basics of mechanical engg - ktu notes
TRANSCRIPT
MODULE VI
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MACHINE TOOLS
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MACHINE TOOL
A machine, which performs the material removal operations with tools, to produce desired shape and size of the work-piece is known as machine tool
Types of Machine Tools
1. Lathe
2. Shaping machine
3. Drilling machine
4. Milling machine
5. Grinding machine
6. Slotting machine
7. Planer machine
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Types of Machine Tools
Lathe
Shaping Machine
Drilling Machine
Milling Machine Grinding
Machine
Slotting Machine
Planer Machine
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Tools Used
• Single Point Cutting Tool: One cutting edge(used in lathe)
• Multipoint Cutting Tool: Number of teeth or cutting edges on the periphery
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SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL
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MULTIPOINT CUTTING TOOL
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LATHE
It is a general purpose machine tool , which removes excess material from the work piece, in the form of chips, by
rotating the work piece against a single point cutting tool
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Principle of working
• Hold the work piece and to rotate it about an axis
• Cutting toll is fed either parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the work piece removes material from the rotating work to give the required size and shape
• Tool is moved parallel to the axis of rotation of the work piece gives a cylindrical surface
• Tool is moved perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work piece gives a flat surface
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Principal Parts of a Lathe
1) Bed
• Base foundation of the lathe
• Headstock, tailstock, carriage…etc are mounted on the bed
• Provides strength & rigidity to the machine
• Top of the bed is provided with guides or ways for carriage
& tailstock
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2) Headstock
• Permanently mounted on the bed at the left end
• Spindle is supported in headstock, spindle is a hollow cylindrical shaft supported by bearings
• Work holding devices such as face plate, driving plate or chucks may be mounted on the spindle nose
• Headstock has a gear box for changing the speed of rotation of spindle and thereby the speed of rotation of work piece
• Spindle is driven by a motor
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FOUR JAW CHUCK
THREE JAW CHUCK
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3) Tailstock
• It is mounted on the bed at the right end and can be
clamped at any convenient position
• It supports one end of the work piece
• It is also used for holding a tool for performing operations
such as drilling, reaming…etc
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4) Carriage
• Carriage consists of several parts that serves to support the cutting tool and to control the action of the cutting tool
• It can be moved along the bed ways provided at the top of the bed
Carriage has 5 major parts
a) Saddle: base of the carriage. It slides along the guide ways
b) Cross slide: mounted on saddle. It is used to move the tool towards and away perpendicular to centre line of lathe
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c) Compound rest: mounted on the top of cross slide. Tool post is fixed on the compound rest. Compound rest can be rotated about the saddle, which makes positioning of cutting tool at the desired angle
d) Tool post: mounted on compound rest. Cutting tool can be firmly held on it.
e) Apron: it is fixed below the saddle. It contains gears and levers for manual and automatic motion of carriage. For manual motion of carriage along the bed, there is a hand wheel in front of the apron. Automatic motion of carriage is made possible by engaging hand wheel shaft of apron with the lead screw(for thread cutting operation).
