barnish, transformation and survival in the western senatorial aristocracy, c. a. d. 400-700

8/12/2019 BARNISH, Transformation and Survival in the Western Senatorial Aristocracy, C. a. D. 400-700

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Transformation and Survival in the Western Senatorial Aristocracy, C. A. D. 400-700Author(s): S. J. B. BarnishSource: Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol. 56 (1988), pp. 120-155Published by: British School at RomeStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40310886 .

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TRANSFORMATIONAND SURVIVALIN THEWESTERN SENATORIALARISTOCRACY,c.A.D.400-700

The last threehundredyears n the ifeof theRoman Senatepresent s withparadox.Duringmuch ofthe fifthentury,he nstitution'strengthn Italywasapparentlyrowing;t ncreasinglyominatedhegreat ivilian ffices;n455-72, tgave Rome three mperors; rom 76-535, it was assiduously atronised y thebarbariankings, nd itsfamilies ontinued hetraditionsf consularmunificencewithdevotion.Despitethefragmentationf theempire nd disappearance ftheemperor,tseems s vigorouss ever.1 et, tnotoriouslyailed orecover romheGothicwars s ithad from arlier isasters;nd,bythe ime fGregoryheGreat, twas a shadowof tsformerelf. lague,massacre, rave mpoverishment,ith heeclipseof Rome and Ravenna, its social and political entres,n theshadowof

Constantinople,may seem enough to account forthis.However, t has beensuggested hat so sudden a collapse a contrastwith the social and politicalresilience fthe Gallo-Roman enators 0 yearsback was due to long-standingweaknesses,ocialand economic: arlier rosperityas an illusion.2

In thispaper, I mean to consider he bases of the Italian senatorial lass,economic, emographic,nd in social values,and to compare t with tsGallickindred.The demographic art of theproblem s twofold: . how far was thearistocratic lement n theRoman Senate dominant nd self-renewing?. Howstable n wealth nd numberswere thefamilies romwhich enatorswerechieflydrawn?These questions re related o a third nd morebasicone: how farwerenoble tatus, igh ffice,nd theSenate nterdependent?

OFFICE AND THE ARISTOCRACY

As a preliminary,emust stablishwhatthemeans f enatorial ecruitmentere.It has generally een arguedthat boththe Roman and theCons an inopolianSenatesbecame ncreasinglyxclusivet this ime, ntil, yc.450,membershipasrestrictedo consuls, ormeronsuls, nd holders, resent nd past,ofactiveorhonoraryllustrisfficesf tate theactivewere6-8 in number or iviliansn thewesternmpire).3 . Chastagnol, owever, asclaimed hat he enate tillncluded

Cf. Alan Cameron and D. Schauer, The Last Consul: Basilius and his Diptych', JRS 72 (1982),126-45, 138 f.,fora positiveestimateof senatorial wealth and activityunder the Ostrogoths.On the

controlofoffices nd administrativepolicy by the fifth enturynobility,cf.,e.g., E. Stein, Histoire uBas-Empirel (Bruges, 1959), 337-47, J. F. Matthews, Westernristocraciesnd mperial ourt .D. 364-425

(Oxford, 1975), 357-62.2Cf. C. Wickham, Early Mediaeval Italy (London, 1981), 15-19, 27, T. S. Brown, Gentlemennd

OfficersBritish chool t Rome,1984), chap. 2, esp. 25 if,P. Brown,Religion ndSocietyn theAgeofSaint

AugustineLondon, 1972), 232 ff.3Cf.,e.g., A. H. M.Jones, TheLaterRoman mpire Oxford, 1964), 527-32, 540 ff., 45-59. Illustres:

the praetorian prefects f Italy and Gaul, prefectof Rome, magisterfficiorum,uaestor alatii, comitéssacrarumargitionum,rivatarumnd patrimonii.he prefecture fGaul was in abeyance from 76-50; thecomitivaatrimoniis first ttestedunderGlycerius n 473 (cf.hisedict,G. Haenel, Corpus egum Leipzig,1857), 260, also in PL 56, 896 ff.).



TRANSFORMATION AND SURVIVAL 1 1

all three enatorial anks, llustrate,pectabilate,nd clarissimate,lthough nly

illustresetained he us ententiaeicendi,nd thatappointmentconfermentf thelaticlavio,ignitas,ollowedy enatorial ote)took lace nto he larissimate.4hereis an interestingmbiguityn the evidence. n 507-12, Armentarius,lreadyaclarissimus,as,withhis on,nominatedyTheoderic o the enate,where e wouldbe able to usehis egaleloquence.Onlythendid they each the lbumrdinis.Theprocedure,nmyview, s not ppointmentoanykind iillustrisffice,ut s relatedto thefourthenturydlectioo theSenate,though ow nterllustres.5)ycontrast,Cassiodorus'onm^ for reatingpectabilesnd clarissimireverbally uitedistinctfrom is ormulaor senatorial ominationike hat fArmentarius,ndaregivengreatlynferiorlace in his collection.6 . 533, however, heSenate is statedtocontain .primusrdonda reliquusenatus,pparentlyoth ualified ovote.7tmay

be, therefore,hatfullmembership as again expanded n thelate Ostrogothicperiod; rthedistinction aybe between reaternd lesserllustres.hroughmostofthis ra,however,t seems hat enatorialmembershipepended argely, utnot

entirely,na handful foffices.At the ametime,wemustnotice hatbasicsenatorialtatus theclarissimate)

continuedo beheritableromlarissimindspectabiles,swell s illustres,ychildrenborn fter heir ather's romotion,robably or hree enerations,t least n themale ine;whilethetwo esser anks ouldbe reached hrough largenumber fadministrativendother osts, s wellas bydirect ppointment.8his shouldhave

produced substantiallassofclarissimi,ith mallhopeorambition fachievinghighofficer senatorialmembership. ot all clarissimateamilieswilleverhave

beenconnectedwith heSenateproper; nd,formany fthose hatwere,he ink

willhavebeena distant ne.A devaluation f enatorial tatuswillhavebeentheresult,ndthere resigns f hisnthe atefifthenturyseof hetitle larissimusyleading own ouncillorsfbasically urial amily.9hisdevaluation idnotbecome

marked, owever,ntil hemid ixth entury, hen he enatorial rderwasfallingintoruin.10

4<Sidoine Dollinairet e SénatdeRome',ActaAnt.Hung. 6 (1978), 57-70,58-63.

5Cassiodorus, Variae II. 33; with Var. V. 14,formula ehisquireferendiunt nsenatu, heprocedureusedforArmentarius,ontrast I. 11, ormulallustratusacantis;nadlectio,f.Jones, p. cit.,541.The

formulaeannotbedated. ______ ---„«Var.VII. 37-8; VI. 14;seealsoJonesn. 16top. 530,on Var.VI. lb. 3-4, VI.% IS. l-^ vili.

17.7."Var.X. 21.5. . . .8CW.Theod. II. 1. 58, 74,Cod. ust.XII. 1. 11.,a. 364,371,377,confinetatusnheritanceo

post-promotionhildren; he ast,probablynterpolatedo fit hepost-450 onditions,howsthat

clarissimiould till ransmitheirtatus; igest . 1 22. 5 shows hegenerations;f.Jones, p. at., 530

andnn.17,19;onclarissimatendspectabilate-givingosts,bid.,547ff. . Hopkins ndG. Burtonn

K. Hopkins,Death ndRenewalCambridge,1983),deal at lengthwiththeproblems fsenatonal

membershipndstatus ransmissionn the arly mpire.9Cf. . hai. (ed.J.O. Tjàder) 10-11 (a. 489), III. 4 Melminius assianus .c,curialmagistrate

ofRavenna;V. 1, V. 5f- Fl. Annianus, ecemprimusfSyracuse, othv.c.and vir audabilis. he

Melminii rewellattested s a fifth/sixthentury avennafamily,urial,never enatorialn rank.

Compare, erhaps, vitus, orn i,MGHed., p. 110,1.26f.;butcontrastLRE II, Alethius ,genuineclarissimus,nd princepsuriae.

l0Cf.. ltd.

31;F. Deichmann, elixRavenna. 5 (1951),23,n.32.



122 S.J. B. BARNISH

Howfarwasnoble tatusngeneralinkedwith he larissimate,nddependent

on the notfardistant enure fhighoffice? . D. Barneshas arguedthatfamiliesreachednobilitasy tenure ftheordinary onsulshipnd urban and praetorianprefectures;erhaps lsothroughhe esser llustrisosts.The evidence, owever,svagueand ambiguous.11ncient amilyountednitsownright: hus, erome anuniteachievementnd ancestry,peakingof Marcella's 'inlustremamilia, ltisanguinis ecuset stemmata ercónsules tpraefectosraetorio ecurrentes'.12utevenoldhousesneeded orepeat tate ervice o maintainheirtatus.Whenurginga friend o takeup a career nd aim at theconsulate, idoniusApollinaris ointedout that therwise,or ll hisconsular escent, ewould proveto be thatobscurehard-workingypewho has less laimtobepraisedbythe ensor han obepreyeduponbythe taxassessor'.13 nother riend f enatorial lood was warned hat, f

he did not visitRome and enter he militiaalatina, e would findhimself con-temptible ustic,without espect r precedencen theprovincial ssemblies. ycontrast,hepraetorian refect rvandus,hough fplebeian rigin, ouldwin thesympatheticriendshipfpolitical pponents rom henobility,nd chargethemwith isgracingheir refectathers.14

There wereother ualificationsornobility. or an earlierGaul,Ausonius,tcouldderive rom ull enatorial ace,but also from ldaristocratictock mong heprovincialuriae,r from rofessionalttainmentshich id notnecessarilyncludethe tenure foffice.15n one letter fCassiodorus, obilitass theprerogativeffullsenatorial amilies; ut elsewhere,t is theproduct f ancestralwealthor nativegenius, nd can be foundn theprovincial entry,t least down tospectabilis,nd

perhapsto curial level.16 or

Boethius,t is a combination f

goodbirthwith

inherited orality,nd snot lways ttached oriches,hekey opoliticaluccess.17Wecanonly aythat hereweremanynobiles,ut omeweremorenoble han thers;thatbetween Decianconsul, ndPatricius,hefather fSt.Augustine,mall owndecurión,nddefinitelynon-noble,herewasa large"grey rea". Thismight e

ll<WhoWeretheNobility f theRomanEmpire?'.Phoenix8 (1974), 444-9,citingAmmianus,Symmachus, rudentiusnd Sidonius.The Gallic evidence s discussed yJ. D. Harries,Bishops,Senators, nd theirCities in Southern nd CentralGaul, A.D. 407-76 (D. Phil Diss., Oxford, 1981,unpublished),1-84 thebest nd fullestreatmenthat know.

ì2Eò. 127. 1.13Ep. Vili. 8 (tr.W. B. Anderson,oeb).14Assemblies:

p.I. 6.4.

Spectabiles,nd

probablylarissimi,swell s illustres,eremembers f he

provincialssemblies,nwhich hefirst ad the us ententiaeicendi;f. Var.VII. 37,Chastagnol, AH26,61. Initially,t least,decurionsweremembers ftheConciliumIIProvinciarum,ounded n418,atAries; f.Epistulaerelatensesenuinae(MGHEpp. II). Suchcouncils, ormal r nformal,ouldplayan importantolitical ole;cf.Hydatius, hron. 63 (Tranoy), idonius,Carni. II. 521-75,Ep. I. 7.4 f.,10,PVII.7.2,Ennodius 0. 53,81 (Vogel,MGH). Arvandus: idonius, p. I. 7; but contrast. 11.5,onPaeonius, nother arvenu.

15Prof. urd.v.2,xvi.9,xiii. ,xviii. ,xxii. 1,xxiv. f., xvi. -6,Parentaliav.4, x.5,xiv.6,xix.3, xxx. 2, Epigr.xlv,Gratiarum ctio v.

l«Var.. 41,VI. 21.3-4, 3.1,VII. 2.3,37,VIII. 19. ,31.8,XII. 24.3;note lso II. 12. ,VIII.16.2.

11 ons. hil. I, pr. iv, III, pr.vi; note also III, pr. ii. For the moraldimension fnobilitas,f.Valerian fCimiez,PL 52. 736;and noteEdictum heoderici9,wherenobilitass left ndefined,ut sdistinctrommerewealth.




occupiedbyproud nd venerable urialfamiliesike thosementionedyAusonius

orLibanius. t might e occupiedbyrising rofessionalsikeAugustine,or t waseducation hatunited heupper-class rades:Augustinend Ausoniusweremorelearned hanmost enators,nd this roughthem obilitas,n onecriterion.ndeed,Sidonius eared hat t wouldremain he olesignofnobilitas,ith heabolition rdisuse fofficialanks nder heVisigoths.18

The grey rea will also have beenoccupiedbymanyof theminor larissimimentionedbove.Thesewilloften avebeenbarely onscious f heirtatus, nabletomakemuchuseof tsprivileges,nd achievingittle ftherespect owhich heywereentitled.For those,however,who could fairly e called members f thesenatoriallass, speciallyn taly, he hrunkenenatewill onghave remained hefocus f heir rder, fhigh mportanceor heirelf efinition.t will lso onghave

been omethingf goalanda role-modelor heothernhabitantsf hegrey reathough ver essso, as accessto it becameharder.Studyof llustrisffice-holdersshould, herefore,ield sefulnsightsnto herecruitmentndsurvival f hat lass,and intogovernmentolicies owardst.A variety f sources laws, nscriptions,consular iptychs,manuscriptitles nd subscriptions,apal letters,heVariae fCassiodorus, nd the privateworksof Sidoniusand Ennodius give us muchinformationn high-rankingersonnel t this time.Fromthis, have triedtoapproach urfirstemographicuestiontatistically,ividingheperiodnto ix:A,395-432, rom hedeathofTheodosius totheprecariousscendancystablishedyAetius;B, 433-54, dominatedbyAetius;C, 456-72, dominatedbyRicimer;D,476-90,thereign fOdoacer;E, 491-526,thereign fTheoderic;19nd F, 527-36,

thepost-Theodericanothicperiod. n themain, have followed LRE on dates,careers,ndfamilyelationships.hereare,however,ome mportantaveats.Firstly,n A and muchofB, senatorialmembership as lessdependent n

illustrisffice.20owever, hemenand families horeached hose fficeseed nothavebeenvery ifferent,ndsome nvestigationf hem eemsnecessary,f nly orcomparativeurposes. econdly, : hereour chief ource s theColosseumnscrip-tions, ecordingenatorial eat-holders.hese are generally ated 476-83;21butAlanCameronhas ately rgued hat hey xtend or omeyears erhaps efore,ndcertainlyfterhis ime, ven ntotheearly ixth entury.22orsimplicity'sake,havefollowedheusualchronology, hich s notso erroneouss seriouslyo affectmyconclusions. owever, ttempts o distinguishhestateof theSenate under

Odoacerfromhatunder

Theoderic, r,ike

Chastagnol,ocalculate ts

numbers,are dangerous.23hirdly,ate Roman nomenclature:aints'namesand others freligious ype re ncreasinglyommon,ndmulti-nominateristocratsreusually

i9Ep.VIII. 3. 2; cf.Ausonius, rof. urd. xvi.3-6.19I ssume hatTheoderic ffectivelyontrolledtalianappointmentslter 90,at latest.20Cf. ones, p. at., 529.21 f.A. Chastagnol, e Sénat omainous eRègneOdoacreBonn,1966),28-44. and S. rnuli, n

EpigrafiaOrdineenatorio(Tituli , 1982),575-89.Note thatPriuli, 87f., laces numberf larissimiin thesenscriptionsellback nthe4thc. I have notyetfound detailedustificationfthis heoryand, nanycase, t doesnotdirectlyffectheprosopographyfoffice-holders.

