcuttings

n/a

Bambusa multiplex 3– m �–3 cmIntroduced—common

Multibamboo

Eight varieties o dier-ing sizes; a small bamboowith thin culms

Osets Not known—sporad-ic owering observedoccasionally

Bambusa oldhamii –�5 m 3–9 cm Introduced—CI, F, FSM, H, K,N, S, , W&F

Greenbamboo

Medium bamboo, inter-nodes 20–35 cm long Osets, culm andbranch cuttings Not known—sporad-ic owering observedoccasionally

Bambusa textilis 9–�5 m3–5(+)cm

Introduced—CI, F, H, W&F

Weaver’sbamboo

Medium sized bamboo,internodes 25–0 (+) cmlong

Osets, culm andbranch cuttings

Not known—sporad-ic owering observedoccasionally

Bambusa tulda x–30 m x–8 cmIntroduced—rare in Samoa

Indiantimberbamboo

Large bamboo with thick walls

Osets Gregarious (25—40)yr and sporadic ow-ering

Bambusa tuldoides –�4 m 3–5 cmIntroduced—F, H

VerdantPunting PoleBamboo

Medium sized bamboo,branches emerging romthe basal nodes, inter-nodes up to 40 cm long

Osets Not known to owergregariously, spo-radic owering oenseen with varyinglevels o mortality

Dendrocalamus asper 20–30 m 8–20 cmIntroduced—CI, F, FSM, H, K,N, P, S,

Asperbamboo,Dragonbamboo

Large bamboo, inter-nodes 20–45 cm longwith thick walls (��–20mm)


Tai population ow-ered en masse anddied in mid-�990s

Dendrocalamus giganteus 24–35 m �0–20 cmIntroduced—F, H

Giantbamboo

Very large bamboo, inter-nodes 40–50 cm

All Gregarious owering(30—40) yr

Dendrocalamus latiorus �4–25 m 8–20 cmIntroduced—CI, F, FSM, H, K,N, P, S, , W&F

aiwan giantbamboo, Mabamboo

Medium-large bamboo,internodes 20–0 cmlong

Culm cuttings,osets, air andground layering

Sporadic oweringcommon

Gigantochloa apus 8–30 m 4–�3 cmIntroduced—F, H

abashirbamboo

Medium-large bamboo,internodes 35–45 cm

Culm cuttings Not known—nogregarious oweringreported, but plantsare thought to owersporadically aerabout 50 yr old

Gigantochloa atter x–25 m 5–�0 cmIntroduced—CI, FSM, H, K,N, P, , S, W&F

Pring legibamboo

Medium-large bamboo,internodes 40–50 cmlong

Osets and culmcuttings

Tought to owergregariously aer50—0 years thendie.

Gigantochloa levis�5–20 (30)m

5–� cmNot currently grown in Pacic

Levisbamboo

Large bamboo with inter-nodes about 45 cm long

Culm cuttings Sporadic oweringcommon

Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea

to 30 m 5–�3 cm Introduced—HMaximabamboo

Medium sized bamboowith internodes 35–45cm long

Osets, culm andbranch cuttings,air-layering

Gregarious (50—0yr)

Guadua angustiolia to 30+ m to 25 cmIntroduced—H, S

Columbiangiant thorny bamboo

Large bamboo, inter-nodes �0–25 cm long,clumps open

All Not known—nogregarious oweringreported

Ochlandra spp. 5–�0 m 2–5 cmNot currently grown in Pacic

Reedbamboo (O.travancorica)

About ten species en-demic to the WesternGhats o India

Osets, culmcuttings.

Various

Schizostachyum spp.(especially S. difusum, S.dulooa, S. glauciolium, S. grande, S. lumampao, S.tesselatum, S. trachcladum,S. zolingeri)

5–�5 mdependingon species

to 5–�0cm

Introduced andindigenous insome islands

Various

Small to medium–sizedbamboos, up to about �5m tall, with thin–mediumwalls


Sporadic, but notusually dying aerowering. Someower every year orevery other year.

Tyrsostachys siamensis 8–� m 3–8 cm Introduced—HMonastery bamboo

Medium sized grace-ul bamboo, internodes�5–30 cm long

Osets, culmcuttings

Gregarious (approx.48 yr cycle) and spo-radic




Table 2 (part 2). Characteristics o suggested priority species or Pacifc islands.

Species name Main uses Notes YieldsApproximateplanting density

Bambusa lako

Noted or colourul culms/ornamental,good or urniture, sometimes used orlight construction, cras, urniture, andedible shoots

n/a n/a 4 × 5 m

Bambusa multiplex

Mainly used as an ornamental. Also or

hedging and windbreaks. Some varietiescan grow to 8 m. n/a n/a n/a

Bambusa oldhamiiConstruction, woven articles, pulp, shoots,windbreaks, and green screens.

Can be poor in suboptimal growing condi-tions, much more susceptible to insects.

n/a n/a

Bambusa textilisWoven articles (excellent quality), orna-mental

Several cultivars and varieties known, incl. var gracilis, var glaba, cv Albostriata. n/a 5 × 5 m

Bambusa tuldaConstruction, round-pole urniture, paperand pulp, handicras and implements. n/a n/a × m

Bambusa tuldoides Fishing rods, poles n/a n/a n/a

Dendrocalamus asper Construction (culms are large). Also orgood quality urniture, woven items, uten-sils. Shoots are high quality.

Tis guide reers only to Indonesian plants,which are excellent multi-purpose bam-boos. Tai types have lesser quality timber.

20 M shoots/ha

5– (�0) × 5–(�0) m

Dendrocalamus giganteusCulms are large and excellent or construc-tion, shoots are high quality, pulp andhandicras, laminated boards. Strikingornamental due to its vast proportions.

Culms rarely straight.200 culms/shoots per ha

�0 × �0 m

Dendrocalamus latiorus

Widely grown or its excellent shoots. Alsoused or urniture, cras and pulp.

Commercially very important shoot speciesin Asia. Grows in Indochina and southernChina, leaves traditionally used or cook-ing rice. Te larger cv Mei Nung providesexcellent contruction-use culms.

�2–30 Mshoots/ha

4–5 × 4–5 m

Gigantochloa apusConstruction, urniture, woven articles.Shoots are poor quality.

Its overlapping bres render it unsuitableor stick-type products �,000 culms/ha 5– × 5– m

Gigantochloa atter Good or construction, sweet edible shoots. Many populations have straight culms. 5 × 5 m

Gigantochloa levisGood construction bamboo, shoots very good quality, also used or woven articles.

One o the main bamboos o the Philip-pines handicra industry.

�00+ M/ha – × m

Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea

Construction, woven articles and handi-cras, shoots good quality

Said to be native to Java. Variegated varMalay Dwar is a good ornamental. Severalorms exist.

�,50 culmsper ha

× m

Guadua angustiolia

Excellent construction-use bamboo, ur-niture, handicras, woven articles, pulp,boards.

Te most widely used bamboo in LatinAmerica, highly versatile. Culms usually straight, or at least have long, straight sec-tions. Large thorns on branches presentserious handling problems. Tere is large variation in timber quality between popula-tions.