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TOOL POST
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COMPOUND REST
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5) Lathe Centres
• Lathe centres are tapered components fit into spindles
provided in the headstock and tailstock
• Centre connected to the headstock is called live
centre(rotates with the spindle)
• Centre connected to the tailstock is called dead
centre(does not rotate, only support the work piece)
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6) Feed Mechanism
Movement of tool relative to the work piece is termed as feed
3 Types of Feed
a) Longitudinal feed: tool is moved parallel to the axis of rotation of work piece
b) Cross feed: tool is moved perpendicular to the axis of rotation of work piece
c) Angular feed: tool is moved at an angle to the axis of rotation of work piece
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Specification of Lathe
Length of bed
Height of live and dead centers
Maximum distance between centers
Range of spindle speed
Power rating of electric motor
Diameter of lead screw and the number and range of threads
that can be cut
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Operations Performed on a
Lathe Turning
Taper Turning
Thread Cutting
Knurling Drilling
Boring
Reaming
Facing
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Operations Performed on a Lathe
• Lathe centres are used for holding the work piece during turning operation
• Chuck is also used for holding and rotating a workpiece. Chucks are of two types three jaw chuck and four jaw chuck
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a) Facing
• Operation of machining the ends of a work piece to obtain
flat surface
• Moving the cutting tool at right angles to the axis of rotation of the rotating work piece
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b) Turning
• Removal of material from the periphery of a work piece to
obtain a cylindrical surface
• Cutting tool fed parallel to the axis of rotation of the work piece, removes material from the rotating work piece
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c) Taper Turning
Producing a conical surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical work piece
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Taper Turning - Three methods are used
i) Forming tool method: forming tool is used
ii) Tailstock set over method: shift the axis of rotation of the work piece at an angle to the lathe axis and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis
iii) Compound rest method: rotate the work piece on the lathe axis and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the work piece. Tool is mounted on the compound rest, has a circular base graduated in degrees
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Compound rest method
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Tailstock set over method
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d) Thread Cutting
• lead screw is used for the movement of tool
• Lead screw is driven by a set of gears from spindle
• Saddle receives its motion from lead screw
• For each turn of the screw, saddle moves along the bed a
distance equal to the pitch of the lead screw. Tool is held in
the tool post also moves the same distance
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e) Knurling
• Process of roughening a smooth surface of a cylindrical
work piece
• Purpose of knurling is to get grip over the surface
• Knurling tool is pressed against the revolving workpiece and is traversed along the length to be knurled
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KNURLING TOOL
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f) Drilling
• Operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a work piece
• Workpiece is held in the chuck and the drill is held in the tailstock
• Drilling is accomplished on a lathe by feeding the stationary drill into the rotating workpiece
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DRILL BIT
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g) Boring
• Enlarging an already existing hole
• A single point cutting tool is traversed through the hole and parallel to the axis of rotation removes metal and thus increases the diameter of the hole
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BORING TOOL
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h) Reaming
• Operation of finishing and sizing an already existing hole
• The tool used is called the reamer, which has multiple cutting edges
• Workpiece is rotated at a very slow speed and a fine feeding is given to the reamer
• Reamer cannot produce a hole in a solid job. It can accurately size and finish the already drilled holes
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SHAPING MACHINE
• It is used for the production of flat surfaces(horizontal,
vertical or inclined)
• It uses a single point cutting tool
• Tool reciprocates over the work
• It is also used for cutting external and internal slots,
grooves and keyways
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Working Principle
• Work is held in a vice fastened to the work table and the tool moves forward and backward over the work
• Material is cut when the single point cutting tool is moving in the forward direction(cutting stroke)
• No material cut takes place during the return stroke(idle stroke)
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• Horizontal feed is given by moving the table horizontally
• Depth of cut is given by moving the tool vertically
• Forward and return strokes of the tool is obtained by a quick return mechanism, time for return stroke is half of that for forward stroke
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Principal Parts of a Shaper
1) Base
It supports the whole machine and is rigidly bolted to the floor
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2) Column
• It is mounted on the base
• Top of the column is machined to form guide ways for ram reciprocation
• Front vertical face of the column is also machined to enable the table to be raised or lowered
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3) Ram
• It is the reciprocating part of the shaper
• It reciprocates on the guide ways provided on the top of the column
• It carries the tool head at the front end
• Ram is connected to a quick return mechanism which allow the ram to move at a slower speed during the cutting stroke and at a faster speed during the return stroke
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4) Tool Head
• Mounted at the front of the ram
• It can be swivelled to any angle to enable the tool to take angular cuts
• Vertical feed to the tool is given by the vertical tool feed screw
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TOOL HEAD
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5) Table
• Vice is clamped on the table
• Vice is a device to hold work on the table of the shaper
• Elevating screw for vertical movement
• Cross feed screw for horizontal movement