22JRS 72, 144f.23His stimateLeSénat,7) of300-600 shouldprobably e reduced.



124 S.J. B. BARNISH

referredobytheir inal ameonly.24hesetendencies,hereasons orwhichwillbe

discussed ater, ll too oftenmake thefamilyonnectionsfknown ndividualsmatter orconjecture,more or less informed,nd distinctionsetweenfamiliesratherrbitrary. evertheless,do notbelieve hat herisk fmisattributionhoulddisastrouslyeaken ur overallmpressionsf he fficialnd senatoriallasses. SeeTables 1-2A.)

Table 1

A B C D E F1. 11/35 31.5% 13/23 56.5% 6/12 50% 12/12 ?30/31 4/42 39 17 7 16 10 33 64 18 17 10 29 164. 5=

45-5%7=

54%3=

50%6= 50% 18-19= 58-63 % 4

5. 12= 31% 12= 70.5% 6= 8% 12= 75% 7= 70%' 2= 66.5%6. 44= 68-5% 10= 55.5% 13= 76.5% 6= 60% 19= 65.5% 13= 81%7. 35= 54.5%2 15= 83-5% 13= 76.5% 9= 90% 23= 79.5% 9= 56%8. 29= 45.5%2 3=16-5% 4= 23.5% 1= 10% 6= 20.5% 7*=44%

Key:1 Non-imperial/royalivilian onsuls.2. KnownprefectsfRome.3. Knowncivilian llustresith llustrisffices otheld at Rome, noroutside nyofthese eriods.4. Consuls s in 1.,apparentlyacking uchoffices,nor outside nyofthese eriods.5. Cityprefectspparentlyacking uchoffices,nor outside nyof these eriods.6. Active ivilian llustres,acking,nor outside nyofthese eriods, oth heconsulshipnd the ity

prefecture.

7. Active llustrescity refectsxcluded)ofmajor talian orGallic families.8. Active llustrescity refectsxcluded)veryhardor mpossibleo inkwith uchfamiles.

Note1: Artemidorus,ityprefect09-10,had held ub-illustrisfficest Ravenna Var. . 43.Note2: The discrepancyetween igures-8 forA andB-E maybepartly ue to a source istortion:

thegradualdecline n thefifthenturyf aws addressed o llustresya singlename,whichoften onceals the man'sfamily ery ffectively.e do betterwhen aws are replacedbyepistolaryources.

Note 3: Appointments adebyusurpersreomitted; lthough hesemight ivea familyong-termstatus; f. idonius, p. III. 12,V. 9,withPLRE II, Apollinaris ,Rusticus .

Since theordinaryonsulshipsofar s non-imperialivilianswere oncerned)andcity refectureerebynowalmostmonopolisedythegreat amilies,heir ole

in themanning f the illustrisfficest court s clearly f more nterest,nd thesimilarityf thepercentageshroughmuchof theperiodgives omeconfidencentheviabilityf the tatisticalpproach,despite he mall izeofoursamples. romthese igures,t ooks s if he ristocracyadacquired dministrativeominance y433,at latest,ndperhaps arlier,ndhad thedemographictrengtho maintain tformanyyears. et, tnever chieved monopoly,hanksithero officialolicy, rto a shortage f candidatesfrom tsranks.This impressionf stabilitymay beconfirmedy examining dynastic' uccessions,n which a consul or illustris aspreceded yan ascendant elative f imilar ank. See Tables2B-3.)

A highproportionf themajorfamilies roduced uch dynasties',nd the

24Cf. lanCameron,TolyonymyntheRomanAristocracy',RS75 (1985), 164-82.




Table 2A

Majorfamiliesnofficesf enatorial ank.A. ANICII, Acilii Glabriones,AucheniiBassi, Olybrii/Probini,etronii,Symmachi;ANNII;

ATTICI Nonii;AVITI Mariniani;? BASILII; DECII Albini; EXUPERANTII; FIRMINI;?GABINII/RUFII Probiani;GRACCHI; MACROBII; MAGNI/AVITI; MALLII/MANLII;MEMMII, AemiliiTrygetii,Caeciliani;MESSALLAE Avieni;PMINERVII (cf.ALETHII);LIBERII; PALLADII; PETRONII; QUINTILII Laeti Furii;RUFII Volusiani;VENANTII;ANDROMACHI; NICOMACHI Flaviani;RUTILII.

B. ANICII, Acilii Glabriones,Petronii;BOETHII (PMANLII); CASSIODORI; CORVINI;DECII Acinatii;FIRMINI; FLORIANI; MEMMII AemiliiTrygetii,ymmachi; ATERII;PPIERII; RUFII Postumii esti,Praetextati, aecinae,POpiliones; ARRUTENII Marciani;PAUXENTII; ?BASSI.

C. ACONII Probiani; CAMILLI; DECII, Basilii; ENNODII; MACROBII; MAGNI; RUFIISynesiiGennadii;RUSTICII HelpidiiDomnuli;MESSII; PSEVERINI; PRAETEXTATI.

D. ANDROMACHI; ANICII Acilii Aginatii; BOETHII; CASSIODORI, CORVINI;PDYNAMII; DECII Basilii; ?OPILIONES; ?PIERII; RUFII AchiliiMaecii, PFestiAgerii,Sividii, ynesii; SEVERINI; VALERII Messallae;VENANTII FAUSTI Severini, labriones;MEMMII Aemilii rygetii,ymmachi.

E. ANICII Acuii Aginantii, Petronii Maximi, Olybriones; BOETHII-SYMMACHI;CASSIODORI; CORVINI; PCATULINI; DECII Basilii;PFLORIANI; LIBERII; ?MAGNIFelices; RUFII ApronianiAsterii,Petronii;RUSTICII Helpidii Domnuli; PSEVERINI;VENANTII Opiliones;VOLUSIANI.

F. ANICII OlybrionesVigilii);CASSIODORI; CORVINI; DECII Basilii;LIBERII; ? House ofORESTES AND ROMULUS; OPILIONES; RUFII PetroniiNicomachi,PSALVENTII,PSILVERII.

A: 31possibly ffice-holdingamiliesn a 37yearperiod;B: 20in22years;C: 11 n 16years; : 19 n 14years; : 18 n36years; : 10 n 10years.

'dynasts'held a large number, houghnot,save in D (probablya misleadingcontrast) hemajority f llustrisosts.The Decii are theoutstandingxampleoffertilityndoffice-holdingombined: ixgenerationsf onsuls,nd/or igh fficials,descended romAginatius, icarius omaen 368-70. Dynasties' f twogenerationsnumberedleven, omparedwith ight or hose ver wo; ntheB,D ^ndE periods,thenumbers ffamiliesmployednofficeeems ery imilar. t does not eem asytodistinguish,s Hopkins nd Burton o for he earlier mpire, etween 'grandset'and a 'power et' ofsenators: oomany grand et'families,roducingonsulsand cityprefects,lso had court llustreso their redit; lthough ome power et',civil ervice amiliesmayhavereachedtheprestigefficest Romeonlybelatedlyand weakly.25 here does seem,however, o be a markedtendency fterA to

25Grand set'and power et': cf.Death ndRenewal,71-5.Examples f enatorial amiliesate orneverntheprestigeffices ould be theFirmini, assiodori, usticiiHelpidii,Liberii;yet hesehadthe tastes nd connections f thehighestnobiles. or obviousreasons,Gauls seldomreached theconsulship r p.u. On thegrowing th-5th . overlapbetween ourt and extra-courtareers, eeA. Chastagnol, ituli (1982), 177,189.



126 S.J. B. BARNISH

Table 2B

Families howing ynasticuccessions;rrows enote xtensionntoother eriods.A. ANICI I, Olybrii/Probini,ucheniiBassi, Acilii Glabriones,Symmachi,AVITI Mariniani;

DECn Albini; FIRMINI; PMAGNI/AVITI;MESSALLAE Avieni;MEMMII

Aemilii rygetii; ICOMACHI Flaviani;PRUTILII; PMANLII/MALLII.

^ ► ^ ^ m ►B. ANICII, Acilii Glabriones,Auchenii Bassi; AVITI Mariniani; BOETHII ( PManlii);

CASSIODORI; CORVINI; DECIIAginatii Albini);

PFIRMINI; PFLORIANI; MEMMII

Aemilii rygetii,ymmachi; UFII Postumii esti, raetextati,aecinae.

C. DECII Basilii Albini);PMACROBII; MAGNI; PSEVERINI.

D. ANICII ^Acilii; BOETHII; CASSIODORI; CORVINI; DECII Basilii; PMAGNI Felices;

MEMMII4 AemiliiTrygetii, ymmachi;PPIERII; POPILIONES; RUFII Achilii Maecii,

Petronii.

E. ANICII POlybrii;BOETHII-SYMMACHI; CASSIODORI; DECII Basilii; CORVINI;

PMAGNIFelices;OPILIONES; RUFII ApronianiAsterii, etronii icomachi.

F. PANICII Olybriones; PILIONES; DECII Basilii;PRUFII Petronii icomachi, ORVINI.

separate ourt-typend Rome-typellustres.he distinctionetweenmilitaryndcivilian llustress ofmoreobvious mportance. handful f eading oldiersn thefifthenturyanbeattributed,ertainlyrconjecturally,o theGallic,or, ess ften,tothe talianaristocracies;26utonlyonemagisterilitum,heCatholicbarbarian,FI. TheodobiusValila,owner fpropertytRomeandTivoli,maintained seat n

26Gauls:Avitus, cdicius,Aegidius, yagrius, Nepotianus,Messianus, rborius, Agrippinus;Italians:PLitorius,Pierius,Aemilianus. etius, nd perhapsMajorian,belong o thefringesftheItaliannobility; styriusnd Merobaudes epresenthat fSpain.



128 S.J. B. BARNISH

Table 2E

Familieswhichmayhave beennew,but were o becomewellembeddednthe enatorialristocracy.A. MANLII/MALLII.

B. CASSIODORI; PBOETHII; ??OPILIONES.

C. ?HOUSE OF ROMULUS AND ORESTES; PRUSTICII HelpidiiDomnuli;PSEVERINI.

D. ??LIBERII.

E. ?North talian VIGILII, mergingwith ANICII Olybrii;??House OF HONORATUS ANDDECORATUS.

F. (Avitus, ergantinus,lementianusnd FidelismaywellrepresentrovincialentryeachingheSenate;ofthese, lementianus,t least,mayhaveestablished ishouse ntheresidue fthehigharistocracy-f.Greg.Mag., Reg.Ep. III. 1,X. 6-7.)

Table 3Men with scendant rdescendant elativesnadjoining enerations oldingctive non-Rome) ffices

of enatorial ank cf.Table 1

A B C D E F1. 9=82% 7= 54% 4= 67% 10= 83% 13= 42-3% 4=100%2. 11=28% 3=17-5% 1= 14% 6= 37-5% 3= 30% 1=33%13. 2= 3% 6= 33.5% 4=23-5% 5= 50% 13= 45% 5= 31%4. 22/115=19% 11/36 30-5% 7/21=33.5% 13/20 65% 21/45 47% 9/24=37-5%

Key:1. Consuls;2. Cityprefects;3. Other ctive Ilustres;4. Totalof ffice-holdersfthisdynastic' ype.

Note1: The city refectalventius eems o havesucceeded rpreceded brothernthat ffice CILVI. 32038.

In all periods, number fhousesdroppedout ofoffice-holding,lthoughmany f hese ontinuedwithout nown fficialepresentatives.hile few amiliesre-emergeds office-holderso replacethem, nd a fewmoremayhave come to

establishhemselvesnthehigh ristocracy,herate ffailureeems hegreater.30ngeneral too, aristocratic ominanceof the administration ay be deceptivelyimpressive.fwe takethenumber f ourt llustrisppointmentso be made n eachperiod, ssuming two-yearverage enure f fficeperhaps ver-generous),31hisgives heresultshownnTable 4.

On thisbasis, t wouldseemthat ome60-80 percentofofficialppointments

30The ables ive he mpressionhat hiswasparticularlyo nD. This sprobablynillusion,uetotoonarrow date-range or heColosseumnscriptions.o too the mpressionhatOdoacer mademost se of hegreat amiliesnrelation o his ength freign.

31Sidonius,p. I. 7. 11suggestshat heprae. rae.GalLheld office oress than3 years. suspectthat he verage, xcept, erhaps,nE, was essthan2,but weare ll nformedn this.




Table 4

A B C D E F1. 114 66 51 45 105 302. 44= 38.5% 19= 29% 17= 33% 9= 20% 29= 27-5% 10= 33%

Key:1. Numberof illustrisactive,non-Rome)appointmentso be made in the period (in E-F, the

praetorianrefecturefGaul is excluded romhese alculations,s Liberiusheld tthroughouttsrevival)

2. Appointmentsertainlyrconjecturally adefromeading amilies.

Table 5

A B C D E F6 3 3 15 2

Number í illustrisactive,non-Rome) fficeseldbyan individualwho had alreadyheld uch.

werenotmadefromhehighfamilies.qually,however,nly few fthoseknowncan be callednovi omines.32nd,sinceknownhighnobilesre farmorenumerousthannon-nobiles,t sreasonable oassume hat he riginsfunknownffice-holdersshouldbe divided n a similar atio.On theotherhand,highnobilesre ikely o bebetter epresentedn twoofour primeprosopographicalources, he Colosseum

inscriptions,eflectingoman residence, nd the letters f the well-connectedEnnodius.Furthermore,he averagetenureof officeeemsto have lengthenedconsiderablyvertheperiod praetorian refecturesre thebest videnced);whiletheOstrogothiculerseem ohavebeenmorewillinghan heir redecessorsinB-D) toappoint ndividuals epeatedlyo court llustrisffices.hissuggestshat hepoolof vailablearistocrats astendingo shrink.See Table 5.)