20–40 M/ha × m

Ochlandra spp.

Excellent or binding soil. Excellent or

pulp, also or walling and woven articles.

Grow well in heavy rainall areas.

Various Various

Schizostachyum spp.Variously or construction, woven articles,boards, pulp, ornamental.

About 30 species rom Asia, widely used intheir locales, but rarely introduced to otherareas.

Various Various

Tyrsostachys siamensisConstruction, shoots, woven articles andhandicras, urniture. Good windbreak andornamental.

Many populations have straight culms.9–�5 M/ha 4 × 4 m

Key: CI = Cook Islands; F = Fiji; FSM = Federated States o Micronesia; H = Hawai‘i; K = Kiribati; N = Niue; P = Palau; S = Samoa; = onga; W&F =Wallis and FutunaNote: Experience in the region with other bamboos, particularly B. dissemulator, B. glaucophylla, B. oliveriana, B. pervariabilis, Dendrocalamus brandi-sii, D. membranaceous, D. sikkimensis, and Oxytenanthera glauca suggests these also have considerable potential.




Environmental services

Windbreaks and living ences/boundary plantingsBamboos have a high modulus o elasticity (9,000–�0,�00N/mm2), which helps them bend but not break even inhigh winds. Tey are oen used as a windbreak to protectcash crops. However, eective management o the clumpis essential to maximize this benet, as congested clumpspresent a more solid barrier and are ar more likely tosuccumb to strong winds.

Many varieties o clumping bamboos make outstandingwindbreaks using relatively little space (i.e., a single row)Teir exibility results in little turbulence on the leewardside o the wind direction, and they can be planted or maintained with whatever level o air permeability is desired ora given situation. Bambusa oldhamii makes an excellent tallnarrow windbreak and boundary planting. Tis species sur

vived cyclonic winds with the least damage (bending andbreakage) o seven species trialed in Fiji, but well replicat ji, but well replicati, but well replicat, but well replicatwell replicated experiments have yet to be done. Bambusa multiplex is

op le: Many bamboos have good windbreak qualities. op right: Bambusa tuldoides windbreak. Bottom le: imber bamboosplanted in open pasture with groundcover o squash (Cucurbita sp.) grown to suppress vigorous grasses, North Kohala, Hawai‘i. Bot-tom right: Bambusa oldhamii windbreak, Maui, Hawai‘i.




widely planted in Fiji as a dense low screening hedge andwindbreak.

Timber substitution

Bamboo can substitute or timber in many uses. Wood harvested rom orested areas is oen used or building/con-struction and paper and pulp industries and bamboo couldsubstitute or a large proportion o this. Wood “hardness”and durability vary with the species and with environmentand maintenance. Some bamboos are extremely “hard” andhave been compared avourably to both oak and maple.

Watershed protection, soil erosion, bioremediation

Bamboos maintain a permanent canopy over the soil and areexcellent at reducing soil erosion, while providing a sourceo wood or income-generating activities. A 3-year-old plan-tation reduced soil erosion by 5% at an INBAR project sitein China, even beore canopy closure. Bamboos are also o-ten used to stabilize riverbanks. Tey can also be used toabsorb excess nutrient and ertilizer runo such as aroundpiggeries/chicken sheds, septic tanks, and sugarcane elds.

Biodiversity

Bamboos are habitats or a number o endangered species,including the Giant Panda (China), Red Panda (China),Mountain Gorilla (Uganda/Rwanda), Lesser and GreaterBamboo Lemurs (Madagascar), and bamboo bats (China).Some species o bamboo are themselves under threat dueto over harvesting (e.g., Qiongzhuea tumidinoda in China),while others are known only rom single locations and couldbe threatened i the habitat comes under pressure.

Climate change/adaptation, carbon sequestration

Bamboo is one o the most productive and astest growing plants on the planet. Below-ground bamboo biomassmakes up 25–50% o the total stock. Carbon content comprises usually about 50% o the total biomass. Modelingby INBAR indicates that managed bamboo holds higherlevels o carbon than equivalent tree plantations, and thatbamboos sequester carbon more rapidly in the early years oplantation establishment. Besides higher biomass, bamboo

has other advantages over wood as a carbon stock. Unlikeother woody crops, bamboo oers the possibility o annuaselective harvesting and removal o about �5–20% o the toout �5–20% o the total stock without damaging the environment or productivityOver 90% o bamboo carbon can be sequestered in durableproducts such as boards, panels, oors, urniture, buildings, cloth, paper, and activated charcoal. Bamboo also haspotential as a source o bamboo biochar, a carbon productproduced rom plant matter under conditions o low oxygenwhich releases gasses that can be used to produce uels andor power generation. Te biochar residue itsel is very stableand does not decay to release carbon into the atmosphere as

rapidly as other plant materials do, and can hold carbon inthe soil or many decades. It is also reported to improve soistructure and ertility, and is available commercially or thispurpose.

Ecotourism

People appreciate bamboo houses and bamboo resorts arebecoming popular in many countries including AustraliaIndia, and China. Bamboo orests are a unique environmentrarely encountered by most people, and many bamboo eco

Bambusa chungiiBambusa dissemulator Bambusa distegiaBambusa dolichomerithalla silverstripeBambusa dolichomerithalla “stripe”Bambusa emeiensisBambusa glaucophylla

Bambusa heterostachyaBambusa lakoBambusa longispiculataBambusa luteostriataBambusa malingensisBambusa mutabilisBambusa multiplex Alphonse-Karr Bambusa multiplex SilverstripeBambusa oliverianaBambusa rigidaBambusa textilisBambusa textilis “gracilis”

Bambusa textilis “asca”

Bambusa ventricosaBambusa vulgaris var vittataBambusa vulgaris cv “Wamin”Borinda bolianaBorinda ungosaChusquea coronalisChusquea culeo

Chusqeua leibmanniiChusquea pittieriiDendrocalamus asper Dendrocalamus asper cv “Hitam”Dendrocalamus brandisiiDendrocalamus jianshuiensisDendrocalamus membrenaceousDendrocalamus minor amoenusDendrocalamus sikkimensisDendrocalamus ynnanicusDrepanostachyum khasianumDrepanostachyum sengteeanum

Gigantochloa apus

Gigantochloa atroviolaceaGigantochloa atter Gigantochloa albociliataGigantochloa luteostriataGigantochloa pseudoarundinaceaGigantochloa robustaGuadua angustiolia

Guadua angustiolia bicolor Himalayacalamus asper Himalayacalamus alconeriHimalayacalamus “Damarapa”Himalayacalamus hookeriana

Melocalamus errectus Melocanna baccieraOtatea acuminata aztecorumOtatea glaucaOxytenanthera abyssinicaSchizostachyum brachycladumSchizostachyum caudatum

Schizostachyum glauciolium

Table 3. Species currently available rom a variety o commercial nurseries in the Pacifc




tourism locations include well tended bamboo species col-lections.

Biouels

Bamboo can be used to produce charcoal, which burns hot-ter and cleaner than timber charcoal. Bamboo is oen usedin China as the rameworks or biogas generators, and re-search is ongoing into its potential or producing second-generation ethanol-based biouels.

