THE UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MOUNTAINEERS w w w . u p m o u n t a i n e e r s . o r g . p h

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - BASIC MOUNTAINEERING COURSE No.3

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - LAND NAVIGATION The science and art of conducting yourself of your team to a specific destination, a required skill for all legitimate mountaineers and wilderness travelers. In the least, a compass and the appropriate map should be included in the essential item list for any team on a wilderness trip. The Compass It is simply a magnetized needle, free to swing in any direction contained in a sturdy housing. The needle settles down to point to the magnetic north. A) Types There are three types of compasses classified according to use. 1. Lensatic Compass - used by military and some outdoorsmen. It has a sight that can be used for accurate

sighting.

2. Brunton Compass - has a level bubble, a clinometer, and a precision needle. Used by geologists.

3. Silva-type Compass - Also called a protractor compass. It is simple, easy to use, and generally used by mountaineers.

*Luminous points - are located at strategic places; on the north end of the needle, at both sides of the orienting arrow, and at the directional arrow. These are useful in night trekking. B) Using a Compass There are several different system in using a compass. Most of them are too complex to be of practical value to the mountaineer. The system described here however, is the simplest available and has been successfully used in the field for many years. With it, everyone can learn to navigate in any terrain - dessert, mountain, forest - proficiently and confidently. 1. Setting a bearing - a bearing (direction on from point A - usually yourself - to another object at point B)

is of two kinds; True and Field. True bearings are taken from the map when you have laid out your course (explanation below). While Field bearings are taken through visual inspection of the area.

When using the compass to indicate direction in the field, two basic conditions must be met. These are;

a) First the dial must be set at the desired degree reading. If the degree or the direction is known, set the

dial to the index pointer. If the degree is unknown, then this must be obtained from visual inspection or through the use of map.

b) Second, without changing the dial setting, the whole compass must be positioned so that the orienting arrow “boxes in” the north end of the magnetic needle.

With a known bearing and after setting the dial, the second criterion can be accomplished by holding the compass waist high with the base plate being horizontally level. The directional arrow should be

pointing away from you and not towards your body. The directional arrow now acts as a pointer to where you ought to go. Turn yourself and the compass around together until the orienting arrow is lined up with the north end of the magnetic needle. The directional arrow is now pointing towards the desired direction.

2. Taking a bearing - To take the bearing of an object in the field, just reverse the procedure. Hold the

compass waist high with the directional arrow pointed towards the object. You may have to pivot your whole body to achieve this. Without changing the position of the compass, carefully turn the dial until the orienting arrow boxes in the north end of the magnetic needle. The bearing to the object is now the degree reading indicated towards the desired direction.

3. Back bearing - is used when you wish to return to your original position. Box in the south end of the

magnetic needle and proceed in the direction pointed by the directional arrow. C) Care of the Compass 1. Waterproofing - the compass is basically waterproof but do not leave it soaking in the water too long.

This erases the paint marks found at the scale and dial. 2. Metal Objects - beware of nearby iron and steel objects. They may deflect the needle if they are too close

to the compass. Keep those buckles, bolos, and metal whistles away. 3. Bubbles - a small bubble may sometimes form in the liquid but it has no influence on the accuracy of

the instrument. the appearance and the subsequent disappearance of the bubble is due to the changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure. Bubbles larger than 1/4 inch, however, are probably caused by a leaking compass housing and should be viewed with suspicion.

4. Heat - never place the compass in a hot place such as an exposed flat rock or leave it lying under the

sun. The expanding liquid may damage the compass housing. 5. Luminous Points - can be made more brilliant with the regular exposure to light. 6. Do not drop it - the compass is made from sturdy plastic but do not test its sturdiness by dropping it at

any height. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - THE MAP Definition: A planar representation of a land area, taken from an aerial point of view. There are different types of maps (road, political, relief, etc...). For the purposes of mountaineering, we will only discuss the Topographic Map. A Topographic Map shows the contour of the surface area, indicates elevation, bodies of water, trails, and roads. A) Parts of the Topographic map 1. Map Name - found at the central upper portion of the map. The map name is designated after the most

prominent feature on the map (usually the biggest town or city ). 2. Map Scale - found at the upper left-hand portion of the map. It is composed of the name of the island or

province where the area is located and the ratio of the map distance to the real distance. If the map scale says for the example; Luzon 1: 50,000 - this means that the area is located in the island of Luzon, and that one unit measured on the map translates to 50,000 units on real ground.

3. Sheet Number - maps are numbered in sequence with adjacent maps. When buying maps, this is the

information given to the seller.