Whatever hecase, tseems ikely hat ome llustrisppointments erebeingmade from ub-senatorialevelsofsociety, lthough hesecannot be quantified.Cassiodorus'/ormtt/flommendingandidates? adlected)for lection otheSenateshows omeawareness mongtheauthoritieshatexternal eplenishment,y thegraftingfnewstock,was needed: Optamusquidemcuriam enatus mplissimi

naturalifecunditateompleri ubolemqueeius tantumcrescere . . Sed minusamantis stnonamplius liquidquaerere,undetantumnumerum ossit ugere'.Yet, lthoughhegermenlienum' s nferiorn distinctionoexistingenators, e sstillnataliumplendoreonspicuum'.33espite hese ioushopes, choed lsewhereintheVariae,3*ew amilies,s wehavenoted,movedupwards opermanentlyoftystatus.One reasonmayhavebeenthe nability,eenearlier, f children o inheritsenatorial ank chieved fter heir irth.A fairnumber fnew clarissimiillhavebeenlesserbureaucrats, romoted nlyafterongservice, nd unlikely o beget

32 ee table1.33 ar.VI. 14.34Cf.Var.VI. 11,VIII. 19,butcontrast. 41.



130 S.J. B. BARNISH

furtherhildren. hose whodid sowillhave found t hardto takeroot nthehigher

nobility. et,somehouses eemto havedoneso.What, nfact,weretheir rigins,and how did they chieve heir otential or pwardmobility?Ennodius' ettershow wopossible hannels or dvancement.Whiledeaconof

Milan, he acted as patronto a string fproteges rawn from he north talianaristocracy, any,but,so far s we know,not all with enatorial orbears. hesewere usuallyeducated in Deuterius' school of rhetoric t Milan, the 'limennobilitatisiwhichgaineda new auditorium. ome thenpassedon toRome,wheretheypursuedtheir tudiesunder the supervision f leadingsenators r clergy1distinguishedor their earning; nd some followed areerswhich varied legaladvocacywith overnmentervice.35nlya minority,owever,re attestednhighoffice,nd somemayhavespent ll their ifes s lawyers,r as gentlemenf eisure.

Would Aratorhave reachedthe comitivarivatarumithout he chance which entthiscultivated x-advocateon an embassyto Theodericfrom he province fDalmatia?36 he same combination fpublic higher ducationfor heprovincialgentry ith enatorial atronages attested or heSicilians,ndmaybeguessed tfor heyoungTuscanpoetMaximian, studentt theuniversityfRome.37

Another oad to advancementay in the actual membershipfsomegreathousehold,s with hewell-bornrphaned rothers astorius nd Florus, roughtup by thegreatAnician senatorFaustusNiger;Florus became a distinguishedadvocateat Ravenna.38 o too,Arator, nother rphan, nd perhaps relative fEnnodius,wasinitiallyooked fter ybishopLauren ius fMilan39;while t leastone civil ervant fTheoderichad hischildren ducated n theroyalpalace.40

LOCAL TIES

By suchmeans,the leadingaristocrats f Rome mightdominate helocal aris-tocracies,nd frequentlyontrol he careers nd activities fprovincialllustres.41

35Deuterian upils:Lupicinus,Arator, heson ofEusebius,Partenius, aterius, everus,Am-brosius;f.Ennodius 9, 84-5, 124, 4, 451,261.Roman recommendationsor artenius,implicianus,Pertinax, eatus, idelis,Marcellus,Georgius,olatius,Ambrosius- 25-8, 368-9, 282, 292, 362, 398,405-6,416-17,424-6, 428,452.Arator, mbrosius, idelis, ndpossibly artenius re attestednhighoffice. he perhapsAnician llustrisugenes mayhave been anotherpupil ofDeuterius; f.213.Simplicianusnd Beatuswerenobilissimir̂ator v.c; Paterius nd Severushad consular ncestors;Ambrosius' ather as a

sublimis;usebius

nobilissimus;upicinuswas

nephewfEnnodius,

ndso ofmajorGallo-Italianfamily; idelis' fatherwas a Milaneseadvocateofhigh reputation, ut non-senatorial Var.VIII. 19.5f).

36Var.VIII. 12.37Var. . 39, IV. 6, Maximian, leg. . 25-44,59-76 (studentife t Rome), III. 47-94 (? family

friendshipithBoethius)38Ennod. 6.39Ennod. 5.40Cf.Var.VIII. 21, the children fCyprian;note also IV. 4, where ount Senariusbeganhis

palatine areer In ìdsoauiDDe adulescentiae lore'.. 41J. Sundwall, in his fundamental study Abhandlungenur Geschichte es Ausgehendenomertums

(Helsinki, 919), hap.3,analysed hepoliticsfmuch f heGothic eriodnterms f ension etweennobilesnd novi omines.o me,these onsiderationseem at leastpartly ovitiatehisverynfluentialaccount.




Why, hough, id theprovincialsail o become ntegrated ith hegreatfamilies?

Snobberymaybe a partial xplanation, ut t scertainlynadequate, or omedidmoveup the ladder.We should look ratherto Italian 'campanilismo', o theconflictinglaimsofRoman society nd the hometown.These can be amply, fanecdotally, llustrated.C. 395, bishop Gaudentiusof Brescia dedicated hisinauguralermonoBenivolus,xmagisteremoriae,nd leaderof he ocal honorati.42Decoratus coupledwithFlorusbyEnnodius werethey elated?)43 as a nativeand benefactorfSpoleto,of noble ancestry,t leastby local standards.Not ofsenatorial ank, hough isancestors ad borne he asces, s a lawyer,praestabatviribus onsularibuse patronum', efended patrician n a famous ase andeventually ecame quaestoralatii.He was buriedat Spoleto,his fellow-citizensrecordingisbirth ndcharitiesn a fulsomepitaph.44 is brother onoratus eft

himhisRomanpractice,workings a barristernSpoleto, espite hevenalityndstupidityfprovincialourts, uteventuallyucceededhim s quaestor.osiusmayhave been a similar ype:paterurbis fMilan, where he was buried,he was apatrician,x comesrivatarum,x comesargitionum,nd descendant fa governorfVenetiaand Istria.45 he Cassiodori,whomayhave cometo Italyfrom he eastearly n thefifthentury, erefirmlyooted n the soil ofBruttium. he writer'sgrandfather,houghonof n illustris,ribunastnotariusnderAetius, ndprobablemarriageonnectionf heBoethian ouse, referredruttiantiumo llustrisank.His son, llustris inisterfOdoacer and Theoderic, sed theBruttian astures osupply emountsor heGothic avalry.Cassiodorus imselfetired o a monasteryonhis ncestralstatestSquillace,butnotbefore e had achieved notable ecular

career, nd had mingledn

literarynd

religiousircles t Rome.46

Again,the

spectabilishilagrius asa resident ative fSyracuse, utspentong tTheoderic'scourt, nd senthis sonsto be educated t Rome,with royal ommendationoaleadingsenator.47hen there s Mallius Theodorusand his descendants. hislearnedChristian latonistndcivil ervant fTheodosius and Honorius eachedthe onsulshipn399.A lawyer yearly rofession,e wasclearly fhigh ducation,butClaudian,whocallshimManlius, aysnothingfhis birth.We should upposehim tohavebelonged o theprovincial entry,ossibly fMilan,wherehe lived,andwhich epreferredoRome.48 is sisterrnieceManliaDaedalia wasprobablya nunthere;49ut atermembersf hefamilymaynothave sharedhisopinion.His

42 ract,vi,praef.CSEL, 8)43Ennod. 11,315 theymayhave been egal partners.44Far.V. 3-4,De Rossi, CUR I. II, p. 113,no. 78;despite hedoubts iPLRE II, the dentityf

these ecorati eems ighly robable.Decoratusmay lsohavepractisedtRavenna Ennod., bove).Fora comparable poletan amily,eePLRE II, Domitius -6.

45CILV. 6253.Aspater rbis,emayhaveacted as curatorivitatis,n office hichwouldusuallyhave belonged oa leadingdecurión; f.Jones, RE, 726,755.

46 ar. . 3-4,IX. 24-5 Institutiones, praef., 3.2f.TheBoethianmarriageonnectionssuggestedbytheOrdoGeneris;tsdatebythe upportwhichbothfamiliesaveAetius.

47Var. . 39: cf. V. 6.48 f.Th. Birt,ndexominumo theMGH Claudian, .v.Manlius ndTheodorus.49Cf. . Courcelle,Symboles unérairesuNeo-Platonismeatin',REA46 (1944),65-93,66-70;

she s describeds claragenus' n her pitaph.



132 S.J. B. BARNISH

son eems ohavereached heprefecturesf taly ndGaul; and,atsomepointnthe

fifthenturyhe housemaywellhave intermarried ith heAnicianBoethii. hephilosophera manof imilar astes oClaudian'sconsul) ndhisfatherhared henameManlius/Mallius,ototherwisettestedmongtheRomanaristocracyincethe arly ourthentury.he former asa correspondentndprobablekinsmanfthenorthtalianEnnodius, nd ownedpropertyt Milan,Thiswasallegedlynarun-downondition, eglected ytheowner nd hisagent.50fthis ink scorrect,then ne eading rovincialamilyad movedts entrefgravityecisivelyoRome,Finally,wemight ompare idelis:hisfather asa Milanese dvocate, amous or iseloquence, utofnogreat amily; e himself ecamequaestoralatii nderAthalaric,anda leading igurentheRomanSenate.He played prominentart n the evoltfRome from heGoths, nd also in the rebellion fLiguria,wherehe had much

influence.51is riseseems imilar o thatofTheodorus, nd, despitehispostatRavenna,hefixed nefoot tRome and anothernhishomeprovince.Therewere,however,eadersofprovincial ocietywhomayhave eschewed

theexcitementsfboth Rome and Ravenna. In 535, the oyalties fNaples,oneof the greatest talian cities,were swayed by the rhetoricians astor andAsclepiodotus.52e knownothing ftheir amilies,nd they re referredoinnoother ontext. ullianus nd Deopheronraised peasantarmy ofightheGothsinLucania andBruttium.heirfather enantius ad probably overnedhatpro-vince,with oubtful onesty,utno llustresrnobilesctive tRomeorthe ourt reattestedrom hat amily.53orrespondingly,goodmanyRomansenatorial ousesmayhave avoided boththecourt nd theprovinces. he Colosseumnscriptions

giveus 34 illustresnd

spectabiles;ut 54

clarissimi,fwhom49

mayneverhave

reachedhigher ank, nd manyotherswhoserank s indeterminate,utwilloftenhave been nohigher han larissimus.ome andOstiashow omepossible xamplesofthetown-housesftheseesser enators,miniatureersionsfthegreatpalaces.54Ofthese, largenumbermayhave beenofficialsf he econd ankwhohad retiredtoRome;55 utmanymusthave nheritedheir enatorialtatus, nd some t leastseemtobelong ofamilies hathad ceasedtobe concernednoffice-holding.56as

50Ennod. 70,408, 415,418,Most MS titlesndsubscriptionsivetheformManlius, s doestheconsular diptych,but a numberhave Mallius. Spellingswith 'nY and '11' seem virtuallyinterchangeable-f. l(n)lustris,ol(n)latio, tc.; sidore, tymologiae. xxxii. .

51 f. bove,n. 35; Procopius,Wars . xiv.5,xx. 19f,VI. xii.27f,34 f.Belisariusmadehim rae.prae. tal.

52WarsV, viii.19-41.53Wars II. xviii. 0-3,xxii.20f.VII. xxx.6, Var,II. 8, 46; wemay urmise successfulontestfor ocal nfluence ith heCassiodori,who wereperhaps oobusy utside heprovince.

54Cf. hastagnol, eSénat, 7,74-8,ButPriuli above,n.21 wouldredate 7clarissimiothe th .Ifcorrect,oestheresultantumber, ,reflectiminishedlarissimusctivity,r s tduetoepigraphicchance? orhouses,eeF, Guidobaldi nSocietà omana mperoardoanticoI, ed.A. Giardina RomeBari,1982), chap.4.55Cf.PLRE II, Valentinianus , an ex-silentiaryhodiedat Rome in 519,with heretirementrank f llustris.

56E.g. theMariniani, arbari robiani, alladii.NoteFl. Messius hoebus everus,os.andp.u, n470,underpeculiar ircumstances.e was clearly leadingnoble,butmight asilyneverhaveheldoffice. o earliermember fhisfamilys attestednoffice,relsewhere,hough grandsonmayhavebeen a protegefEnnodius Damascius,VitaJsidoriZintzen)11,94-8,Ennod.451,PLRE II, Severus

15,19).The BarbariProbiani ndPalladiiwouldbe eliminated yPriuli.




this ackof nterest,angerous,n the ongrun, o their ocialposition, ue to the

upper-classdeal ofotium? r was there promotion ottle-neck,ased byshorttenures f he ew llustrisfficesless hort nder heGoths), utcompounded ythegripwhich few reat amiliesnd their rovinciallients ad on them?We cannottell, ut t spossible hat heOstrogothiceriod aw, fnotpressureor ffice romthehereditarylarissimi,t eastpressureor re-expansionf enatorialmembershipwithoutheneed for llustrisank.57t maybe that uffragio,or hegreatposts, ndtheir isks nd burdens,were nowbeyond hemeansofmanypotential olders;58while he esser alatine ffices ere oofrequentlynprofitable,t leastduring hecrisisyears f thefifthentury.59n thefourthentury,many enators onsideredone or twoprovincial overnorshipssufficientareer, nd others,hough ble toholdthem,ustpreferredoenjoy heirncomesnpeace.60n thefifthenturyhese

postsbecameever fewern number, nd we have lessand lessevidencefor heirholders.This evidence ad beenderived hieflyromhe nscriptionsetup bygrateful

provincials,rbythegovernorshemselves,t Rome or n theprovinces,orecordbenefactionsnd patronalrelationships. hese reflect strong nterest f thesenatorial ristocracyn Africa and southern taly, especiallyCampania andSamnium. .400,they irtually ryup.61 hereafter, ost fthe llustreseem obeconnectedwithnorthernonorth-centraltaly, heonly learexceptions eingtheSymmachi, assiodori nd Decii; and eventheDecii had strongnterestsn Gaulandnortherntaly.62Aristocraticpitaphs nd othernscriptionseemrare n thenorth efore he atefourthentury.)Amongthegrowing conomic nd political

pressuresf hefifthentury,id the ristocracyend o eavethe outhernowns otheir wndevices, oncentrating,nstead,on theirnorthern atronagenexuses,nearer o thecourt?Greatsecular states tillflourishedn thefifth/sixthenturysouth their rosperity ayeven have increased-and the urbanrichmayhavelived n some tyle.63et,thesocial base ofthegentrymayhavebeenweaker, rmore ustic,han nthenorth. outhern hurches uilt t this ime, nlike orthernbasilicas,have shown ittle ignofactivity y the ay aristocracy,et alone thosefascinatingists fdonors,where greatnoblesometimesiguresmongmen and

57ee above.58 f.P. ltd.48,B14a loantoAgapitus, oruffragiumor heprefecture.ar. I. 10-11, ormulaeor

the confermentfhonorary ppointmentsuggest

oth ackofmoney

nd apreference

or tiumsdeterrentsromctive ffice.