Advantages and disadvantages o growing in

polycultures

Bamboos are ideally suited to growth in polycultures andcan be grown with many other tree and crop species. Somespecies, such as Bambusa oldhamii, are especially suited toboundary plantings and can increase existing ood crop cul-tivation through providing protection and acting as wind-breaks. However, lateral root spread can compete with cashcrops grown close to windbreaks and annual root shearingmay help reduce this. Bamboos can also provide raw mate-

rials or simple construction on the arm, including animalpens, sheds, agricultural implements, and support struc-tures or yam, pumpkin, passion ruit and other climbingcrops.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

Care should be taken to prepare and site a bamboo nursery appropriately. It should be level, in or near the plantationarea, well drained but with easy access to irrigation, andideally somewhat shaded and sheltered rom wind. A deep,ertile sandy loam is ideal. Propagation is best done at the

beginning o the growing season. Note that a propagule canonly be considered successul once a new culm has grownrom the original, and has rooted, which can take anythingrom a ew months to a year. Always choose one or 2-year-old healthy culms as the propagule, because they are more

vigorous than older culms.

Tere are eight main propagation methods.

Division

Tis involves digging up the clump and using an axe, spade,or heavy knie to divide the clump into several pieces.Experience in the Pacic indicates that or predictably great-acic indicates that or predictably great-cic indicates that or predictably great-predictably great-

er success one should take “three generations” o culms asa propagule unit rom the mother plant: A new generationwith branches hardened o, its “parent,” and its “grandpar-ent.” It is essential to trim back the branches partially beoreplanting, thereby removing most o the leaves which wouldresult in rapid water loss, while ensuring some remainor photosynthesis and water movement. Plant in a wellprepared hole, including some bulky organic matter erti-erti-lizer and soil backll.

op: Container nursery with sun and wind protection. MiddleNursery with plants propagated rom osets. Bottom: Nurserybed or plant propagation.




Ofsets

One or two year old culms with rooted rhizomes attachedare detached rom the parent clump, severed to about �–�.5m tall or higher i there are no viable branch buds on thelower nodes, and planted in a nursery propagation bed or inlarge pots/polybags.

Culm cuttings

One or two-node sections o the culm, usually taken romthe middle portion o the culm, are severed. Side branch-severed. Side branch-es and leaves are removed, leaving the strongest branchletwhich is cut back to about 2–3 nodes. Te culm cutting isthen buried horizontally in soil directly in the eld or pre-buried horizontally in soil directly in the eld or pre-directly in the eld or pre-erably in a pot in the nursery where it can be more readily and regularly watered until aer root development. Root-inducing chemicals may be useul with recalcitrant rooters.

Branch cuttings

A culm with primary branches that have swollen bases isselected and the branches severed. Branches are cut back

to 2– internodes rom the base and buried at an inclinein a propagation bed so only the tip is sticking out. Tey are watered well, and a mulch o leaves or other shadingmaterial is applied on top. Branch cuttings take longer toreach useable size and culm cuttings are usually preerable.

Air-layering

his method ensures the cuttings are well rooted on theplant beore severing. ransparent plastic sheet is tied below a healthy node, and a ew handuls o moist, well drainedrooting material (e.g., coir bre) is packed around the node.Te sheet is wrapped round and tied at the top to make a

watertight enclosure. Rooting usually takes a ew months,aer which the culm can be severed and the rooted nodeplanted out. Tis method is only useul in areas o high hu-is method is only useul in areas o high hu-method is only useul in areas o high hu-is only useul in areas o high hu-useul in areas o high hu-in areas o high hu-midity. Additionally, access is oen limited to the lower partso the plant, which is oen not ideal propagating material.

Ground layering

Tis is a rarely-used method. Te tip o a culm is cut o, andlateral branches cut back to one internode. It is then bentover and buried in the ground or its ull length, ensuringthe branches stick out sideways, whilst remaining attachedto the parent plant at the rhizome. Te basal part o the culmcan be cut hal way through i it does not bend easily.

Seeds

Bamboo seeds are rare and plants take a long time to reachharvestable size when propagated rom them. Seeds areusually the size o grains o rice (depending on species) andcan be sown in standard well drained seedbeds under shade.Once they have produced at least two very small shoots they can be transplanted into nursery beds. Seeds are oen usedto start tissue cultures.

Tissue culture

While tissue culture methods or bamboo have been de veloped and commercially practiced in recent years, theprotocols are rarely made public. In vitro multiplicationo tissues o mature bamboo exhibiting superior traits enables elite germplasm to be cloned. issue culture startingrom germinated seedlings will usually not be true-to-type(i.e., possess all the desired qualities o the mother plant)

issue culture protocols have now been developed ormany priority tropical bamboo species, including specieso Bambusa and Dendrocalamus, and others in the generaGigantochloa, Guadua, and Phyllostachys. Plants may beproduced either by direct multiplication or more oen bysomatic embryogenesis, usually rom seed explants (withinherent genetic variability), although some species havebeen propagated rom vegetative explants that maintain thecharacteristics o the parent.

Recommended outplanting techniques

Propagules should be planted out only when their root

system is well developed and roots are about matchstickthickness. o outplant, water the propagules well beoreplanting, dig a hole twice the size o the root ball, add organicertilizer, backll, and water in well. It is best to ensure thereare no air pockets around the root ball and to avoid overcompacting the backll.

Te largest bamboos, such as those in the genus Dendrocalamus are spaced at m × m–�0 m × �0 m, with slightlysmaller bamboos spaced at 4 m × 4 m, 5 m × 5 m or largerspacings depending on ultimate size.

Te recommended spacing in polycultures depends on the

species being used (i.e., the mature or managed ootprint)nature o soil and environment, and the size o companioncrops, and other actors.

CULTIVATION

Variability o species

Classication o bamboos is difcult and there is oendisagreement over the naming o new varieties. With theexception o ornamental bamboos, varietal dierences arerarely o any importance to the eventual useability o the

plants or culms. Plants derived rom seeds o many specieshave been observed in Hawai‘i to show considerable variability in wood and shoot quality.

Basic crop management

Watering

Bamboos need to be well watered during the establishmentperiod to develop into healthy, luxuriant clumps: they mayalso require supplementary irrigation in lower rainall areasMature bamboos require a great deal o water, but once esature bamboos require a great deal o water, but once esonce es




tablished do not require additional watering in humid andsubhumid tropics.

Fertilization

Productivity will be greatly aided by the addition o generousamounts o organic or inorganic ertilizers. In commercialplantations, ertilisers are usually applied twice per year:

just beore the shoots emerge, and shortly beore mainculm extension (October/November in subtropical loca-October/November in subtropical loca-tions south o equator and May in subtropical regions in thenorthern Hemisphere). Liquid urea ertilizer is also appliedto shoot-producing stands aer shoot harvest. Applicationrates o well rotted manure are usually �5–25 kg per clumpat each application. Bulky organic matter is preerred, as ithelps maintain soil structure, but inorganic ertilizers canbe applied. Rates will vary depending on soil and plantconditions.