4. Legend - a glossary of symbols found on the map. 5. Distance Scale - a linear measurement of distances on the map. this represents aerial distance, which

means, the distance if the whole place were flat. If it is in the mountainous or sloping area, you have to give leeway to get the exact distance, depending on the steepness of the slope; but the difference is usually minimal.

6. Magnetic Declination - shows the difference in degrees between the direction of the true north

(geographical north) and magnetic north. 7. Contour Interval Note - indicates the difference in elevation between two adjacent contour lines. 8. Index to Boundaries - this indicates the political boundaries present on the map. 9. Longitude, Latitude Designations - found at the four corners of the map. it indicates the exact angular

distance east or west of the earth’s surface ( longitude) and a region with reference of its distance north or south of the equator (latitude).

10. Contour Lines - are those brown squiggly lines which give us an idea of the contour of the land. A

single contour line connects point of the same elevation. Simply put, contour lines are the intersection between the earth’s surface and an imaginary horizontal plane set at a known elevation.

11. Colors of the Map - The map is very colorful but those colors weren’t place there to please the eyes.

Each color means something so that the geographical feature may be easily recognized. Brown- land feature ( contour lines) Blue- bodies of water ( lakes, streams ) Black-man-made structures ( buildings ) Green- vegetation Red- main roads 12. Grid Lines - These are the north- south lines and the east- west lines of the map. Each map is divided

into squares, the lines running north / south or east / west. Each line is numbered. The squares formed by lines are 1 square km. The term grid north applies to the direction from the bottom of the map to the top, along the north-south line.

13. Date of Map Survey - take note of the date of map survey when looking for existing trails, roads,

houses, and other landmarks. B) Using a Topographic Map 1. Determining Distance - is one of the uses of the map. To do this, you must first know the scale of the

map. The scale most often use for mountaineering is 1: 50,000 since it covers a lot of ground ( 26 kilometers across) but still gives detailed information on land features. Measure the distance from point A to point B with the side or the cord ( for zig-zag routes) of the compass, then gauge it against the distance scale found below the map. On a 1: 50,000 scale map, remember the following conversions; 20 mm on the map = 1 kilometer in real space 1 mm on the map = 50 meters in real space Memorize these simple figures so that you can use the millimeter scale on the compass for measurement instead of the distance scale on the map which is often tucked out of the way when the map is being used on the field.

2. Recognizing Landforms - is a feat accomplishment by deciphering the shape that the contour lines make. this requires a good imagination and the ability to translate a two dimentional image to 3-D and the skill to transform a set of contour lines into profiles. What is a profile? If a map is what you see from above, then a profile is what you would see from the side. It is a cross section of the earth. When you look at the mountain from afar, you are actually viewing its profile along an imaginary vertical plane cutting across its peak. How do you go about making a profile? Given the set of contour lines below, select a line AB, that you want to profile. Make a set of lines parallel to line AB below, the number of lines is equal to the number of contour lines. The line at the bottom is designated the lowest elevation and the line at the top is the highest elevation. After projecting the intersections of the contour lines and line AB to their respective elevation lines and connecting the projected intersections, you produce the profile of the mountain.

3. Steep or Gentle ? - is an often ask question. The rule is; if the contour lines are close to each other, it is a

steep slope. If the contour lines are far apart from each other, it is a gentle slope.

4. Going Up ? - check the elevation of contour lines. if it increases, you’re obviously going up. Another way is by using a stream ( indicated by a blue line ). The V-shape formed by the contour lines as they intersect the stream points upstream, hence going up. It is a proven fact that water flows from higher to lower elevations.

5. Peak / Summit - It is the X-spots within a small, eliptical contour line. It usually has the exact elevation

indicated beside it.

6. Ridge and Gully - mountaineers as much as possible trek on ridges ( the backbones of the mountain ) rather than the gullies. The reason is that gullies are actually waterways, and water always takes the easiest path downwards. Gullies contains sudden drops, waterfalls, and other steep land feature which is not actually the easiest path to take. Ridges on the other hand offer relatively gentler slopes. A ridge curves outwards, away from the peak. A gully curves inwards, towards the peak.

7. Cliff - is something avoided by trekkers but loved by rock climbers. This is the rare case in which

contour lines meet. 8. Depression - is indicated by special contour lines called depression. Causes of depression are emptied

lakes and volcanic craters.