59Cf. ov.Val.1. 3,22; also,for heir ttemptso ncrease rofits,. 3, 7. 1,32.60 f.ExpositiootiusMundi tGentiumv. In periodA,48 governorsre,ormayconjecturallye,

linkedwith enatorial amilies; nly11reached llustrisr consular ank.61 f.B. Ward-Perkins.rom lassical ntiauitvo heMiddleAgesOxford, 984),22-8.62Symmachind Sicily: f.Symmachus,p. IX. 52; Var. V. 6. Decii and Campania:cf.CIL X.

6850-1, Var. I. 32-3,J. Moorhead,The Decii underTheoderic',Historia 3 (1984), 107-15, lOff;DeciiandGaul- Sidonius, p. I. 9. 2-6,?Var. I. 3; Decii and northerntaly- Ennod.58-9, 279, ?230,75.Noteesp.279, inkingheDecianAlbinuswith our llustresf tronglyorth talianconnections.Gelasius, p.41 (Thiel)shows ecianconcern or statesnValeria.Even withouthenortherneightofEnnodius' vidence,wewould still etthis mpressionf a strong orthern rientationmongthenobiles;uteven FaustusNigermighttillhavepatronageinkswith icily cf.Ennod.121.

63Cf. arnish, BSR 55 (1987), 157-85, sp. 168-72.



134 S.J. B. BARNISH

women f ower, ven rtisan tatus.64utsideCampaniathere re few f heupper

class pitaphs,enatorial,ureaucratic rcurial,which re nowfrequentndwidelydistributedn the north.65states ike S. Giovannidi Ruoti and San Vincenzo lVolturnomayhavebelonged o andlordswith mall nterestntheold urban ocialstructuresf heregion,nd theChurch,n ts rchitecturalctivity, ayhave beenmovingnto partialvacuum.During heGothicwars, he ristocracy,othnorthand south,wieldedmportant oliticalnfluencentheprovinces.n the outh, hisseems ohavebeen exercised rimarilymongtherural enantry;nthenorth,t scloselyinkedwith he ities Milan and Verona.66

GALLO-ROMANS AND ITALIANS

The northernobility ifferedrom hesouthern,xcepting erhaps heDecii, inanothermportantespect:t formed artofa great rcof senatorial indredndpatronagewhich xtended rom aul toDalmatia, ndmayhavebeen trengthenedduring he urmoilsf hefifthentury ythemovementfrefugeesndothers,uchas Ennodius.67 is family,heMagniFelices,wereprimarily majorGallichouse,buttheyntermarriedith heAnicianhouseofFaustusNiger, heCorvini.68heywere lso related o theFirmini,notherGallic housewith ranchesn both ides ftheAlps;69ndperhaps oLiberius, raetorian refectf talyandGaul under heOstrogoths.70iberiuswasanother onnectionfFaustusNiger, ndmay lsohave

64Southernhurches:f.C. D. Fonseca, ettimanei CentroiStudioull'Alto edioevo8,1195f.,C.

D'Angela,Arch.Med. 3 (1976), 475-83, PugliaPaleocristianaII, ed. A. Quacquarelli (Bari, 1979),207-15 (R. MorenoCassano), 59f.,68 (M. Cagiano de Azevedo), 163 (D. De Bernardi errerò),412-48 M. TrinciCecchelli).Northern osaic onationnscriptions:f.Diehl,/LCF219a 1864-90, .L. Zovatto,Palladion.s. 15 (1965), 11,M. MirabellaRoberti,AquileiaMostra8 (1967), 67ff.,G.Cuscito, ibid., 44 (1973), 127-66, eund., in Scritti torici n Memoria i P. L. Zovatto, d.A. TagliaferriMilan, 1972),237-58, eund., nG. Cuscito nd L. Galli,ParendoMilan, 1976),73ff.,80ff.,7. NotealsoCIL V. 3100,XI. 2089.Rome andenvironsreexcluded.

65Fifth/sixthenturyouthernpitaphs fthese anks: IL IX. 1378,2074,X. 1343, 1346,1350,1355, 1535, 1537, 4500, 4502, 4505, 4630; these are mostly rom restrictedrea ofCampania.Northern: . 694, ?1658, 897,5230,5414,5420,6268,6398,6732,XL ?1707,1713, 585,7587. FromRavenna: XI. 308,310, 313,316, 317; cf. II. 2659, 9513, 9515-9,9527, 9532, ?9540,14239.8,LCV250(3), from alona. Ravenna and Salona are probably typicalbecauseof their dministrativeimportance. ome and environs re excluded. Cf. also CIL V. 5415, 6176, XI. 941, epitaphs fbarbarians f enatorial ank nthenorth.

66Cf. rocop.,WarsVI. xxi. 40ff., II. iii. 6ff., II. xxii.2ff.,0f.67Cf.Rutilius, e Redituuo , 490ff.,41ff.,orGallicnobles aking efugenearly ifthenturyItaly.Fortiesbetween orthtaly ndDalmatia,cf. bove,7 onArator.Var.V. 14-15 and IX. 9 giveSeverinus, .i.}commissionsnDalmatia;he shares name withBoethius,nd with heGaul-linkedconsul f461- Sidonius. ù. I. 11. 10. Note also Harries. 9 f..218-24.

68Cf. LRE II, stemmata 5 and 19,with ndividual ntries;he inkwithFaustuswasprobablythrough iswifeCynegia, s one ofhissonsused the nameEnnodius.Thismayconnect he uthor'sfamily ith heSpanishhousewhich oseunderTheodosius. (Matthews, 10ff., 42ff).For anotherGallictiewith heAnicii, f.Venantius ortunatus. arm. V. 5.

69Cf. temma 9;ontheFirmini,nd onEnnodius'house ngeneral, f.B. Twyman,Aetius ndtheAristocracy5,istoria9 (1970),480-93,485 ff.70Liberiuswas a frequentorrespondentndpatron fEnnodius ndhisrelatives,ndtheyharedthenameFelix.




been inkedwith heVenantiiOpiliones, gaina family hich s ikely ohavebeen

representedn both Gaul and northerntaly.71We can probably raceanotherimportantineageof African rigin, ut with imilar ies, heHelpidiiDomnuli,functioningnGaul and at Ravennaand Spoleto.72n the550's,thememoryfthenobleEnnodius, ow a senatornheaven, till inked he eading lergy fnorthernItalywithbishopNicetius fTrier, nd so withKingTheodebald.73

To theseTransalpine inks,we should,perhapsrelatea good deal in thepolitical istoryf thetimes,nd notonly n thefifthentury, henGaul was stillpartof theempire.Theoderic's nterventiongainstClovis;hisrelationswiththeVisigoths;heprolonged strogothicevival f heGallicprefecturenderLiberius;theaid whichnorthern obiles hohad beenhonouredbytheGothsgave to theByzantines, ollowinghe Gothic evacuationof Provence;74 rankishrule and

possible oin-mintingnnortherntalyunderTheodebert;75nd the ssaulton theRomannobility ythe Lombards t the timewhen theirncursionsnto Frankishterritoryerebeingresisted ythe Gallo-Roman ristocratsalonius, agittarius,Amatus nd EuniusMummolus:76ll thesemaybe connectedwiththenortherncousinhood.Negotiationsfc. 580,precluding jointFranco-Byzantinettack ntheLombards,werehandledby, mong thers, bishop nnodius, ishop aurent-ius ofMilan,and thepatricianstalica and Venantius POpilio).77 o the cousin-hood, also,we shouldperhaps scribe ome of thestrengthftheGallo-Romans,their bility oretain heirRomanidentitynd traditions ormanyyears fter hedisappearance fRomanpower nGaul. Is itwholly hancethat ittle usionwiththeFranks eems to have been achieved until the late sixth entury,whenthe

RomanSenate nd the talianaristocracy ere ogravelyweakened?78Therewere, owever,ther actorst work mong heGallo-Romans, ointsnwhich hey esembled,nd othersnwhich hey ifferedharply rom heir talian

71 elation o Faustus: nnod.429;his inkwith heVenantiiOpiliones cf.CIL V. 3100 for heirchurcht Padua) issuggestedythename ofhis on,Venantius; hepresencewithhimof n Opilio,v.c.fv.i.t theCouncil fOrange n529;and his ointembassywith n OpiliotoByzantium,lthoughthetwomenquarrelled.Venantius pilio,theconsul f524,andprobable hurch uilderwas also afriendfEnnodius, nd linkedwithFaustusNiger Ennod. 150). Note,though,hatbothVenantiusandOpilioarevery ommon ames.

7ZC1. LRE II, Domnulus1-z, Helpidiusb-7; Helpidiusb was a trequent orrespondenttEnnodius.

73EpistulaeAustrasiacaeMGH Epp.3), 5-6;cf.21.

74nEp.Austrasiacae9,Theodebert efersoa request romustinianosend3000 men ohelpthepatrician regantinus,robably ergantinus,x com.air, nderAthalaric,ndactive n theByzantinecause Procop.VL.xxi.41).

75On this,see R. Collins in Ideal and Reality n Frankish nd Anglo-Saxon ociety,d. P. Wormald

(Oxford, 983), hap. 1.76Cf.Greg.Tur.,Lib.Hist. V. 42, 44, PaulusDiac, Hist.Lang. I. 31f., II. 1-9. Salonius and

Sagittarius ave samenamesas correspondentsfSidonius;Amatusmaybe linkedwithAmatius,prefectfGaul in425;Mummoluson ofPeoniuswithPaeonius, refect56-7.

77Ep.Austr.5,38-9, 4b;ct.40-1,Greg.Tur.,L. ti. X. 2-6.Gregory epresentshe ampaign s arecoveryfTheodebert'smpire. talica and Venantiusivedpartlyn Syracuse,nd werefriends fPopeGregory.78 f.K. Stroheker,er senatorischedel m pàtantikenallienTubingen, 948), 134f., ttributingthis hronologyothedecline fRoman education.



TRANSFORMATION AND SURVIVAL 137

estimateds23, nrelationo which radledeathswouldbe26and35%; revisedmale ife-spansould

be 37-5 nd 35,to match heU.N. 35 and 30.Age Percentageurvivingge

A B C D E1. 74-4 77-5 100 73 79

10. 58-9 64-6 91 66 7320. 54-1 60-3 70 52 5540. 39-2 46-4 48 35-5 3860. 19-4 26-3 35 26 27-5

U.N. FIGURES AUSONIAN FIGURES

Thefigures

ncolumns andD are,on thewhole, airlyomparable;ikewise hosen B andE- afactwhich nspiresomeconfidencen the useof theParentalia.owever, incethe revisedmalelife-spans above)are ess omparable,tdoesseem s if heGallo-Romangentrymayhave been better tkeeping livethantheU.N. populationsompared.Hence, would nfer life-expectancyf at least35, and perhapshigher; nd, in consequence,wouldbe inclined o reduceHopkins'and Burton'sestimatefnecessaryertility,houghomediscrepancy ith heAusonian igures ouldprobablytillremain.t sstrikinghat henumberfknownmalechildrensonly wo ess han henumber fknownmaledeaths; imilarly ith hefemales 22:24; 16:18.This sa furtherndicationhat hefamily assuccessfulnreplacingtsnumbers. ote,however,hatrather ewer emales eemto have beenborn(or perhapsust to havedeserved ecord) hanmales, nd thattheyprobablyhad a much shorteraverage ife-span.hiswillhavebeen a distinct andicaptoreproduction.Cf above.)

Notonly oes theAusonian ouse how high apacity or elf-replacement;tsmarriagesre consistent ith tssocialstanding,mademostlywithin hatclassofeducated,anded ndestablishedentryf urial ndsecondaryank romwhich thadoriginated.79In this espect,n tspride f ncestry,ndin tsfertility,t sverycomparablewiththecurialfamilies ffourthentury ntioch.80) he chanceofimperialpatronagemade possible brief ise to a higher evel,but thisproveddisastrous orAusonius'grandson, aulinusof Pella, exposinghim to politicalintriguen theupheavalsof earlyfifthenturyGaul.81Only one name in theAusonian temma anbe linkedwith he eadingfamilies fSidonius'Gaul, thoughthehousemayhavesurvivednto hemid ixth entury.82hese mpressionsf ong-term ocialand demographictabilityorrespondwell to whatwe have seenor

surmisedn Italy. However,Arvandus nd Paeonius are examplesof climbingparvenusn thefifth'entury;83owards he endof thecentury,heVisigothswere

79OnAusonius' ncestrynd therecord fhisfamily,f.Matthews,9-87, nsome ontrast ithK. Hopkins,SocialMobilityn theLaterRomanEmpire',CQ,n.s.11 (1961), 239-49.NoteHarries,48,onpossibleenatorial escent f ulianus Par.XXII).

80 f.R. Étienne, ordeauxntiqueBordeaux, 962),371f.,P. Petit, ibaniust a VieMunicipaleAntiocheParis,1955),325-9; these amilies erhaps how strongerivic oyalty hando theGallic,andtheirocial nd economic ositionsreonlyvery oughlyomparable.

81Paulinus,uch. 94-219, 90-327.82Gf. LRE II, Hesperius ; theAuxanius fSidonius, p. 1. 7. 6 f., ndAusanius fGreg.Tur.,

Lib. Hist. II. 36,might e Ausonii.83Cf. idonius, p. I. 7. 11,11 5f., bove,n. 76.



138 S.J. B. BARNISH

again appointing omans toquasi-Mustusnd spectabilisosts;84nd,c.600,what

Gregory f Tourscalls the senatoreserea blend ofthe old curial and darissimusGallicfamilies ithmenwhohad risen hroughhedevious nddangeroushannelsofFrankishervice.ncreasingly,oo, hese enatoreshow ntheir omenclatureignsof Germanic lood and intermarriage.85t isverypossible hatthecontemporaryItaliannobility assimilarlylendingwith heLombards,ndwith he oldiersndadministratorshohademigratedromhe ast;86 ut, f o,theywere apidlyosingthat ense f aristocraticdentity hich s still trongn Venantius ortunatusndGregoryfTours.

NOBILES AND THE CHURCH

In Gregory'sase, at least,this ensewas closely onnectedwith ristocraticon-trolof the southern-centralallic Church,where lready n Sidonius'day goodbirth ad beena major dvantage owould-be ishops.87talian senatorial amiliesdonot eem ohave been ocloselynvolvedwith he piscopate.88his s nottosaythat heywere ndifferento Church oliticsnd administration.n thefifthosixthcenturies,many talian bishops, redominantlyn thenorth-centre,ear nameswhichsuggest enatorialblood,89 nd Gallic typeepiscopaldynasties re alsoattested.90n the ther and,wecouldcontrasthe piscopal pitaphsn LCVtromGaul andItaly:of heformer,1outof1 mentionhedeceased'shighbirth,nd,orsecular onours; f he atter,nly wo ut of57 (those f heGallicEnnodius,ndofCelsusofVercelli).91 supply fwellqualified lergy rom frica nd the ast, ess

availablen

Gaul, mayhave been

partly esponsibleor his

phenomenon;92utI

suspect hat eading talian families referredo nominatendmanipulate ishops,rather han osupply hem. hisprocessmaynot lwayshavebeen uccessful.n theLaurentianchism499-507),the enators nd Romanclergyeem, nthewhole, ohave favoured he anti-PopeLaurentius, he bishops, speciallynorthern,helegitimateymmachus.93n the ontextf his truggle, e find hegreat iberiusnconflict ith local worthyalledAvitus, imself relative f FaustusNiger, osecure he lection f newbishop fAquileia.94 heyoung eaconEpiphaniuswas

84Cf. K. Stroheker,1. We shouldnotemuchdevaluation f enatorial anks mongthenobilesaddressed yAvitus nd Ruricius. f.Harries, 4, expression otofofficeutofnostalgia.'