Thinning/harvesting

Bamboos that are grown or ornamental purposes or or

timber are managed dierently rom those grown specically

or shoots. For timber production it is best to begin thinningthe clump in Year 2 (the winter or “dormant” period is best)Annual thinning keeps the clump as open as possible to allow culms to grow straight and to eliminate unnecessarywork and damage when harvesting. Culms reach optimumunctionality and use at 4 years old, and harvesting is then aprocess o selectively removing 4-year-old culms. It helps toscore the culms in their year o emergence to enable datinglater on. One common recommendation is to remove alculms 4– years and older, and also or the removal o anyculms that would make uture work more difcult or thatare unusable due to orm. Te ultimate number o culmso a particular age kept in a clump is specic to each species, usage, and environment. A clean cut just above thenode will avoid damage to the rhizome’s buds and prevent awater pool rom orming in the severed internode that canharbour mosquitoes.

When growing bamboos or shoots it is best to keep alimited number o healthy culms and harvest the shootsusually 5– per clump per year, depending on clump size

Le: Dense clump o Dendrocalamus asper in need o thinning, North Kona, Hawai‘i. Right: Open stand o Guadua angustifolia inNorth Hilo, Hawai‘i.




Each year, beore the shoots start to grow, careully dig outthe soil rom around the rhizomes to expose the buds tothe sunlight—this will increase shoot production. At thesame time, the rhizome system can be cleaned up a little, by removing inappropriately placed rhizomes, and entangledbrous roots. Replace the soil and mulch with straw oncethe shoots start to grow, otherwise they may become bitteri exposed to sunlight. See e.g., Othman et al. (�995), see orurther inormation about strategies or shoot production.

Species grown or ornamental uses may have attractive youngculms, or develop unusual colorations with time. Tese canbe managed to maximize their attractiveness, rather thantheir productivity. Clumps o species with attractive youngculms can be maintained on a 3-year harvesting cycleto increase the proportions o young culms in the clump;those with colorations can be grown at wider spacings, andthinned more, to maximize sunlight penetration to theclump.

PESTS AND DISEASES

Susceptibility to pests/pathogens

No signicant pests or diseases are reported in the Pacic,but many are ound on bamboos in tropical and subtropi-cal Asia. It is prooundly important to observe or implementstrict quarantine procedures or importing bamboo plantsin order to ensure the continuation o a pest- and pathogen-ree bamboo population.

Diseases

Rusts (Ceratosphaerea), blights (Sarcocladium, Coniothy-

rium, Fusarium, Acremonium, Pteroconium spp amonst oth-ers), culm rots (Fusarium spp.), and witches brooms (Balan-sia spp, Aciculosporium, Loculistroma and Epichloe spp.) allaect bamboo plantations in tropical and subtropical Asiaand could become problematic in the Pacic. Damping o and wilt (Rhizoctonia spp.) and a range o lea blights andspots (such as Bipolaris, Cochiobolus, Colletotrichum, Dac-tylaria, Curvularia spp.) aect seedlings and young plantsin nurseries.

Pests

Over 40 types o pest have been recorded rom bamboos.

Signicant among these are deoliators such as locusts (Cer-acris, Phlaeoba, Heiroglyphus spp.), lea rollers (primarily

Algedonia spp.), puss moths (Besaia, Loudonta spp.) andmany others. Other pests include sap suckers such as stink-bugs (Hippotiscus spp.), coreid bugs (Notobitus spp.) androghoppers ( Aphrophora spp.), but populations usually remain low and damage is limited. Culm and shoot borersincluding bamboo shoot weevils, (Cyrtotrachelus and Oti-dognathus spp.) and shoot boring noctuids (Oligia spp.) cancause considerable economic damage because they eed on

the growing shoot/culm and cause physical damage as it extends, resulting in malormed culms. O the major generaexperience rom growers indicates that Bambusa is moresusceptible to scales and mealybugs than Dendrocalamus orGigantochloa.

Powder post (Lyctus spp.) and long-horned beetles (Niphona, Chlorophorus, and Ceresium spp.), and shothole andghoon borers (Dinoderus spp.) attack culms postharvest

while Udonga spp. suck the sap o bamboo seeds.

Preventing and treating problem pests and diseases

Practicing proper management and harvesting, includingthe removal and burning o inected plant parts as soon arethey are apparent, is usually the best way o keeping pest anddisease problems to a manageable level. Spray treatmentsusing proprietary pesticides and ungicides do exist, but arerarely used.

Non-chemical treatment methods include soil turning beore winter, which is regularly practiced in China, but is o

limited use in the South Pacic. Placing some reshly cutculms in a plantation or pest species to lay eggs in and thenburning them is sometimes practiced. Destroying pests byhand is also recommended. Natural enemies o some pestsdo exist, but are not yet available commercially.

DISADVANTAGES

Some bamboos are very large and may not be suitable orsmall areas. However, growers have a wide range o specieswith dierent size and product combinations to chooserom, and so should be able to nd a suitable one or theirplot. Good management can help keep a large bamboo onrelatively small plot o land. It is important to select the rightspecies or the site and intended purpose.

Poor management can result in harvesting culms that arenot suitable or the intended purpose, and that don’t havea market. raining in clump management and processingshould the grower wish to add value, is essential.

Bamboo oen taps into new markets—e.g., bamboo clothingwas unheard o �0 years ago. here can be resistance to un. here can be resistance to unhere can be resistance to ununamiliar products, and a good market strategy is essentialBamboo wood is very “silica rich” and hard on edge tools.

Potential or invasivenessIt is strongly recommended that only clumping bamboos beplanted in the Pacic. Clumping (sympodial) bamboos arerarely invasive, although B. longispiculata, B. chungii, andB. vulgaris var vittata have very open clumps and could beinvasive i not managed appropriately.

Most grove-orming (monopodial) bamboos can becomeserious pests i not properly managed and can be hard tocontain once established. Examples include many o the




large Phyllostachys species (P. pubescens, P. bambusoides).Te sympodial Melocanna bacciera has extremely long rhi-zome necks (up to 8 m) and can be highly invasive.

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION

Postharvest handling and processing

Processing o bamboo is oen divided into primary process-

ing, such as preservation and basic splitting, and secondary processing, producing a nished article.

Preservation o bamboo is particularly important to extendits useul lie and maintain quality. Bamboo culms are sus-ceptible to insect and ungal attack and decay with time.Tese limit the useul lives o bamboo products and may re-duce the quality o the raw material to the point that it is nolonger usable.

Bamboos have traditionally been preserved by soaking inwater or a ew weeks and smoking. Tere are many modernmethods o preserving bamboos that can be divided into

two general categories; non-pressure methods and pressur-ised methods. Non-pressure methods allow the preservative,typically copper sulphate or borax, to penetrate the bambooat a natural rate and are more suitable or small-scale pro-cessing, as they do not require complicated equipment. Tetwo main non-pressure methods are soaking the bambooin preservative and allowing the preservative to penetrateby capillary or wick action. Pressurised methods orce thepreservative (usually boric acid-based preservatives) intothe bamboo. Tese methods are more rapid but requirepressurised vessels and acilities that are more expensive toestablish and run.