9. Saddle - is an area between two adjacent peaks.

D) Care of the Map 1. Folding - always fold along the north- south and east- west grid lines. Keep folds to a minimum

because more folds mean more lines for wear to tear. 2. Waterproofing - you can buy a sheet of plastic and cover the map with it. You may also use a rubber

compound that waterproofs paper when applied. Another method is folding the map and placing it in a water proof pouch.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - USING THE MAP AND COMPASS A) Orienting the Map The first step the land navigator must always perform. Orienting the map simply mean aligning the grid north and geographical north. For our purposes, geographical north is the same as magnetic north. To do this: 1. Turn the compass dial units it reads 0-degrees ( n ) at the index pointer.

2. Align the left edge of the base plate to the leftmost north- south gridline of the map. 3. Without disturbing the relative of the map and compass, rotate the map until the orienting arrow “

boxes in ’’ the north end of the magnetic needle. The map now is properly oriented. B) How to get a bearing from the map 1. Orient the map. 2. Lay the compass on the map so that the long edge of the base plate is exactly on the line on the map that

you wish to travel. The directional arrow should point towards the direction of travel. 3. Rotate the dial until you “box in ’’ the needle. 4. The bearing is the number indicated at the index pointer. C) Triangulation / Locating where you are A common use for the compass is plotting a position on the map (usually indicating where you are ). To do this, you need to identify two prominent features on the map that you can see on the field. Two mountain peaks are usually used.

1. First, get the field bearing of the peak A and on an orienting map, plot the bearing making sure that the

lines goes through peak A. You are somewhere along this line. 2. Next, get the field bearing of peak B and plot it on the map, again making sure that the line goes

through peak B. 3. Your exact position on the map is the intersection of these two lines.

As with all other aspects of navigation, you should use your common sense here. For example, you are on a river and you have identified that river on the map. All you need is one field bearing of a prominent feature; you are where that line of bearing and the river intersect. Sometimes, a compass is not even needed if the navigator is good interpreter of contour lines. D) Route Finding This is a necessary step before going on any trip into the mountains or wilderness. It goes without saying that you usually take the easiest, though not necessarily the shortest, route to your destination but you should also incorporate possible water sources, scenic spots, and ideal campsites for the night when planning which route to take. The shortest distance between two points is a straight line. In mountaineering, the straight line isn’t necessarily the easiest. There are many qualities to a good route, and the fastest route sometimes misses the whole point and spirit of mountaineering. Route finding is not necessarily something you do once you get lost. It begins at home or at the pre-climb meeting. this involves getting familiar with the map and creating a picture in your mind of how the mountain will look like once you get there. Gentler slopes mean easier trekking. Keep river crossings to a minimum. If you are boxed in by steep slopes, try contouring - walking across the slope moving neither upward nor downward - until you reach a gentler slope.

The finished route will look like a broken line weaving its way from the jump - off point to the point of destination, most like a peak. You can now base your itinerary on the selected route. Note down the direction and distances so that you can periodically check if you’re following the correct trail. Terrain - The mountain environment rarely presents clear vistas where one can have a pick of prominent features to take bearings on. Maximize sighting opportunities and plan the route ahead before you start the next trek . Try to create immediate objectives, break down the whole route , and plan accordingly. Take note of changes in the slope. In heavily forested areas specially at mid-altitude, changes in terrain can be abrupt. Don’t be deceived and stick to your plan. It is important to relate the map to your position so try to