85Cf. . Gillard,The Senators fSixthCentury aul', Speculum4 (1979), 685-97,below.86Cf. . S. Brown, 07f.,194f., houghwith eservations,sp. nChap. 9; Wickham 7-72,74ff.87Cf.Sidonius, b. VII. 9. 14,17f., 4, IV. 25. 2. See Harries, 7-39, 63-9,for eservations.88Cf. rown, 4f, 181ff.89Cf. . Llewellyn,The RomanClergy uring heLaurentian chism',Anc. oc. (1977),242-75,

256f.90Cf. IL X. 4163,forNarni;W.H. C. FrendnLatin iteraturef he ourthenturyLondon,1974),

ed.J.W. Binns, 23,forAeclanum ndBeneventum.91ILCV 1.2,chap.2; ?addbps. Benignusnd Senator fMilan- Ennod.204-5.Note Ennod. 80.

35,Bonosus, riest fPavia, tarnnobilis anctitateuamsanguine' and a Gaul.92Cf. . A. Moorhead,TheCatholicpiscopatenOstrogothictaly D. Phil.Diss.,Liverpool, 974,

unpublished), 86ff., n origins.R. Collins,EarlyMedievalpain London,1983),98, contrasts heforeignntake f heSpanish piscopatewith heGallic.

93Cf.Moorhead, 4-31, eund.,The Laurentian chism,' hurchist. 7 (1978), 125-36.94Ennod. 74,177f.



140 S.J. B.BARNISH

Bishopricsmayhave had other dvantagesfor he Gallic nobility n which

Italian senatorspartlymissedout: a means of providing or unwantedheirs.Glyceriusondemnedhepurchasingfbishopricsor nsuitableminors,hewealthof hediocesebeing ommonlyledgedntheprocess;ndMajoriancondemnedhecompulsoryrdination f children s priestswith heir arents' ollusion,nd theconsecration f female children s a means of increasing heir brothers5n-heritance.104o thisstrategyfheir xclusion'wewillreturnater.Here shallnotethatheirswere tillhopedand plannedforbytherich forbishopGaudentius fBrescia, .400,theywentwith otentiand divitiae105yet, artiblenheritanceadalwaysbeen common mongtheRomanaristocracy.oththroughhedivision festates,nd the ncouragementf owfertility,tmayhave beenresponsibleor herapidturn-overfnoblefamiliesnthe arlier mpire.106he later ristocracyeems

to have beenmorestable, contrast erhaps onnectedwiththe fourthenturycombination fempire- ideoffice-holdingnd estate xpansion.107ike tsprede-cessor, owever,t was still ery iable to thecomplementaryisks f conomic ndbiologicalfailure; nd I would suggest hat, n the fifth o sixthcenturywest,political ndeconomic onditions eremakingt evermorenecessaryo ensure heunityof familyproperty,while legal, social and religiousdevelopmentswererenderingtharder odo so.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC PRESSURES

Control fthefar-flungenatorial states ttestedn theLifeofMelaniawill havebeen

gravelyweakened

bypolitical ragmentationn the fifth

entury.aulinus f

Pellaremained heowner f argepropertiesnEpirus, uttherentswhich eachedhim n Aquitaine teadily iminished.108his effect,hough,hould not be exag-gerated.Thereare indications hat taliansenators nder heOstrogothstillhadinterestsnthe asternmpire,ndeven nAfrica;109hile heir elations ithGaulsuggesttronglyhat and-holdingtraddled heAlps. t is arguable, urthermore,that the fifthenturyendencyo commute axation n kind tomoney adaeratio)combinedwithreorganisationnd decreasesn state demands o produce iveliertrade nd moreprofitablearmingnthewesternMediterranean.110n thewhole,

l04Glycerius,bove,n. 3; Majorian,Nov.11and 6.105ract, iii.35 (CSEL 68); cf.Jerome, p.66. 3, 108; 4-5, E. Patlagean,Pauvretéconomiquet

Pauvretéociale By ance, 152fi.l06Cf.Hopkins,Death ndRenewal,6ff., 6ff., . Garnsey nd R. Sailer, The Roman mpire

(London, 1987),142-5.107On his, f.M. T. W. Arnheim,TheSenatorial ristocracyn the aterRoman mpire Oxford, 1972),

chaps.3-4,6-7. Owingtothe eparationfmilitarynd civilian fficesnd careers,henobilesouldnowholdpowerwith essrisk othemselvesnd the mperorhan nthe arly mpire, riskwhichmayformerlyaveaffectedheirurvivalcf.Hopkins, andR, 166-70, 175,196).

l0«Euch.70 f., 08-19,481f; f.PopeCelestine, in PL 50,546.109Africa:f.Ennod.150,forOpilio;the ast:cf.Coll.Avellana28,forAgapitus; hron.aschale,,p. 623, Dindorf, orSymmachus' ouseat Constantinople,elow,on theeasternmarriage ftheBoethii.Wickham, 7, eesthe ffectsf mperial isintegrationnprivate evenues s serious.

110Cf.arnish, BSR 55, 1987,168-73,179f.




though,t s likely hatmanygreatfamiliesostmuchof theirwealth, articularly

thosewith xtensive oldingsnAfrica.The 'potlatch'pressuresn themmaynot,however, ave diminished erysignificantly.n the nehand,governors'uilding ctivitiesnsoutherntaly eemtohavehalted;while nRome theChurchwas ncreasinglyhemajor rchitecturalbenefactor.ignificantly,toftennherited nd adaptedfourthenturyenatorialmansions.111he emperorMarcianexcluded larissimindspectabilesesidentn theprovincesrom hepraetorship,measure oon followed ythewest;112nd, nourperiods andC,when taly ndSicilyweremuch xposed o theVandals, heres amarked earth fwesternonsuls rom he enatorial amilies.113n the ther and,theconsulship evivedunder Odoacer and Theoderic;gamesand chariot-racingcontinued;nd some enators avepraetorian isplays.114he period ollowinghe

Visigothicackhad seena similar ssertionfRomantraditionythenobility.115Evenduring htpaxOstrogotica,owever,hecostof uchtraditions ayhavebeen almostunacceptablyhigh.Boethiustookpride in the largessewhichhedistributedt his sons'consular ames n522,but tohimthepraetorship asnow'an emptyname and a heavyburdento the senatorial ensus'. urcius RufiusApronianus steriusecordedwithpride heglory arnedbyhisgames n494,butalsowith egret 'inquaestum amae ensus actura ucurrit5. ther onsuls, elixtheGaul in 511,theAnicianMaximus n523,neededroyalpromptingopaytheirbills.Cassiodorus' onsular ormulaointsout thatconsuls, nlikeotherofficials,wereformallyolunteers,nd insistsn theduty f argesse; nd he askselsewhere'Quid si expensasconsulatuspauper nobilisexpavescat?'116y the late 520s,

standardsn thecarving fconsulardiptychswere n decline, nd we can detectother igns fa wider conomic risisn Italyand throughmuchof the Mediter-ranean.117ndeed,we mayask howfar, t thisperiod, enatorial enerosity asequal tothat hown . 400. In 519,Eutharic,on-in-lawfTheoderic, elebrated isconsulship ith eculiaravishness,stupentetiam ymmacho rientisegato', ndto theamazement f the praesens etas' at thevariety f wild beastssent fromAfrica.118pparently,t was a rarefeatfor taly to acquirethese xotica,or toimpressneasterner;et asternonsular xpenseswerenothigh, nd were arefullylimited.119 e shouldnoticethesequences fwestern enatorial onsuls:11 from480-90,butonly -5 from91-500;11from 01-11,but5 from12-19; 10-11from

11Cf.Ward-Perkins,haps.3-4,pp. 236-41,

Guidobaldiabove

n.54)

230ff.ll2CJXII. 2. 1;cf.Jones, RE, 529.1133 consulsnB, 6 inC, 12 nD, 27-9 in E. The withdrawalfcompetitionymonarchs nd

generalss,of ourse,nother actor. 90 isexcluded, s Faustus uniormaywellhavebeen nominatedbyOdoacer.

114Cf. ar. . 20, 27,30-3, II. 39,51,V. 42,Boethius, . Ph. ll, prose v.115Cf. atthews,haps.14-15.116Cf. . Jahn, Berichteachs.Gesellsch. erWissensch.3ph.-h.cl.(1851), 348 f.; Boethius,C. Ph. Ill,

pr. v, I, pr. ii. But Boethius' omplaintwasan oldone;cf.Zosimus I. 38,from unapius.;Var. II.39,V. 42,VI. 1,10.

117Cf. ameron nd SchauerJRS 72, 136f.,Barnish, BSR 55, 1987, 176-9, 180,182.118Cassiod., hron.,.a. Asterius'games (Jahn) lasted 3 days,with ludos currusque imul

variumque erarum/certamen'.119Cf. ameron ndSchauer,139-42.



142 S.J. B. BARNISH

520-30,but 1 from 31-5. Are themorebroken eries heproducts ftemporary

economic xhaustionmongthemajorfamilies,ompoundedn the 490s by theeffectsftheOstrogothicnvasion,ndTheoderic's elations ith he ast?120Careful estatemanagement, or whichFelix was noted,121nd improved

marketing ight inance consularyear; o toomight overnmentervice.UnderOdoacer and Theoderic,the Decii held a string f consulshipsnd praetorianprefectures.pronianusAsterius ad recently eld the comitivarivatarum,nd arelative ischargedhe ame office .507; thefamilyeems o havereemergedntopublic prominencefter long periodofobscurity.122he sons of Boethiuswerenominated otheconsulshipbout the ame time s he was mademagisterfficiorum.Yet,over halfthe consuls acked activehighoffice t court.This is probably nindicator f thecontinuing trengthfmany enatorial ortunes;ut,as we have

noted,thesuffragio,equiredfrom ffice eekersmight hemselves e a dauntingexpense.123hiswas,perhaps, speciallyruenGaul,where would uspect lowerlevel of iquidity.When, n 441, thepraetorian refect elpedfound church tNarbonne, iscontributionametoonly2100solidi, ery mallbeer.124rvandus'first enure f theprefectureashighly opular,his secondoppressive theresult,wemay urmise,f arlierntegrity,ombinedwith hepaymentf epeateduffragioforhis post. It is notsurprisinghathe was heavily n debt,and discoveredntreasonable orrespondence ith Euric: the formationf barbariankingdomsnGaulmust avepromisedmany enators hopeof ess xpensivedvancement.125naddition o thecosts foffice,herewas the burden f taxation.The settlementfbarbarianwarriorsmayhavedoneawaywith he onscriptionfvalued coloni romsenatorial

states;126ut the

complaintsf Boethius

coincidentwithhis sons'

consulshipsnd his ownoffice)howthatgovernmentevieswere till everelyeltunderTheoderic, ndhis enatorswere s active nevasion ndnon-cooperationsthose fMajorianhad been.127 ne consequence ftaxation, aid orunpaid,mayhave been theexpansion nd concentrationfgreatestates t theexpense f thelesser entry,articularlyhecuriales,hounderwrotehetaxeswhich he enatorsrefused o pay.128Much of the documentaryvidencefrom ate Roman Italy,especiallyheRavennapapyri,uggestshat mallpropertiesemained herule, ndminor and-ownersommon.129and-holdingn the territoryf Ravenna must,however,lwayshavebeenexceptionallyluid.Manynorthtalian texts howthe

120Notepeciosus, os.496,whomayneverhavetakenuphis office.121 ar. I. 2. 3f.; cf. X. 23. 4, commendingheDecian consuls or heir enerosity iththeirpropertysubmoderatione'.

122 o known epresentativesfdistinctioninceTurciusApronianus (PLRE I), c.400.123Cf.bove,n. 58.124C/Z.II. 5336, tó 1928,5.125Sidonius,p. I. 7. 3,5; notethatArvandus till elt proper ride nhisofficialndsenatorial

rank.126Cf.tein I. 43.127Var. I. 24-5, Nov. Mai. 2. 4.128Cf. ar. I. 24. 2,V. 14. 1, X. 2.129Cf. rown,191ff., 98; L. C. Ruggini, conomia Società ell'Italia nnonariaMilan, 1961),

409ff.; or laterperiod,Wickham, 04ff.




building-up f large estates and huge game-parks y unscrupulous otentes™0

perhaps o the ong-termetriment f theirprovincial upport. n somepartsofItaly, archaeologyndicates markeddecline n settlementumbers,nd someexpansionof surviving itesthrough hisperiod; in others, hough,dispersedsettlementatterns rovedrelativelytable.131t is likely hatregional onditionsvariedgreatly;nd the arger nd moreconcentratedoldingsmust lwayshavebeenvulnerableo thepressuresfpartiblenheritance.132

In these ircumstances,tseems ossible hat he raditional omanpatternsfreproductionnd inheritance ecamea luxury ver harderto afford.Majorian'ssixth ovel, ddressedo theprefectf taly, ndsoprimarilyo theproblemsf heItalianaristocracy,ives sa useful ocus.ts chief oncernwas for hebirth-ratefthenobility witness uchphrases s 'si nobilium eminarummplectendagen-

erosiasprocreatisiberismultiplicataubcrescat';Viduarum . . quae nullaprolesuscepta ecunditatemuamreparationemqueamiliae epudiata oniugiiterationecondemnant';perquosfamiliae rigoreparatur';utilitas iliorum,uos et numer-osiusprocreanproRomaninominis ptamus ugmento t procreatisonpetentiacommoda erire onpatimur'.

Apparently,133eperceived threatoupper-classurvival,nd ascribedttoanumber fcauses:first,irlswhom their arents orced o take theveil,to avoidexpenditurentheir owries,ra share nthe nheritance,t their rothers'ost. nline withtheCouncil ofChalcedon,he forbade onsecrations nuns forwomenunder 0.134Second, hildless idows till apableof hild-bearingefusedmarriagewiththe excuseofa religious ocation,but in reality orpower amongfortune-

hunters.Widowsunder40 werenowtoremarry ithin iveyears, r divide theirproperty ith heir indred. hird, inanciallynequalmarriagesffectedhebirth-rate:henceforward,hewife houldbringno less ndowry han he had received ssponsaliciaargitasf hemarriagewas to be legally alid,a conditionlreadymade,thoughessforcefully,yValentinianII in452. 35n addition,Majoriandecreedthatmothershoulddivide heirponsaliciaargitasqually mongtheir hildren; econdemnedhedisherisonf hildren ytheirmothershroughhemachinationsf

l30Cf.,.g.,Ambrose, exaemeron. 14, 27,Expos. s. cxviii, . 32,8. 5,De Nabuthe. 12,10.45,ZenoofVerona,Tract . v.8,PeterChrysologus,ermo8,Var.II. 20, V. 10,39,V. 12,Procop.,WarsI. iii. 1-5, 29, xi. 7f.,P. Ital. 7, 49; Ruggini, 3-35. The northern ishopsusually inksuch and-grabbingwith peculationngrain nd other ictualsn a regional conomywhichpresumably asstimulatednd sometimes

epressed ythe

requirementsf ourt nd

army.Cf., lso,Var.X. 2, 18.