Bamboo shoots

Bamboo shoots may be consumed resh on the day o harvest, in which case no postharvest handling is required be-yond removing obviously damaged and below par shootsprior to sale.

In Hawai‘i, resh shoots are harvested and placed in coldwater or rapid temperature reduction and stored at 4Covernight. Tey are then trimmed and cleaned and packedin styrooam boxes with an ice pack and are transported tomarket at �0–�2C. For storage, shoots can be peeled and

boiled or 2–3 hours, continually rereshing the water. Tey are then cooled as rapidly as possible to 30C or less andstored in jars in brine (salt content o 5–8% o the weight o the cooked shoots).

Commercially, shoots are mainly canned, an involved pro-cess involving drying the shoots, removing the sheaths,rinsing, dressing, classication according to shape, grading,weighing, placing in cans, sterilizing, adding water, adjust-ing the pH, cooling, heat preservation, inspection and pack-ing.

Processing

Primary and secondary processing can be easily done ata community level and there are a huge range o types oproducts, rom those produced in large quantities with lowindividual value (or example incense sticks, chopsticks, andbamboo mats) to those that involve more skill to produce

Invasive monopodial bamboo covering a hillside, Maui, Hawai‘i

A simple arm-scale pressurized treatment system in NorthHilo, Hawai‘i.




such as handicras and urniture. raining in productiontechniques is usually essential, and it is oen economical totrain trainers rom the community, so they can train others.

Some products suitable or community-level production in-clude handicras (including musical instruments), house-hold items such as baskets and trays, round pole urniture,split pole urniture, incense sticks, toothpicks, matchsticks,mat boards, roong sheets, charcoal, charcoal briquettes,

and simple structures.New technologies that enable laminates to be produced withonly hand machines have recently been developed, and thisoers enormous possibilities or community based pro-duction o high value panelling, ooring and other boards.Pulp can be produced on a village level (as it was originally in China �,000 years ago) but is not very economical andwould only suit the production o niche-market papers.Bamboo toilet paper is now a leading seller in Australiansupermarkets, and bamboo bre is used or mass-producedpaper cups. Te technologies or producing certain prod-

ucts require signicant capital investment and are not suita-ble or low investment situations, such as shoot canning andbamboo tar-oil production. Production o bamboo rayonproducts, particularly clothes, is presently very high-costand the techniques are proprietary.

Housing

Many dierent construction systems exist or bamboo housing, rom the wood-ramed, bamboo lath-panelled simplyerected houses o the Viviendas del Hogar de Cristo charityin Ecuador, through high-tech modular designs, to the modern upmarket round pole houses that are built in Hawai‘iAll except the most basic require a concrete oundation, andthey should all be erected by trained practitioners, although

the techniques are not difcult to master. A simple bambooramed school building takes a ew weeks to construct. Telegal status o a bamboo structure depends on the laws inplace in the territory in which it is built. An ISO standardor round-pole bamboo houses is available, but buildingcodes or bamboo houses based upon it have not yet beendeveloped in most countries.

Product quality standards

With the exception o two Colombian standards or thecultivation o Guadua, no standards exist or species thatare grown in the Pacic. Standards do exist or a range o

products in China, but they deal only with products maderom Phyllostachys pubescens, which is a subtropical speciesrarely grown in the Pacic. Tey could be used as models todevelop similar standards or other bamboo species in thecountries o the South Pacic and include:

• Bamboo timber

• Bamboo mat plywood

Le: Fresh bamboo shoots sold at armer’s market in Kona, Hawai‘i. Middle: Nastus elatus has a delicious edible shoot. Right: Ready-to-harvest shoots o Dendrocalamus giganteus.




• Bamboo chopsticks

• Bamboo ooring

• Structural bamboo and wood composite board

• Decorative bamboo veneered panel

• Plybamboo or bottom boards o trucks and buses, and

or concrete ormwork • Laminated bamboo strips lumber

• Plybamboo or high value products such as doors andwindows

• Strip plybamboo or bottom boards o trucks and buses

• Standard terminology or bamboo-based panels

INBAR’s bamboo construction standard (ISO22�5 Bam-boo Structural Design) was approved by the International

Standards Organisation in 200. Tis covers all aspects obuilding with round-pole bamboos including structural design, beams, panels, trusses, reinorcement in concrete, andre protection. It is now available or countries to adoptadapt, providing a ramework or developing national legislation.

Product storage requirements and shel lie

Preservation treatments are essential, as bamboo deteriorates rapidly i not treated (lasting a ew months up to a ewyears). Products made rom properly treated bamboo canlast or many decades. Canned bamboo shoots last or yearsbut resh shoots last only a ew days unless rerigerated inwhich case they can keep or several weeks.

op le: A open structure built rom ramework covered with canvas, North Kona, Hawai‘i. op right: Conventional architecture withbamboo structure and trim, North Kona, Hawai‘i. Bottom le: Many bamboos are both highly ornamental and very useul. Otateaacuminata makes a beautiul hedge to 4 m in height, while also providing usable canes and edible shoots, South Kohala, Hawai‘i. Bottom middle: Gigantochloa maxima. Bottom right: Culms o Dendrocalamus asper ‘Betung Hitam’.




Recommended labelling

Labelling o bamboo products must comply with nationallegislation o the importing (and sometimes the exporting)country. Many nations have specic labelling requirementsor canned bamboo shoots or instance, and exporters mustcomply with the labelling requirements o the importingcountry.

SMALL SCALE PRODUCTION

Te potential o bamboo to improve the quality o lie or aamily or a community is vast. Production involves a widerange o stages, each o which imparts added value and somany people can earn incomes rom involvement in theproduction chain. Bamboo is light and easy to process, so itis easy or people to work at home in their spare time shouldthey wish. Skilled practitioners can impart higher values to

the products, especially i producing handicras, and skillsenhancement will increase the economic sustainability o

Tere are many low- and high-tech joinery systems. op le: Bamboo pole butt shaped and through-bolted. op right: BambooLinks™ joinery system connected with metal strap clamps and through-bolts. Bottom le: Model o stainless steel joinery fttings orconnecting structural wall panel to oor structure. Bottom right: Simple metal plate pressed to shape and drilled to connect up tofve bamboo poles with through-bolts.




Table 4. Advantages o bamboo

As a crop

Bamboo can be harvested annually and non-destructively

Clear-cutting o bamboo stands is highly detrimental, reduces yield in subsequent years, and increasesenvironmental degradation.

Bamboo establishes rapidly aerplanting

Te rst harvest o culms usually comes 3–4 years aer planting, but with careul management, bam-boo shoots can be harvested rom the third year.

Limited investment is required to es-tablish a plantation

Bamboo propagules are easy to produce/cheap to purchase, and establish rapidly.

Bamboo plants yield or decadesAlthough yield may reduce slowly with time, the only major hindrance (o some species) comes withowering and subsequent death, oen aer 50–0 years.