get a good view of the surroundings from time to time. This, of course, is not always possible unless you are planning a new route up the grasslands of Maculot. Tree Climbing - One of the most obvious and practical remedies is to practice your climbing skills on a tree. No need for protection systems and belays here but take extra care in choosing your tree. Its height should be at par with the surrounding vegetation. Most healthy trees at mid-altitude are quite sturdy and can easily support a few members of the party. On sharper slopes check the root system. And check to see if ever an act of god strikes the tree down, the fall you would take would not result in your untimely demise. Wind, rain, the works - One thing is sure when climbing tropical forest: you will almost always be wet. Either from the precipitation of your perspiration. There are many types of rain. There is the shower type of rain that persist until if finds hole in the seams of your raingear. Map reading in this type of rain is possible if a provisional shelter for reading the map can be found. Even then it can be tricky. The howling type of rain is the nemesis. In these instances either finding a rock shelter or setting up the tent are probably the most acceptable solutions if the succeeding attempts at route finding seem fiendish and foolhardy. The key is planning the route way in advance, taking advantage of good breaks in the weather. Plan with the group every evening and set achievable targets and probable scenarios for the following day. Have the wisdom to know when to stop and accept Natures superiority. If howling rain strikes the team on an exploratory climb, assess the best place to stop. Setting up camp amongst the shelter of trees is desirable but check for falling branches. In the evening, check everybody’s asses to see who has the birthmark. In low visibility situations, be very careful when marching on. If the route plan has been made and the general bearing and features to follow have been determined, create immediate objectives to achieve some distance, if you really must. Sometimes it is best to slightly offset specially if the objective is a very prominent feature, like a ridge for instance. Lost? Assessing the situation - The first thing is to STOP. Are you really lost? Or has the vegetation has changed? When you started the trek you knew exactly where you were, ditto for most of the route until the present predicament. A good navigator never really gets lost. Assess the state of the team. Is anyone injured? Everybody in good spirits? Anybody in danger in missing an important dinner date on Monday? Is everyone together? A group has a very good chance of rectifying the situation. It is the lone mountaineer separated from the group that’s in deep shit, for obvious reasons. Following the trail - Discuss the last known position and backtrack if time and weather will allow it. work your way from there, always coming back to the known spot if the going gets rough. If you are alone and not sure where you are, mark your position and keep coming back to it if you can’t seem to find the right trail. It would be easier to find you that way. Bivouac - A highly taxed and stressed team hours away from a known position would be better off bivouac than trashing about getting more disoriented by the minute. If provisions and shelter are adequate, there is no reason to get distressed. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ORIENTEERING It is defined as a game utilizing land navigation skills, stamina, and speed. There are two basic types of orienteering courses. A) Course Orienteering This is a footrace where the participant should pass through several stations called control points (CP) in a predetermined sequence. At the starting point, the participants are given a compass and sometimes a map on which he / she may plot the course to be followed. The participant is then given the bearing the distance to CP # 1 - the first station. Upon reaching CP # 1, the participant is given a code to write down ( as to verify his / her reaching the station) and the bearing the distance to the next CP. This is repeated until the final CP,

which is also the starting point, is reached. The person who completes the entire course with the least error and in the shortest time wins.

Sometimes, a description of the CP is given with the bearing and direction. CP’s are marked by a red and white orienteering flag. B) Point Orienteering The bearings and distances to all control points are given at the starting point and the participant then plots these on the given map. The participant then make his own route, passing by as many CP’s as possible. CP’s far away from the starting point are worth more points than the nearby CP’s. Exercises A) Following a Bearing When orienteering, try to travel in the exact direction of your bearing. If you take one stride to the left during the course of your travel, you will end up one step to the left of your control point. If you deviated far enough, you will miss the CP completely. Since you cannot keep your eyes constantly of your compass make sure you were following the correct heading, it is better to select landmarks ( a tall tree, bush, etc... ) which lie along the bearing you are following. Upon reaching that landmark, select another prominent landmark along your bearing until you reach the CP. Don’t forget to count your strides. If an obstacle (gully, thick vegetation, structures, etc…) blocks your path, you can go around it, but remember two things; (1) First, compensate for your deviation - if you took about 20 strides to the right of your bearing, you must take another 20 spaces to the left once you have cleared the obstacle. An alternative is to (2) Compensate for your circuitous route by subtracting the number of strides you actually took. The same principle applies to mountaineering. If you follow a trail that goes to the right of your bearing, you must move back towards the left as to compensate for the deviation. B) Compass Bearing You need a compass and a coin for this activity. Stand in an open area (a parking lot will do) and place the coin between your feet. Pick an arbitrary bearing, for example - 20- degrees. Walk 15 paces towards that direction, then stop. Add 120-degrees to your initial bearing; in this case the result is 140-degrees, then walk another 15 paces. At the end of this distance, add-120 degrees again to the previous bearing ; resulting to 260-degrees. Walk another 15 paces and at the end of that distance, the coin should be at your feet again. C) Fit the Map to the Terrain The biggest mistake of map readers is looking at the map, assuming that they are in a certain place, and then looking around for landmarks that will confirm that they are indeed in that assumed location. This mistake is called “fitting the terrain to the map”. This is doing things backwards. To avoid this pitfall, don’t open the map right away. Begin by checking your location; are you in a place where you can see your terrain in several directions? Move a little way off your route if necessary; get away from trees and other obstacles that can obstruct your vision. Then look at the mountains, streams, ridges, and other geographical features to get a sense of how their positions relate to one another. Imagine how would they look on a topographic map. Once you have an idea of how the area will appear, you can then fit the map to the terrain, and not the other way around.

This is not a play of words. If you look at the map first, you establish certain features you intend to locate at the terrain, and with that preconceived notion, you’ll probably find things that fit and overlook more important features that don’t. SOURCES (c/o the UP Mountaineers) Foster, Lynn. Mountaineering Basics [ California : Avant Books, 1983 ]. McNeish, Cameron. The Backpackers Manual [ New York : Random House Inc.., 1986 ]