131Cf.arnish, BSR 55, 1987, 169,175,A. M. Small, Late Antique ettlementsnApuliaandLucania', forthcoming.

132CfWickham,bove,n. 129.133 is legislation as Augustan choes,and appeals overtly o Roman tradition.We should,

perhaps,ee tas,to some xtent,n exercisen egitimationndpropaganda,ts rchaizingharactercorrespondingo much n Sidonius' mperial anegyrics;s a responseoa realcrisis,t would thenbedoubtful. lycerius as moreup todate,butstill essrealistic,n ascribinghe lls of theempire oepiscipal imony

134Canonv,ordinationfdeaconesses.NotePetit, 28f.:theproblemsfLibanius' curialfriendAgroecus, ith brotherndfive nmarriedisters.

135jV.Val.35. 9; contrasthewesternnterpretatiooJV. heod. . 14, howinghat he attermightprovide heformeror poorwife.For theeast,JV. ustiniani7. 1, 119. 1 showthat the two wereexpected obeequal,but 97. 1-2 shows ressuresornequality. ee further,elow.



144 S.J. B. BARNISH

legacy-hunters;nd helegislatedgainst he xtortionromwould-be ride-grooms

ofgifts? pre-betrothal)ytheir rospectiveathers-in-law.n 463,LibiusSeverus,who had supplantedMajorian,did away withthe capitibus niustisegisdiviMaioriani', retaining nly the provision f equal inheritance f the sponsalicialargitas.136owever,nGaul,at least,whereMajorianseems ohave beenpopular,and wherepressures orexpenditurewere ess,the legal tradition reserved isnovel.137 e must uppose hat omepeople nthewest erceivedt asdoing usefuljob in theirociety.

The Church,and especiallymonastic ifemightthreaten he survivalofindividual oblehouses, lthough hepiousdeacon Ennodius ouldmake mildlybawdy nd paganisingoke out of thedanger.138et, t also had its usesfor ver-fertile amilies,s we noticed n connectionwithMajorian's law of 460 against

compulsoryrdinations, hichwillhave preventedheboysfrommarrying,ndestablishingheir wn familiest the xpense ftheir indred.139o too,thefifthosixthcentury xpansionof monastic ife n thewest oftenmeant the parentaldedication fchildren, ith onsequences or he estate.The sixth enturytalianrules ftheMaster nd St. Benedict oth cceptthepractice or he onsoinobiles.The Masterurges tronglyhatnopartofhis nheritancehouldbe retained or hepostulant,est he return o hisfamily, ecome co-heirwithhisbrothers,nd getmarried. is parentshouldgive ll hispropertyothepoor;but, f his s too hardfor hem, hey hould allowhim a third, hepoora third, nd keeptherest; r,failing his, hey houldkeep theentireproperty.t. Benedictprescribedithercompletedisherison,r a donation to the monastery,he parentskeepingthe

usufruct; aesarius of Aries took a similar ine.140A commontheme n thehagiographyfthe time s theconversion fa youngmanorwoman t,orshortlybeforemarriage nd theassumptionffamily esponsibilities,hetherhroughpact ofmutualchastity,r theadoptionofmonastic ife, eeminglyn reactionagainsttheworldlypressures f the kin-group.141hese considerationsre thereverseideof he oin; nd, ike he ecular ower f heregular lergy,hey elptoshowwhy amilies ftenccepted, pproved, renforceduch dropping ut5.142

Wealthywidows,njoyingheir ew-foundndependence,t onceexploitingndpreyeduponbyfortune-hunters,erea very ncientfeature f senatorialife.143

136JV.ev. 1.137Cf.P. M.

Meyernd Th. Mommsen,

egesNovellae,Xf, 166,F. Brandileone,crittii toriael

dirittorivatotaliano,d. G. ErminiBologna,1931),144f,n. 3.138Ennod.88.41-94,epithalamiumfMaximus, .s.: Venus ndCupiddeplore he mpact f he

cult ffrigida. . virginitas'ntheir ealm, nd retaliategainstMaximus, spes nicagenerisummi',who has longrefused o marry nder the nfluence fa devout mother. f. R. Mathisen,Episto-lography, iterary ircles& FamilyTies in Late RomanGaul, TAPA 111 (1981),95-109, 101 onAvitus, p. 52.

139On hegeneral ffectfChristianityn fertilityn theeast,cf. E. Patlagean, tructureociale,Famille,ChrétientéByzance London, 1981), chaps. 8-9.

l40Reg.en. 9 (cf. 8); Reg.Mag.91 (pp.398ff., e Vogüé);Caesarius, pp. I. 6, 8, III (pp. 139,142,150f,Morin);cf., lso SalvianAd EcclesiamII. 6.

141Cf. S. Dill, Roman ocietynGaul in theMerovingian ge (London, 1926), 358 if.142NoteV. ust. 23.41,prohibitinghedisherisonfungratefulhildrenwhoentermonasteries.143Cf.,.g.,Hopkins, eath ndRenewal,35-47;forateantiquity,erome, p. 23. 13.




Christianity ayhave ncreasedheir umber.t showed growingislike f econd

marriages, hichmayhavehad some ffectn mperialmarriageegislation;tgavethewidowmore o do withher ife; nd itsrepresentativesntered he nheritancehuntwith strongmoral dvantage vertheir ompetitors.144hristians, owever,areapt topickout anddeveloponly hose lements ftheir aithwhichumpwiththeir riornclinations.myselfuspect hat he rendwasagainst heremarriagefwidowsevenwithout eligous ssistance. n the thirdto sixthcenturyRomansenatorial rosopography,uch f tante-datinghe onversionf hat ristocracy,I havefound nly nesecondmarriage,nd that ollowingdivorce.145dmittedly,peopleweresometimes ressed o remarry,146nd we are poorly nformed nsenatorialmarriage artners,ut hehouse fAusonius ives he ame mpression.Christian amily, ut not conspicuously evout, t has several cases of early

bereavement,ut onlyone of secondmarriage.147 arital choice and mutualaffection ayoften avebeenresponsible,s forAusoniushimself,148ut the ateantiqueworldwas one n whichkin-arranged arriages ere ertainlyommon.149A lawdealingwith hesemaygiveusa partial xplanation.

AddressingheSenate n 371,Valen inian forbade hemarriage f widowsunder25 against heir athers'will,withthehelpofgo-betweensnd marriage-brokers; e forbade hepurchase nd private ixing fnoblemarriages: familycouncil hould eheld, nd, f hewomandisliked er uitor, udicialcognitioouldexaminehis birth nd character; owever, ercloserelativeswerenotto hindersuitablematchn thehopeof nheritingerproperty.150erewe shouldnotice irst,thepressuresormarriagewithin class, barrier o its external ecruitment,nd

thewishofsomemembers o break out. In 468, Anthemius,oncerned or the'splendorenatoriae enerositatis'ad to egislategainst hemarriage f enatorialwomenwithslaves and freemen;while,by contrast,n the east Marcian hadpermittedenators o marryhumblebut free-born omenofgood character.151Second,we shouldnoticethedesireof thekindred o keepproperty ithin hefamily.hiswas, suspect,ccentuated otonlybyeconomic ressures,utby ateRomanchangesn thepropertyightsfmarriedndformerly arried artners.

144Cf. . Humbert, e RémariageRomeMilan, 1972),chap. 3, M. Lightman nd W. Zeisel,lUnivira:n ExampleofContinuitynd Change n Roman Society',Churchist. 46 (1977), 19-32,

J. Goody,The

Developmentfthe amily ndMarriage nEurope Cambridge, 1983), 61 ff.

145n this haveused the temmatan PLRE I- II andArnheim;he xceptions Fabiola (Jerome,Ep. 77. 3f.). (Cf.Jones, RE, 970-9 on the failuresrvery imited uccesses fthe Church n moralquestions,speciallyhedivorceaws;note lsoJ.Gaudemet,Les Transformationse la Vie Familialeau Bas-Empire tPinfluenceu Christianisme,omanitas (1962), 58-85,AverilCameron,JRS 76(1986),269,onGoody).

146f.Jerome, p. 54. 5 (also54. 15), 127.2, 130.1 (also 130.9).147 usonius' aughter usoniamayhaveremarried,o becomemotherfPauhnus fPella.148 f.Aus.,Par.viii-ix, pigr. l.149ThemarriagefMelaniaand Pinianuss a goodexample; f. lsoGreg.Tur.,Vita atrum. 1, x.

1,xvi.1,xx. 1,Lib.Hist. . 47. Sidonius, p. II. 4 is nterestingnmatch-makingmong henobiles.nlegalevidence,eeS. Treggiari, lass.Views .s. 1.1 (1982),42f.

i50C.Th.II. 7. 1.lbXN.Anth.,N.MarcA.



146 S.J. B. BARNISH

Patria otestasxercised ver sinemanumarriedwomanbyherfather,hrough

which he could recoverherdowryby compelling er to divorce,had becomeobsolete erhaps searly s theAntonines,ertainly ythe ime fDiocletian.n thefifthentury,hepaterfamiliaslso lost ontrol fdowry roughto his marriedon.The husband's wnrightsfpropertyver thedowryhad also longbeengrowingweaker: ncreasinglyt was treated s a sort f trust or hewifeherself,r for heoffspringf themarriage.152t also tended,more nd more, o be matched ytheeastern nfluencedonationtenuptiasin the westusuallyreferredo as sponsalicialargitas, houghdistinct rom etrothal ifts), settlementy thegroomon hisprospectiveride,which, gain,was becomingargely trust or he children.153Where herewerenochildren,amilial ightsfreversionver hemarriage ortionsbecameweaker.ByValentinianll's 35thnovelof452,when wife iedchildless,

her family ecovered nlyhalfher dowry,whereonce her fatherwould havevindicated heentire os rofecticia.n similar ircumstances,hehusband'sfamilywouldrecover nlyhalf he ponsalium.gain,when childpredeceasedtsparents,its hareofthedos nd donatio entnotto thoseparents, rto ts iblings,ut to tsown children.154

These developmentsavoured ertilemarriagesnd nuclearfamiliesverthepropertynterestsf more extensive ingroups.Theymusthave reflected realsocialconcern,fnotfor eproduction,tleastfor hewelfaref nychildrenorn oa marriage,o udgebythe egislators'anguage.Atthe ametime, heymusthavediminishedhewillofkindredso formmarriage onds. Hence,perhaps, heuseofconcubinage, espiteChristian ressure,s a means ofproducing eirs.On the

whole twastoleratedy mperialaws;andeven,perhaps,ncouraged,omaintainthe curialorder.155)here were till oop-holes ywhichmarriage ontractsouldbe a source ffamily rofit,ut these xceptionsllustrateherule:the xtravagantpre-betrothaliftsondemned yMajorian,madeto thebenefitf hebride's ather;or,morenterestingly,he mperor's rohibitionfunequaldos nddonatio.incethelatterwas often sedtopaytheformer,156here owrywas the ess, hedeathofchildlesswifewould profither family,not her husband. Hence, maybe,thedisincentiveoreproductionotedby Majorian. It is true hatchildren roducedwerenowbeingbetter rotected,articularlynthe vent fparental emarriage;ntheory,heir ortions fthepaternal r maternalmarriage oodswill havemadethemmoreeligibleformarriages f theirown. However,we shouldrecall the

152Cf.. E. Corbett, heRoman awofMarriageOxford, 930),122f.,177-82;on the ate mperialprotectionf hildren's ights, umbert,hap.3. iv.

153Literature n thedonationte uptiassvoluminous,nd much bout t s uncertain. f., nter l.,Gorbett, 05-10, Humbert, 18f, 425-41,M. Kaser,Das romische rivatrechtI (Munich, 1959),134-41,D. Herlihy, he MedievalMarriageMarket',MedievalndRenaissancetudies (1976),3-27,5 if.The practicemaypartly avegrown ut ofbetrothalifts,utN.Just. 23.37,39shows t distinctfromponsalia/arrae.estern asesofthedonatio.n.maybeJerome, p. 127.2,and the ontroversynSidonius, p. VII. 2. 6-8. Ed. Theoderici9 suggestshat standard onatio ayhave been ofthegroom's patrimonium.

Ì54C.J.V. 9. 7-8 (a. 478, 528, eastern).Note that married aughtersweremore ikely hanmarriedons ohavesurviving arents; f.R. Sailer,C. Ph.82 (1987),30ff.

155Cf. .I. V. 27,JV.Just. 4, 89,JV. heod. 2. 2. 11.156Cf. orbett07;JV. heod. 4. 3 (= CJ V. 9. 5. 1),with nterretatio.




tendency,rohibitedybothMajorianand Severus, or n unequaldivision fthe

sponsaliciaargitas.n thefourthentury, mbrosehad denounced herichwho,fearing artition f theirestates, bortedchildren, r divided the patrimonyunequally,gainst he aw ofnature.157n these,nd inthe cclesiasticalmethods fheirexclusion,s evidenceof the trend gainstpartible nheritance:ocial andeconomic ressures ayhave beenforcingome pproachtoprimogenituren thesenatoriallass.

Donationte uptiasas othernterestingmplications.Where tsequalitywith,and distinctionrom,oswasgenuinelybserved,t musthave been a severe heckon socialmobility ymarriage,erhaps eflectingate Roman class onsciousness.158Increasingly,hough,n the ate and post-Romanwest, tfusedwith nd replacedtrue owry rom hewoman's ide,findingts ounterpartnthemarriage ayments

of heGermanicettlers;otuntil hetwelfthentury asdowry evivednwesternEurope.159ne factorn thechangemayhave beena shortage f women omen,which eversedhe ituationnthe arlier mpire. hiswas due to menmarryingta lower ge,and toChristian ressureowards emale irginity.160s to the atter,pressureowardsmalevirginity,oted bove,wasalsostrong,nd the omparativeeffectsfthetwo reimpossibleoquantify;ut think tunlikelyhatnunsmuchoutnumbered onksn lateantiquity. s to theformer,nthe ristocracy,t least,anyfall n themalemarriage ge maybe linkedwith the earlier ge in the ateempire t whichofficialareers ould be begun. t is similarily ossible hat theopportunitiesor ffice-holdinghichConstantine ad reopened o senators timu-latedtheproductionfmales t theexpense ffemales.161oreover, female eir

willhave been lessfitted hanherbrother o defend n estate threatened y alawsuit,he ggressionf n influentialeighbour,r theflightí coloni. histype finsecuritys well ttested,ndmayhaveencouraged ver-insurancenboychildren.An indication faristocraticrioritiesmaybe found n the case ofMelania andPinianus: heir irsthild, daughter, as mmediatelyonsecrated oGod,and thecouplewent n n thevainattemptoproduce wo ons.162t ispossible,hen, o usethe anguage f1066 ndAll That, hat he ateRomannobilitydied of surfeitfmales '

It isreasonable osuppose hat henewmarried-propertyegulationseflected,

137exaemeron. 58.NoteN. Just. 2,prohibitingxcessiventer ivos onations yparents o one

child t the xpense fothers.158 f.Sidonius, p. VII. 2. 6-8,where youngmanon themake wins well downed bridebypretendingohavemoney imself. ote . 11.5: Paeoniusmarries isdaughterboveher tation ygiving er fine owry. nnod. 438. 22ff., betrothalqual inbirth, utnot nwealth.