Bamboos respond exceptionally wellto proper management

Unmanaged stands yield �–2 M/ha per annum, but proper management practices can increase yieldby �0–20 times.

Bamboos can be grown on peripheralor non-cropping land

Growing bamboo need not interere with ood cropping, and represents real increases in ood andlivelihood security.

Bamboos can be intercroppedShallow-rooted ood or cash crops are ideal. Plantations o sympodial bamboos can be intercroppedwith rhizomatous crops such as ginger or turmeric up to about 3 years o age.

Growing bamboo builds on armer’sinherent plant cultivation skills

In this way it eectively enhances armers capacity to absorb periodic shocks to income streams.

As a raw material

Bamboo processing already occurs inmany societies

Processing and production o new products can build on existing skills and is more likely to be chosenas an option than an entirely new technology o which producers have no experience.

Tere are a multitude o dierentproducts that can be made rombamboo

Tis gives a wide range o options to producers and provides exibility in case o market disruption toparticular types o products.

Bamboo lends itsel to community-based growing and processing

Te range o dierent skills required to grow, process, and market bamboo and bamboo products areoen available, or can be developed, within a community.

Many processing stages may be involved, depending on the product

Tis creates opportunities or value addition (and hence income generation) at each point o transero ownership o the semi-processed product, orming a chain o value addition rom production tosale.

Producers can add value to bambooeven with limited technical knowl-

edge/skills

Simple, easy-to-learn skills such as splitting and weaving can add value and increase incomes.

Products may require high or low levels o skill to produce, or a combi-nation o both

Some products, such as handicras, are inherently skills-dependent while others require skilled orsemi-skilled inputs only at some stages o processing, allowing people with many skill levels to be involved.

Bamboo processing is gender neutralAlmost all bamboo processing activities are equally suitable or men and women. In some communi-ties, growing, and harvesting is seen traditionally as a man’s work.

Bamboo can be processed at homeand in spare time

Money earned in this way is genuine additional income.

As a saleable product

Semi-processed bamboo is as valu-able a product as raw bamboo or afnished product

Processing imparts value to the bamboo and intermediate products can command good prices within

the production-to-consumption chain.

Skilled inputs greatly increase the value o the commodity

Skilled processing activities, such as natural-dye colouring, ne splitting or intricate weaving addmuch value to the bamboo and can be treated as separate vocations in themselves. Less skills-depen-dent activities such as preservation also add value.

Bamboo products have high valueand low value markets

Te market may be low volume, high value, or high volume, low value, depending on the type o prod-uct. Combining production o both types in a community increases its ability to withstand marketuctuations.




the amily/community. A wide range o products can bemade that reach dierent market niches, so production canbe adjusted should one market line start to ail.

A small nonelectric tool kit consisting o one or more hand-small nonelectric tool kit consisting o one or more hand-nonelectric tool kit consisting o one or more hand-ing o one or more hand-o one or more hand-one or more hand-hand-saws, a heavy knie or machete or splitting, a smaller knieor ne work, and a chisel or two, plus drills or gimlets willenable production o a great many items and structures.When harvesting large culms a chain saw is helpul.

Bamboo is proven as a sustainable source o income or smallscale producers, but success depends heavily on delivering aquality product that meets market demand. Understandingthe market, knowing how to produce or it, and deliveringon time and at the right price are essential skills or any potential bamboo entrepreneur.

Use in the Pacifc

Bamboo has a range o benets that make it excellent ordeveloping small-scale productive enterprises. It is widely used throughout the Pacic or temporary building struc-

tures, ras, harvesting poles, shing rods, ood and watercontainers, ood tongs, and handicras. Bamboo species aremost oen harvested rom the wild, such as secondary or-ests in Melanesia. In Hawai‘i, wild bamboo stands are com-monly harvested or shing poles, edible shoots, and someconstruction applications, as well as or some cra work andkadomatsu. It is little used or ood except to small extentby Southeast Asian immigrants. In the PNG highlands theshoots o Neololeba atra are sometimes consumed. Nastuselatus (New Guinea sweet shoot) is an outstanding edibleshoot that can be eaten with minimal preparation.

Import replacementBamboo can be used to replace a wide range o importedgoods including construction materials, charcoal, householditems, and so on. Locally grown bamboo shoots can helpreduce reliance on imported vegetables.

In terms o agricultural uses, bamboo timber can be usedor ences, water pipes, raised beds or vegetables, supportsor earthen stairs, props or ruit trees, railings and picketsaround decks, roos over decks, trellises, and so on, therebyincreasing agricultural productivity and sustainability, and

reducing reliance on non-locally grown oods. In some cas. In some cases, untreated bamboo can last over a decade in these useseven weathering storms and constant sun exposure.

YIELDS

Expected range o yields

In trials at Colo-I-Suva, Viti Levu, Fiji, the best perormingspecies has been Bambusa oldhamii growing to �2–�4 m inheight and 4– cm in culm diameter at 3 years aer outplanting. Bambusa textilis gracilis also grew well, producing

0 stems at 3 years with a height o 9.8 m and culm diametero 2.8 cm. Bambusa malingensis produced a high biomassabout 20–50 culms –�0 m tall and 3–4 cm in diameter. Tisspecies develops large clumps with a sprawling habit and isnot generally recommended except possibly or biomassproduction. In the warmer Samoan climate, Dendrocalamus

Simple garden structures made o bamboo poles, Hāmākua, Hawai‘i.

Table 5. Nutritional content o bamboo shoot (per 100 g)

Water 89–93 g

Fat 0.3–0.4 g

Fibre 0.5–0. g

Ca 8�–9 mg

Fe 0.5–�. mg

Vitamin C 3.2–5. mg

Protein �.3–2.3 g

Carbohydrates 4.2–.� g

Ash 0.8–�.3 g

P 42–59 mg

Vitamin B�

0.0–0.�4 mg

Glucose �.8–4.� g




asper has excelled, reaching heights o more than 30 m andoutperorming B. oldhamii, which perorms better at higheraltitudes and is better suited to a subtropical climate.

Recommended planting density

Planting density is determined by maintenance practices inaddition to species size in a given environment. For species-

specic density recommendations, see able 2.

MARKETS

Local markets

With the exception o minor uses in packaging andhandicras, bamboo products are not known to be sold inlocal markets in the Pacic (in Fiji or Polynesia). In Hawai‘ithey are utilised on a small scale or building and or humanconsumption.

Export markets

No export market rom Pacic islands is known to exist, butthe potential is signicant, with worldwide market in tradedbamboo products at about US$2.5 billion.

Te worldwide consumption o bamboo shoots is in excesso 2 million M, mostly in Asia. Te main potential exportmarket or bamboo shoots is Japan. However, their preerredspecies is Phyllostachys pubescens (or moso), a monopodialtype o subtropical bamboo with a rather unique avor thatmay be not readily substituted or by any tropical bamboo.Dendrocalamus latiorus shoots are popular in aiwan,and large quantities are exported to Japan. Dendrocalamus

asper shoots are a major canned export rom Tailand toJapan. Dendrocalamus giganteus is avoured in Vietnam andIndochina. Te greatest opportunities or exports o bam-boo shoots rom Pacic islands would be or resh bambooshoots to Asian communities on the U.S. mainland and toAsian countries with direct ight links and available cargocapacity.