159Gf.erlihy,MRS 6,5 if; nLeges urg. 4. 1-2,62. 2,dos nddonatiouptialiseem ynonymous.Greg.Tur.,Lib. Hist. . 47 usesdos o meanbride-pricena Roman context.sidore, tymologiae. 24.25f. uggestshatdecline rom he antiquus . . ritus' fmutualpurchase opurchase ythehusbandwasassociatedwith decline nfemale tatus.

160Gf.. Herlihy,Medieval ouseholdsCambridgeMass. & London,1985),17-21,revisingausessuggestedn MRS 6, 10-17.Evidencefor ex-ratiossvery canty.n theupper lasses, heAusonianstemmahows 4femaleso28males.

161Ageofoffice-holders:f.Jones, RE, 382,558.Constantinend thenobiles:f.Arnheim,h.2.162 .Melaniae raeca, ,6. Is thefamilyfAvitus fVienne omparable; f.his arm. i, Mathisen,

TAPA111,101?



148 S.J. B. BARNISH

as well as caused,someweakness n theold Romangentes.ivorces,whenfamily

allianceswerereshuffled,o frequentn the ateRepublicand earlyprincipate,reonly nce attestednthe enatorialristocracyf ateantiquity.163robably,gain,forfamily easons, ristocratic oman girlshad usuallybeenmarried ffn theirearly eens,with n adverse ffectn their hild-bearingapacities.n theChristianera, themarriage ge may n generalhave risen; hough, nterestingly,here reexceptionst thehighestocial evel.164t all levels, he ria ominaystemywhichfamilydentities ad beenpreserved, as beingreplaced, ither ysinglenames,oftenfChristianignificance,rby tringsfgentilicia.1*5ome have ascribed his oa general ecayof ristocraticalues,166ut the xplanationeems ather acile. nfact, heoldnomenclaturend the gnaticRomangentes ere lreadyn declinebythe secondcenturyA.D. thanks, erhaps,to the rapid turn-overf senatorial

families.167n ourperiod, othGaul and Italy how keen ndimaginativenterestingenealogy,168nd of his,enatorial olyonymy aybe onesymptom.heremayevenhavebeena strongerense funitymongthenobiles,hichmadethem, othby ntermarriagend bysympathy,ll kinsmen.Curia Romana completuraenevestra amilia',wroteCassiodorus ftheprolific ecii.169 omenclatureowpartlymatches henew dos-and-donatioarriage ystem,ycombining amesdrawnfromthepaternal ndmaternal amilies or heirhildren.170dmittedly,venbefore heGothicwars,aristocrats,ike lessermen,are increasinglyttested y one nameonly;171ut thisapparent ymptomfdecliningnterestn ancestrymaybe anillusion ue tochangingources. hroughoutateantiquity,mperialaws,officialdocuments ndprivateetterssually ddresseading iguresya single ame;theirfull

tylesre

likelyo be foundn

manuscriptubscriptions,onsular

iptychs,nd

inscriptions,hieflyedicatory. snoted, he astof hese ecline teeplynnumber

163Above,n. 145.164Cf. . Hopkins,Age of Roman Girls t Marriage',Populationtudies8 (1965), 309-27,M.

Durry,Le Mariagedes Filies mpúberes Rome', CRAI, 1955,84-91, butPatlagean,Pauvreté46,supposesChristian emalesmost ftenmarried t 12-16;on thephysical ffects,eeV. HigginsnSanVincenzol Volturno,d. R. HodgesandJ. Mitchell BAR IS 252,Oxford, 985), 115.The youngerMelania wasmarried t 13-14. V.Mel.Gr.1),Maria,empressfHonorius,t 13 Ensslin, -WXIV.1712),but Blesilla t 18-19 Jerome, p. 39. 1).Melaniamay how he nteractionfChristianalueswiththetraumaofearlymarriagewhichPlutarch LycurgusndNuma. v. 1 notedamongRomanwomen.Ausonius, pit.xxxv, in tumulumedecennismatronae' mplies hata mother t 16 wasunusual.ZosimusV. 28 shows hat herewassomefeelinggainst arlymarriagend consummation.See now B. D. Shaw,JRS 11 (1987), 30-46.165f. M. HeinzelmannnFamille tParente ansVOccidentedieval,d. G. DubyandJ. Le Goff(Rome, 1977),19-24.

166Cf.rown, 0, 35, 164f.,183f.167Cf. R. Sailer, Familia, omus nd theRomanConception f theFamily',Phoenix8 (1984),336-65,348f.Heinzelmann otes heprobable ffectftheConstitutiontoniniana.

168Cf. einzelmann, 4; forGaul, C. Jullian,Histoire e a GauleVIII (Paris, 1926), 128ff.; orItaly, hegenealogicalwork fCassiodorus nhisownhouse, rontheAmals, r, arlier, erome, p.108.1,3f.,Ambrose, e Nabuthe3.54,Exp.Ps. i, 46,Ausonius pig.xlv.

169 ar. X. 22. 5. Cf.Mathisen,TAPA111,98f.,102 and nn, 16, 27, on looseemploymentfkinshiperms ynobiles.

170Cf. einzelmann, ff.171f.Heinzelmann,3f.




in thefifthentury;he firstwocontinue,nd still howtheenduring ractice f

polyonymymong henobiles.In additionto the celestial ttractionsr worldly tility f a celibate ife,Christianity ayhave affectedenatorial amilyurvivaln three therways: tspressuregainst evirate nd first-cousinarriages, ywhichpropertymightberetainedwithinhefamily;tspressure gainst doption; nd itscharitable ppeal,whichmightead tothedispersalfgreat ortunes.172sto thefirst,ven nthe arlyprincipate,enatorialmatcheseem ohave beenmade outside he mmediateamilycircle.173s for doption,notusuallybeingmade from lower ocial evel, t willhardly ave contributedothe urvival f theclass as a whole, nd itsdisusemayevenbe taken s a signof ncreased emographic trength.ertainly,lthoughtcontinued o occur n the ate Roman aristocracy,174e can pointto no specific

cases,evenbefore he triumph f Christianity.hristian ressure,ndeed,wasprobablyneffectiveJustinianould egislate n adoptionwithoutmbarrassmentor disapproval.175 ore important, erhaps,was provincialfailure, fter theConstitutiontoninianao understandhe Roman lawswhich meantthecompletetransferf the adoptee to thepotestasf his adoptivefather.As a result,hisinheritanceightsn bothhisold and newfamiliesameto beweakened, resumablymakingdoptioness ttractives a means fheir reation.176he flow f enatorialwealth ntoChristianharitiesan also be overestimated;e knowonlytwocaseswhen his appened na large cale, hose fMelaniaandPinianus,nd ofPaulinusandTherasia.The firstnstance otoriouslyemonstrateshe heer ifficultyf ucha sell-out;nd at leasttwoofthefour amiliesnvolved eem tohave survived he

crisiswithwealth nd status nimpaired.177more ubtle hreat o senatorialtatus

lay n the lternative hich eligionfferedo secular argesse. et,Ennodius ointsouthowChristian obles ouldcombine he ldandnewgenerosityntheironsularprocessions;hilemanyGallicnoblesmusthavefound piscopal harities roadtopopularfavour or hemselvesnd their amilies.178

ARISTOCRATIC DECLINE AND RESILIENCE AFTER THEOSTROGOTHS

We have, then, picture f an aristocracy hichhad itsweaknesses,conomic,demographic,nd n ts ocialpower-base. hedegree f heseweaknesses,owever,

172Cf.Goody, 48-65, 72 ff., hap. 5, P. Brown, Religion nd Societyn theAge of Saint Augustine(London, 1972),232. For a generalcritique fGoody,see Cameron, bove, n. 145,D. Herlihy,MedievalHouseholds, 1 f.

173Cf. arnsey nd Sailer, 146f., againstGoody. Note, though, ymmachus, p. IX. 133,procuring license or first-cousinarriage,f.Var.VII, 46.The requirement ust ave reduced henumber f uchmarriages.

174Cf.alvian,Ad Ecc. II. 9f.,Digest. 9. 5.175C.J III. 47. 10.176Cf. . Jolowicz ndB. Nicholas,Historicalntroductiono he tudyfRomanaw (Oxford, 972),

471 f.177Cf. atthews, 53,343,170,PLRE II, Maximus17,24-5,Volusianus , 3,5-6.178Ennod.9. 129-38;the ontexts theLaurentianchism, erhaps artly ausedbyaristocratic

claims ocontrolhe ndowmentsf he itularhurches nd otherChurch roperty. f.Harries, 02,

onSidonius, p. III. 1.



150 S.J.B. BARNISH

seems ery oubtful,nd throughouthefifthenturyhe lass howed onsiderable

strengthnd resilience.Why, hen, s we asked at theoutset, id it so notoriouslycrumblen Italyunder he mpact ftheGothicwars ndofByzantineule?Thereareeasy xplanations:n a fragileemographicituation,lague ndmassacre ouldhave asting ffects,ndthe arlieruccess f he enatorial orefamiliesnreplacingtheir umbers ithoutmuch xternal ecruitmentayhave beenfatal.179t is clearthat the Italian and Mediterranean-ide economy, lreadyperhapsdecliningbeforethe wars,was gravelyweakenedby and duringthem.180he illustrisappointmentseeded okeepupnumbersn theSenateproper ell nder ustinian,and I believe hatmany enatorsmayhave transferredheir llegiance, rhad ittransferred,o the SenateofConstantinople.181f these, omeremainedn Italy,especially, erhaps,n Sicily nd the outh, ut off rom oth apitals, o ook after

their states.182thers eft orGaul, or shiftedhe balance oftheir nterestso theeastern mpire; heBoethii, escendants f Italian provincial entry, pparentlyforming marriage lliance with the great Egyptianhouse of theApiones.183Finally, heLombard nvasions avethe enatorial lass ts oup egrace}**

Thesereasons recertainlyalid,butnotreally ufficient.s weobserved,omeof hem ffectedheGallicnobilitynthefifthentury; et hat lassretainedmuchof tstraditionsndpoliticalnfluenceorwellover century.Whydidthe taliansnot follow heexampleoftheir ousins, nd come todominate headministrative,and even themilitaryfficesfthenewByzantinend Lombardregimes? fterll,they ad alreadygiven civil ervice o theGoths.

TheByzantines,f ourse, nlike hebarbarians, ere bletosupply heir wn

administrators,ften,erhaps,f

higher ompetence,ndwith

greaterllegianceto theruler han theaverageRoman noble.185hey mayalso have had politicalreasonsfordistrustingheRomans,who had hardlypulledtheirweight n theGothicwars, nd manyofwhomwereopposing ustiniann theThreeChaptersschism.Moreover,n Italy, s elsewheren theJustinianicmpire, he administra-tionwas becomingmoremilitarised,he old barriers etween oldier nd civilianwerebreakingdown.186 he Italian aristocracyf the fifthenturymay havesupplied everalmagistriilitum,ndmight avefoundittle ifficultynadapting othis ituation,s theGallo-Romans addone.187heoderic, owever, adpresented

179Note . Herlihy, itiesnd ocietynMedievaltaly London,1980)chap.12, 149-55; utbreaksfbubonicplague stimulatedmarriagesnd births n fourteenth-fifteenthentury lorence.But theoverall

demographicrend s

likelyo have been

downwards;f.J.Hatcher, lague, opulation

nd heEnglish conomyLondon, 1977), 1-73, Z. Razi, Life,Marriage ndDeath na MedievalParish Cambridge,1980),92-135.

180Cf.arnish, BSR 55, (1987), 181f.18lJustinian,anct. ragm.7 (CJC II, App.7) may mply hat hose talian enators hochose o

attend he ourt herebymadeConstantinopleheir fficialesidence,ndneededpermissiono resideinItaly.

182Cf.anct. ragm.7;T. S. Brown, 3f., 7.183f.Pelagius , Epp.Arel.Gen. 3; T. S. Brown, 9f.184In eneral, n the nd of he enate, f.T. S. Brown,hap.2,E. Stein,La Disparitionu Sénat

de Rome à la Findu Sixième iede', Bull.Acad.Belve, I. des ettres.25 (1939), 308-27.185Cf.rocop.,WarsVII. i. 32,xxi.14,Anee. xiv. .186Cf.. S. Brown, ff.,6,46-58.187f.above.



TRANSFORMATIONAND SURVIVAL 151

his barbarians s thedefendersf civilianRomans. Under his rule,fewGoths

became ctive enators,eweadingRomans awmilitaryervice,188ndtheSenate,whichmayhaveacquiesced rco-operatednbarbarian ettlementnthehopeof neasy ife,wastoomuch heltered rom warlikeworld.189

Anotheruccess f he taliannobility as,perhaps, venmoremportantn tsfinal ecay: hemaintenancef he enate tself. hegentry ere oowell ntegratedinto lofty, ighly egulated,nd thereforeulnerable olitical tructure;nd wehavealready urmisedhatthe social attractionsfRome and its Curia too oftendistractedhem romhegrass-rootsolitics ftheir ities nd dioceses. ometimestheyucceedednreplacing emoteontrol,rthe ackof t,bydirect articipation.Bythe nd of he ixth entury,he enators eem o have taken verNaplesfromhelikes fPastor nd Asclepiodotus.190ut moreoften, suspect, hey ailed.Their

timewas tooshort oestablish hat upply fbishopswhich heGauls had achievedin thefourthofifthenturies.Campania and Sicilywere thebest havensfor hearistocracy,ut it should

have been northerntaly that saved it. There conditionswerebest suited forreproducingheGallic olutions. swehaveseen,northern obleshad ong uppliedmost f hehigh fficials,ndhad some onnection ith ocietyndpolitics,ecularand ecclesiastical,n the ocal towns.Urban life, ndeed,though n decline,wasprobablymore vigorous n northerntaly than in Gaul; and church donorinscriptionsiveus evidenceacking cross heAlpsfor 'middle lass'ofartisans,professionalsnd lesser ureaucrats,ometimesinkedntheir enefactionsith henobiles.191n Ravenna,at least, fonly amongthesub-noble lasses, raditionsf

governmentervicewere ontinuingnder heByzantines.192Intothis ociety,heLombards urstn568. Resistancewas nitiallylight,ndtheremay venhave been brief oneymooneriodwith heRomansunderAlboin.This wasbrutallyndedduring nd after hereign fClephwith,we are told, hemassacrendexpropriationfmany otentesnd nobiles.193o major clashbetweenbarbariansnd nativeRomans n theMediterranean orld an onlybe paralleledin Vandal Africa. here,however, oman culture, rovincial ouncils, enatorialranks nd administrativeoles urvived;194o some xtent,he amemayevenhavebeentrueof Lombardterritory.he character ftheadministration,he codific-ation fLombard aw,therapidurbanisationf hebarbarian ristocracy,ll attest

188Possibleothic enators: rigern,uluin; talianswithmilitaryxperience:iberius, onstan-tius,Cyprian; f. lso Var. X. 23. 3.