Table 6. 2007 world import data (US$1,000) (INBAR, n.d.)

Product Value

Bamboo shoots 233,000

Roundwood, charcoal o bamboo 38,890

Plywood o bamboo 28,050

Mats and screens o bamboo �44,08

Plaits and plaited products o bamboo 43,304

Bamboo paper products 89,553

Other bre pulp o bamboo �8,50

Basketwork o bamboo 259,804

Bamboos or plaiting 90,84

op: “Bamcat” measuring 4.8 m long has bamboo hulls that eachweigh only 19 kg (craed by Gary Young). Middle: Beer madewith bamboo avoring. Bottom: Rice avoured with bambooextract.




Specialty markets

Bamboo timber is an excellent substitute or wood pro-timber is an excellent substitute or wood pro-is an excellent substitute or wood pro-pro-duced rom orest trees, and hence its greater use might takesome utilization pressure o native orests. It is well suitedto organic production systems and is highly suitable or Fairrade certication. INBAR has just joined the Fair rademovement to help enable more bamboo producers to obtainFair rade certication. No specic certication schemes yet

exist or bamboo to enable its products to appeal to specialty markets, but such plans are under discussion and develop-develop-ment. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certication hasbeen extended to some bamboo orests in Colombia, but itsbenecial impacts have yet to be demonstrated.

Branding

National or other brand identity is easy to develop, especially i the products rom dierent nations are characteristic o those nations in some way. Bamboo can be combined withother agricultural products that are o special signicance inparticular nations, to produce highly recognizable national

brands. Te “Bamboo Bridge” brand, recently launchedor products produced under INBAR’s Global MarketingInitiative, is one such example.

Potential or Internet sales

Most natural bamboo products are lighter than their wood-based counterparts, and are cheaper to transport. Many bamboo companies throughout the world use the Internetto sell their wares.

EXAMPLE SUCCESSES

Matuaileoo Environment Trust Inc. (METI), Apia,

Samoa

MEI is a small environmental trust established in 2000with an objective to “build capacity o grassroots communi-ties towards sel-reliance.” One o MEI’s roles is NationalCoordinator o the Bamboo Crop Development Project. o

start, a 0.4 ha mother plant bamboo plantation was established in Vailele in 200, rom which thousands o cuttingshave been harvested or propagation. Te species plantedin the mother plant plantation are: Bambusa balcooa, Boldhamii, Dendrocalamus brandisii, D. asper , D. giganteusD. latiorus, Gigantochloa atter, and Guadua angustioliaMEI also supports the activities o � armers’ cooperatives, ten o which have applied or grant unds to allow theirmembers to set up small plots o bamboo intercropped with

valuable tree species such as sandalwood.

In its long-term development goals the Government o Samoa has encouraged bamboo crop development, in particular as a substitute or timber in view o Samoa’s dwindlingorestry resources (as witnessed by a tripling o the value oannual timber imports over the period o �995–2005 rom to �8 million tala). MEI’s involvement was the result oits close relationship with armers’ cooperatives, which wereinterested in starting innovative agricultural income-generating projects with a potential or being economically viableand strengthening the Samoan armers’ sel-reliance and re

silience to climate change.

Te primary initial objective o the project is to increase thetotal area planted in bamboo in Samoa. Once a large enoughsupply is available, a local bamboo industry can becomeeasible. Some merchants and architects also eel condentthat local sales o bamboo poles as substitutes or importedtimber will expand once the Samoa Building Code has beenrevised and allows or bamboo to be used in home construction.

In addition to bamboo and sandalwood, MEI is also growing asi toa (Syzygium inophylloides) and poumuli (Flueggea exuosa) or timber together with bamboo. Calliandra surinamensis is being used as a companion tree or sandalwoodwhich is hemiparasitic and requires a host plant. As someo these tree species (e.g., poumuli and Calliandra) are goodhoney bee orage, unding is being sought to allow armers

A number o species are being trialed at at the MEI mother plant plantation established in 2006 at Vailele, Samoa. Le: Bambusa

oldhamii. Middle: Dedrocalamus asper. Right: Simple structure made rom bamboo and eleven low-tech metal fttings.




to cultivate ve honey bee hives on each 0.4 ha planting asan additional income generating venture.

Whispering Winds Bamboo Cooperative, Inc.,

Kīpahulu, Hāna, Maui, Hawai‘i

Whispering Winds began growing timber bamboo in 2003as a cash crop. Factors that inuenced their decision to grow

bamboo included demand or locally grown timber and aavourable price structure or timber-grade bamboo in themarketplace. Tey are currently the largest timber bambooplantation on Maui island. Tey grow thirteen clumpingtimber species. Processing includes harvesting, drying, andsome treatment or rot and insects.

Whispering Winds also sells nursery stock or over 20 species o bamboo landscape nursery plants or privacy hedges

windbreaks, edible shoots, and timber. For the landscapingmarket, species were selected or a range o heights (4.5–�8m) and utility as well as drought tolerance, aesthetics, andrarity. In addition to a standard selection o 20 species, another 40 species can be grown on contract.

Both the plantation and nursery are certied USDA organicand Demeter-certied Biodynamic, which strengthens theirproducts’ perceived value in the marketplace. Tey adverTey advertise in newspapers, landscape journals, and at a number opublic agriculture-related events. Tey also hold requentopen houses and workshops. Much o their business comes

via word-o-mouth.Developing the market or structural bamboo is the biggest challenge or the timber bamboo portion o Whispering Winds Bamboo business. In order to get approval to usebamboo as a structural component in coded buildings, eachspecies rom a particular location must go through an extensive and costly certication process through the International Code Council (ICC) to establish baseline strength actorsIn addition to strength actors o the bamboo species, the joinery also needs to be ICC certied. Until certicationsare obtained, bamboo can only be used or structures thatdo not require building permits, such as small outbuildingsanimal pens, ences, gates, trim, and visual screens.

ECONOMICS

Competition with China, India, or other nations who already have bamboo resources, culture, and industrial technology is not likely to prove economically viable or mostPacic islands.

I niche markets can be identied or which well controlled value-added products can be identied, perhaps relativelysmall-scale production and processing can be economically

viable. Fieen years ago marine plywood showed the possibility o such a niche market. Current research would beneeded to know i this is still the case.

Even or local markets with little or no shipping costs, locally grown and processed bamboo products might costmore than imported. Marketing studies would be needed todene potential products with viable markets.

op: Bamboo interplanted with ruit trees at Whispering WindsBamboo Cooperative, Maui. Bottom: ransplanting bambooplants.




FURTHER RESEARCH

Potential or crop improvement

Bamboo hybridization has been conducted in China orover 35 years, but it is a long process and the economicbenets are not clear. Some hybrids are now being growncommercially in China. However, selection o elites romseedling-derived populations or large-scale vegetativepropagation and planting is oen practiced and can helpensure increased yields.

Improving potential or amily or community

arming

Growing and processing bamboo can bring a range o benets to armers and small communities. Tere havebeen a handul o attempts to develop bamboo in the Pa-a handul o attempts to develop bamboo in the Pa-attempts to develop bamboo in the Pa-cic, but they have been hampered by a lack o grassrootsinterest, and not just limited to bamboo but encompassingorest resources in general. I bamboo is to help providelivelihoods, it is clearly essential to have an eective step-

wise strategy o awareness-raising and resource and skillsdevelopment that builds on existing practices and interests,perhaps developing a demonstration project to show thepotential o bamboo. Government involvement and supportwill be essential. Bamboo sectors have been developed inparts o the world where beore there was only subsistenceuse o bamboo, such as currently in the South Pacic.

Genetic resources

Genetic resources in the Pacic Islands include MEI plant-ings on ‘Upolu, Samoa and Bamboo Association o Fijiplantings at Pacic Harbour and Colo-I-Suva. Te largest

collection o bamboo genetic resources in the region is heldby Bamboo Australia, Belli Park, Queensland. Numerousspecies have been introduced into Hawai‘i and are availablethrough commercial nurseries.

Bamboo sector development in the Pacifc

National evaluations o the bamboo production-to-con--to-con-to-con--con-con-sumption systems are a rst and essential step in the devel-opment o national bamboo sectors, and enable eective de-cision making regarding all aspects o improving the supply and value chains, rom resource development, nature, loca-

tion and magnitude, to policy changes and the development/improvement o institutional support systems or producers.

Structural certifcation

Structural testing data is not easily accessed or many spe-cies. Existing data rom around the world should be col-col-lected, evaluated, and made easily accessible. A survey o

joinery systems and associated testing should be included.

CITED REFERENCES AND FURTHER

READING

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Dart, D. �999. Te Bamboo Handbook. Bamboo Australia.

Dranseld, S., and E.A. Widjaja (eds.). �995. Plant Resources

o South East Asia No . Bamboos. Backhuys PublishersLeiden, Netherlands.

Dunkelberg, K. �985. IL-3� Bambus-Bamboo. Institute orLightweight Structures, University o Stuttgart.

Farrelly, D. �984. Te Book o Bamboo. Sierra Club BooksSan Francisco.

Frith, O.B. 2008. Mainstreaming Pro-Poor Livelihood OpMainstreaming Pro-Poor Livelihood Opportunities with Bamboo. INBAR, Beijing.

Hidalgo-Lopez, O. 2003. Bamboo: Te Gi o the Gods2003. Oscar Hidalgo-Lopez, Bogota.

INBAR. No date. INBAR Database on Bamboo and Rattanrade. http://www.inbar.int/trade/main.asp

Janssen, J.J.A. 2000. Designing and building with bambooINBAR, Beijing.

Liese, W. �985. Bamboos—Biology, Silvics, properties, utilization. Schrienreihe der GZ, Nr. �80. Deutsche Gesellscha ür echnische Zusammenarbeit (GZ).

Liese, W., and S. Kumar. 2003. Bamboo Preservation ComBamboo Preservation Compendium. INBAR, Beijing.

Little, E.L., and R.G. Skolmen. �989. Common Forest reeso Hawaii (Native and Introduced). Agriculture Hand

book no. 9. Forest Service, U.S. Dept. o Agriculture.Mohanan, C. 2002. Diseases o Bamboos in Asia—An Illus

trated Manual. INBAR, New Delhi.

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Ohrnberger, D. (ed.). �999. Te Bamboos o the World: Annotated nomenclature and literature o the species andthe higher and lower taxa. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Othman, A.R., A.L. Mohmod, W. Liese, and N. Haron. �995Planting and Utilization o Bamboo in Peninsular Malaysia. Research Pamphlet No. ��8. Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kuala Lumpur.

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Ramanuja Rao, I.V., A. Kumar, S. Reza, and B. Motukuri2009. A Pathway Out o Poverty—Bamboo incense sticks




production as a livelihood option or rural women in ri-pura, India. INBAR, Beijing and CIBAR, Delhi.

Ramanuja Rao, I.V., B. Motukuri, S. Karpe. 2009. BreakingBarriers and Creating Capital—Sustainable Develop-ment with Bamboo in the Konkan Region, Maharashtra,India. INBAR (Beijing) and CIBAR (Delhi).

Rao, A.N., V.R. Rao, and J.. Williams. (eds.). �998. Priority species o bamboo and rattan. IPGRI, Selangor and

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Specialty Crops or Pacifc Island Agroorestry (http://agroorestry.net/scps)

Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profle orBamboo (various species)

Authors: Andrew Benton, Manager, Networking and Partnership Unit, International Network or Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR), 8,Futong Dong Da Jie, Wangjing, Chaoyang District, PO Box �00�02-8, Beijing �00�02, P. R. China; el: +8-�0-40�� ext. 3�, Fax:+8-�0-402�; Email: [email protected]; Web site: http://www.inbar.intDr. Lex Tomson, FAC eam Leader (EU-Facilitating Agricultural Commodity rade Project), SPC Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji; el:+9 338295 or 9 33033 ext. 295; Email: [email protected] Berg and Susan Ruskin, Quindembo Bamboo Nursery, Kamuela, Hawaii 943; el: 808-885-498; Web site: http://bamboonursery.com

Recommended citation: Benton, A., L. Tomson, P. Berg, and S. Ruskin. 20�� (revised). Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing

Prole or Bamboo (various species). In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Specialty Crops or Pacic Island Agroorestry. Permanent AgricultureResources (PAR), Holualoa, Hawai‘i. http://agroorestry.net/scps

Co-production reerence: International Network or Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) Working Paper �Version history: July 20�0, February 20��Series editor: Craig R. ElevitchPublisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 925, USA; el: 808-324-442; Fax: 808-324-4�29;

Email: [email protected]; Web: http://www.agroorestry.net. Tis institution is an equal opportunity provider.Acknowledgments: Many thanks to Norm Bezona, Nick Bertulis, Durnord Dart, Rich von Wellsheim, Li Yanxia, and Lou Yiping or

their input. Te editor thanks Kim Higbie, John Mood, Leimana Pelton, Virginia Small, and Rich von Wellsheim or their ground-breaking work with bamboo in Hawai‘i and or their advice and support. Photos rom Alvis Upitis and Matuaileoo Environment rustInc. (MEI) are greatly appreciated.

Reproduction: Copies o this publication can be downloaded rom http://agroorestry.net/scps. Except or electronic archiving withpublic access (such as web sites, library databases, etc.), reproduction and dissemination o this publication in its entire, unaltered ormor educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission rom the copyright holderprovided the source is ully acknowledged (see recommended citation above). Use o photographs or reproduction o material in thispublication or resale or other commercial purposes is permitted only with written permission o the publisher. © 20�0–�� PermanentAgriculture Resources. All rights reserved.

Sponsors: Publication was made possible by generous support o the United States Department o Agriculture Western RegionSustainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA-WSARE) Program. Tis material is based upon work supported by theCooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department o Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Station,Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement 200-400�-0398.

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