189Cf.. Brown, 33.190Cf.regoriusMagnus,Reg.Ep. {CCSL) IX. 47,53, 77,94-5: Theodorus, ir.mag.,maioropuli

andpatronusivitatis,usticusv.c, Domitiusvirmag., austus,virmag.vir lor.; ll thesenames areparalleledn thefifth/sixthenturyenate.

191f.above,n. 64. Gallicdonor nscriptionsendto shownobles nd clergy nly;cf.CIL XII.5336-7,AÉ 1928, ; appendix, . 186,toAvitus,d. R. Peiper MGH).

192Cf. . S. Brown,77; and note29f, senatorswho mayhave seen their uture s lying tRavenna'.

193Paulus,ist.Lang. I. 12,25-7,31-2.Auct. avn. xtrema,Chron. in. I.194Cf.. M. Clover n ExcavationstCarthage978VII, ed.J. H. HumphreyAnnArbor, 982),

12-22.



152 S.J. B. BARNISH

the ontinuingtrengthfRomanvalues ndinstitutionsnthenorth.195he region

produced sixth o seventh enturyopyof Cassiodorus' anegyricsf theroyalOstrogoths; nd the Lombard kingLiutprand 712-44) arguablyrevivedthetraditionsfTheoderic, nd transmittedhem o theCarolingians.196et,where lltheothermajorbarbariankingdoms ad made some ttemptoexact the and-taxonwhich heRoman order ested,heLombards ither ouldnot, r did notwantto.197We should, erhaps, all their ystemmediaeval ather hanpost-Roman.npartthisvitaldifference usthavebeen due to their olitical ivisions; ut was italso inkedwith heir ersecutionfthenobiles?198

Fornearly 0years fter heirnvasion,heLombardswere lmost ontinuallyat war with heByzantines,nd sometimes ith heFranks; rom 74 to584,theywerekingless,nd ruledbya largenumber f ndependentukes; he rchbishopf

Milanwas inpermanentxileat Genoa; and the northern atholic hurchesweredivided withinthemselves nd fromRome and Constantinople y the ThreeChapters chism. hese werenotfavourable onditionsor he ompromisesnd co-operation hathad takenplace betweenRomans and Franks rVisigothsn fifthcentury aul,evenunderEuric.Justinian ad resolutelyought iswaragainst heOstrogothsoutrance.his fiercepposition etween arbarians nd emperor'smenwas,perhaps, nother amnosaaerditas hichhebequeathed o theRomanworld.For thesurviving oman senators tmeant solation: ut off ypolitics rom heircousinsnRoman or Frankisherritory,ven,maybe, rom hosen rivaldukedoms,they ould do little okeepalive thetraditionsftheSenate.200

The Vandals, nd their ubjectswith hem, ad similarlyaced generationf

imperial ostility.his,however,was notquiteso steady African orn ontinuedto reach Rome fora long periodthrough reaty rrangements ith Aetius.201Moreover, ycomparisonwithGeiseric, he northern ombard rulerswere mallmen in a marginal erritory.hey could nothope to play his partin imperialdynastic olitics,202nd this nferiorityillhave weakenedthe sense of Romanidentitymong heirubjects.

Another ourceofdemoralisationmayhave been thevalues ofChristianity:distrustfbirth nd riches,worldlyuccess, hetoricalducation,nd theglories f

195Cf. ickham, 6-43,68 f., 6ff.; contrasthe outh,Wickham, 48ff.196Cf. E. A. Lowe, Codices atiniAntiquiores,o. 342; H. Lowe, VonCassiodor u Dante (Berlin,etc.,

1973),chap.

2, P. A. B.Llewellyn,

hePopes

and theConstitutionntheighth entury.',

HR 101(1986),42-67,55ff.197f.Wickham, 9 ff.

198Bothivisionsndpersecution ayhave beentheresult f heir ailure otax:centraluthority,andgoodrelations ith heRomans eemed ess mportantothem. utwedonotknowusthow oonandabsolutely on-taxationecametherule.

199On ombardfear fByzantines,f.J.Wallace-Hadrill, heBarbarianWest3London,1967),60 ff.: utnote hat heByzantines robablymade*nuch se ofLombardrebels ndmercenaries.

200On heroleofprovincialoncilianpreservingpper lassvalues, f.Sidonius, p. I. 6,VII. 4,Epistulaerelatensesenuinae(humanaonversado)fornformalontacts,f.his ettersassim,ndthoseofSymmachus,uricius, vitus, nnodius.

201Cf. . Zecchini,Aezio Rome, 1983), 180,Procop.,WarsII. iv. 13.202Gf.. Clover,GeisericndAttila',Historia2 (1973), 104-1 ,The Family ndEarlyCareer f

AniciusOlybrius',bid.27 (1978), 169-96.




Romeitself.203henthingswentwell,ornottoo ll,this ension ould be happily

ignored, s it was byPrudentius, idonius,Ennodius,Cassiodorus, rGregory fTours.ForGregorynd theGauls, ndeed, hetwo value systemseinforcedachother: hemore ristocraticsaint rbishop, hemore pectacular isrenunciation,whenhe humbled imselfs a conversus.204n a contextf mperial ailure,ppressionand barbariannvasion,atent onflictsame intotheopen.The senatemayhaveemergedittleweakened ytheVisigothicack of410,but the ameevent nspiredtheDe Civitateei, Ofall theologians,ugustine ad themostnfluencenthewest,not east n senatorial ircles.205is challenge o conventional oman patriotism,andhisdenialof necessarydentityfRomanitasithChristianityannothavegoneunheeded, ven n times fprosperity.y c.550,howmanypioussenators id itdeter romommittinghemselvesoa newordo enascendi?n these onditions,oo,

theold quarrelbetweenChristianitynd therhetoricalducationwhichwas socloselyinked ooffice,nfluencend senatorial aluesmayhave beensharpened,'qui nostriservistudiismox mpera orbi',Ennodiushad madeRhetoricayto hisstudentroteges; hile, s theRomanorder rumblednGaul,Sidonius adwrittento one teacheroforatory,nam iam remotis radibusdignitatum. . solumeritposthacnobiliatis ndiciumitteras osse'.206o PopeGregoryheGreat, hough,classicalculturewas, at best,thehandmaidof scripturalearning, nd bishopDesiderius fVienne,heirto thetradition fSidoniusand Ennodius,who gaveinstructionn t,wassavagely ondemned.207

However,we might ontrast rator, n hisescapefrom heshipwreckftheGothic ourt o the diaconateof theRomanChurch.He producedhis De Actibus

Aposiolorumn544, n war-time ome,recitingtnot nTrajan'sForum,butn the

church fS. PietronVincoli.A copywasdepositedn thepapal archives,nd theworkwas dedicatedto Pope Vigilusand to abbot Florianus.A thirddedicatee,though, asParthenius, agisterfficiorumndpatrician fTheodebert, horeceiveda poemcommemoratingisfamily onours nd his secular areer.He and Aratorhad readCaesarand thepaganpoetstogethert Ravenna; and, althoughAratornowcongratulatedimselfn hismovefrom rofane o sacred etters, e remem-bered heir tudieswithpride. ndeed,Vigilius, hat enatorial ope,washailedaschampionof 'publica libertas';while the lay nobility f Rome attendedtherecitationsf theDe Actibus,nd heard titles uch as 'thunderer' nd 'rulerofOlympus' iven oGod.208

203Cf. . S. Brown, 34f.,183, P. Wormald,JRS 66 (1976), 225f.204Cf. . Pietri, L'ordine senatorio n Gallia del 476 al finedel VI secolo.7,SocietàRomana Impero

Tardoantico, ed. A. Giardina (Rome-Bari, 1986), 307-23, 321 ff.205Cf. . Chadwick, BoethiusOxford, 1981), 175ff., 90-202, 248ff.,Pietri, Anstocratie et Societe

Clericale dans l'Italie Chrétienne au Temps d'Odoacre et de Theoderic', MÉFR 93 (1981), 416-67,442.

206Ennod. 452. 17, Sidonius, Ep. Vili. 3 (cf. Ennodius description (85.b, 94.8) ot Deuterius assustainer ruiturae libertatis'.) On fifth/sixthentury teaching of rhetoric n Gaul, cf. P. Riché, 'LaSurvivance des Écoles Publiques en Gaule au vc Siede', MoyenAge63 (1957), 420-36.

207Reg.Ep. XI. 34; cf.P. Riché, Education tCulture ans¿'Occident arbare Fans, iyb2), ly^-^UU,J.Richards, Consul fGod London, 1980), 27ff.

208De Actibus,d. A. McKinlay {CSEL 72), pp. XXVIII, 1-5, 150ÍF.Mathisen, TAPA 111, 102f.,identifies hisPartheniuswiththenephew ofEnnodius and pupil of Deuterius.



154 S.J. B. BARNISH

Even for ope Gregory,iftyearsater, lthough ome was nruins,ts enate

gone, ustly unished or tsvaingloryndimperial apacity,nd under he hadowof heDay ofJudgement,twasstill city omparablewith erusalemn tsfate,nditsPopewas still n obedient ervant fthe mperornd hisChristianaespublica.209And,northnLombardterritory,here hecontinuingdealofRome washardlypresent, few enatorial amiliesike hisownmayalso havebeenupholding heirclasstraditionsfnomenclature,ecular ervice,nd religious enerosity,lthoughthis amilys oursoleexample.

Albinusborn c.630)

I ILiceria nun) Senator = Theodelinda Burnenghus

(famulus ei) I (religiosa) (cousin fSenator)

Sindelindanun) Adelinda

In 714, Senator and Theodelinda,who had piouslyrefused o marry ff heirdaughter,stablished er n a convent tPavia,endowingt with heir ntire state,which ncluded heir arental ownhouseand coloniae.ome of theproperty adcome to them ex regiodono'. Their relativesBurnenghusnd Adelindawerefounders fchurches t Piacenza and Pavia.210 roperty cquired partly hroughinheritance,artly,wemaysurmise,hroughfficialervice,nd vanishing,longwith hefamily,hrough hristian,specially emale, evotion,s a very raditionalphenomenon.he town-houseonverted oa convent asplenty fparallelsn ate

antiqueRome.But thatone familyhouldwait until heeighth entury eforetfounderednreligionuggestshat hastityndcharityosedonly limitedhreatotheRomanupper lassas a whole.

For the namesusedin thiskindred ake us farbackin time.Albinus s wellrepresentedmong iftho sixth enturyenators. he Decianpatrician lbinuswhowas accusedof treasonunder Theodericwas a correspondentfEnnodius, ndshielded yBoethius,ndsowithnorthtalianconnections.211SenatorwasbishopofMilan n thefifthentury,ndperhaps fnoblebirth;nother ishop enatorwasa correspondentfEnnodius;212heremaybe a connectionwitha fifth o sixthcentury avian couple,Ennia Valeria and Campanianus,bearersofsenatorial-soundingnames, nd grandparentsfa Senator.213he name Senatormaybe a

familyne,but tsuse nthe eventhenturymayalsohave been meant oconveysomereminiscencefupper-class ank, t Roman or curial evel.The Liceriihadprobably eena leadingfiftho sixth entury amilyn Gaul and northerntaly,

209Cf. orn,nEzech. I. 6. 22f.,Reg.Ep. III. 61, XI, 29,Richards, 22-7;for heChristianasanctaRespublica,f.Reg. p. I. 73,V. 38,VI. 64, X. 68,XIII. 32, I. 47. Cf., lso,T. S. Brown, 45,156,176.

210L. chiaparelli, odice iplomaticoongobardo(Rome, 1929),no. 18withn. 3, p. 58f.As theconvent eems o havegotthewhole state, takeSindelinda ohave beenthe olesurvivinghild.

21lEnnod. 7-8,279 (cf.230); Boethius, . Ph. I, pr. v;Anonymusalesianus5ff.,bove,n.62.212Cf. LRE II, Senator ,Ennod.205,66.213Cf. . Bullough,Urban Change n EarlyMedieval Italy:theExampleofPavia', PBSR 34

(1966), 82-129, 93, on CIL V 6465; PLRE II, Campanianus1-4; T. S. Brown,255, Campana,Campanianus.




again inked ykinship ith nnodius.214hehouse f he eventhentury lbinus,

however, asalsoallied with familyfLombardnames, fnotofLombard tock.Senator'swife, gain,had a Lombardname,and theirdaughter ombined henomenclaturefbothparentsn a Germanic-soundingompound.215

In thesenatorial ociety fMerovingianGaul, a similar low oss of Romanidentityhroughntermarriagend confused omenclatureeemsprobable.216classic xample f his endencys thewillofbishopBertramfLe Mans.217iketheSenator onation,tseems o show familyfmixed tock, redominantlyoman,but increasinglyrankish,withpropertywed bothto inheritance nd to royalservice,ndbequeathed otheChurch. t dates,however, hundred ears arlier.Despitethe conventional icture,t seems, hen, t leastpossible hat ome northItaliannobles roved s resilients their allic kindred218.nd,whenwe recall hat

their ourth osixth enturyncestors ad proudly, houghmendaciouslyerivedtheir amilies rom heRepublic,the ife-spanf their lass identitys not to bedespised.219

S. J. B. BARNISH

214Cf. wyman,Historia 9, 484ff., LRE II, stemma 19. I suspectthe emperorGlycerius,nominee f heBurgundian undobad, o have beenconnectedwith heLicerii.

215On omano-Lombard omenclature,f.Wickham, 8f.216Cf.ames, 6f, 127f.217Pardessus,iplomata,o. 230.218t is possiblethat some Gallo-Romanfamilies etainedtheir mportance ven into the

Carolingianra; seeK. F. Werner,ImportantNobleFamilies n theTime ofCharlemagne',n TheMedieval obility,d.T. Reuter Amsterdam,tc.,1979),ch.6,esp. 153-60,183.

219Imust hank r.J.D. Harries or dviceonthis rticle,nd for eaveto citeherthesis.

barnish, transformation and survival in the western senatorial aristocracy, c. a. d. 400-700

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