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Operations Performed On
A Shaper
Horizontal Shaping
Vertical Shaping
Angular Shaping
Machining Irregular Surfaces
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Operations Performed on a Shaper
a) Horizontal Shaping
• Workpiece is fed in horizontal direction under the reciprocating tool
• Depth of cut required is given by lowering the tool post using a handle
• The tool, as it moves forward removes material from the work in the form of chips
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b) Vertical Shaping
• Shaping vertical surface on the workpiece
• It is used to cut grooves, keyways…etc on vertical face
• Vertical slide is set at zero position and the apron is swivelled by an angle in a direction away from the surface to be machined
• Tool is fed downwards by operating the downfeed screw of the tool head
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c) Angular Shaping
• Vertical slide of the tool head is swivelled to the required
angle from the vertical position
• Apron is then further swivelled away from the work
• Down feed is given by rotating the downfeed screw
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d) Machining Irregular Surface
Forming tool is used for small irregular surface
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SLOTTING MACHINE
• Vertical shaping machine
• Single point cutting tool reciprocates vertically
• Ram holding the tool moves in a vertical axis
• Work piece is mounted on the table, is given longitudinal,
cross and rotary feed
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Principal Parts of a Slotter
1) Base(bed)
• Acts as a support for column, driving mechanism, table and all other fittings
• Top of the bed is provided by guide ways on which saddle is mounted. These guide ways are perpendicular to the column face
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2) Column
• Vertical member which houses the driving mechanism
• Front vertical face of the column is accurately finished for
providing ways on which the ram reciprocates
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3) Saddle
• It is mounted on the guide ways of base and may be moved
toward or away from the column
• Top face of the saddle is accurately finished to provide guide
ways for the cross-slide. These guide ways are perpendicular
to the guide ways on the base
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4) Cross Slide
Mounted upon the guide ways of the saddle and maybe moved
parallel to the face of the column to supply cross-feed
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5) Rotary Table
• Mounted on the top of the cross slide
• Table may be rotated manually or by automatic means
• Rotary table enables a circular or contoured surface to be
generated on the work piece
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6) Ram
• Moves in vertical direction between the vertical guide-
ways provided in front of the column
• Ram supports the tool head to which the tool is attached
• Cutting action takes place during the downward
movement of the ram
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Slotting machine is used for
• Cutting grooves
• Key ways
• Rectangular grooves
• Slots of various shapes
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PLANER MACHINE
• Used for producing flat surfaces in different planes
• Work piece moves to and fro against the stationary single point cutting tool
• Planer machine is used for machining very large work pieces which cannot be machine in a shaping machine
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Principal Parts of a Planer Machine
1) Bed
• Supports the column and all other moving parts
• Table slides over the bed through precision ways
• Driving mechanism for the table is provided in hollow
space of bed
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2) Table
• It reciprocates along the ways of the bed and supports
the work
• Top surface of the table is provided with slots to clamp
the work piece
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3) Housing/Column
• Vertical structures placed on each side of the bed
• Front vertical surface of the column has guide-ways to
enable movement of the cross rail vertically up and down
• Cross rail slides up and down on the housing
• Tool head is placed on the cross rail
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4) Cross Rail
• Mounted on the machined ways of the two housings
• It may be raised or lowered on the housings to
accommodate work of different heights on the table and
to allow for the adjustment of the tools
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5) Tool Head
• Mounted on the cross rail by a saddle
• Saddle is used to give cross feed
• Tool head fed in crosswise or vertical direction
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Shaping Machine Planer Machine
Tool moves and work is stationary
Work moves and tool is stationary
Suitable for small size machining
Suitable for large size
Tools used are lighter and smaller
Tools used are larger, heavier and stronger
One cutting tool can be used More tools can be used
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DRILLING MACHINE
• Operation of making holes in a work piece by forcing a rotating tool called drill against it
• Drill – a multi point cutting tool
• Drill is a cylindrical bar with helical grooves cut or formed in
the body of the drill to provide cutting edges and permit
removal of chips and allow the cutting fluid to reach the
cutting edges
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Principal Parts of a Drilling Machine
1) Base
Rectangular casting on which the column is mounted
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2) Column
• Vertical member of the machine which supports a table
• Head supporting the motor and spindle is mounted on
the top of the column
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3) Table
• Supports the work piece or other work holding device.
• It can be moved up and down on the column
• It can be set in various positions in the horizontal plane
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4) Drill Head
• Mounted on the top of the column and supports the spindle head and motor
• Spindle head houses drill holding and rotating devices
• Hand wheel is provided for upward and downward movement of the spindle
• Drill chuck is mounted in the spindle for holding the drill
• Spindle receives power from the motor through belt and pulley system
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DRILL CHUCK & KEY
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DRILL BIT
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Operations Performed On A Drilling Machine
Drilling
Reaming
Boring
Counter Boring Counter
Sinking
Spot Facing
Taping
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Operations Performed on a Drilling Machine
a) Drilling
• Operation of producing a circular hole using a drill by removing metal from the work piece
• Drill bit is a multi point cutting tool
• It cuts by applying pressure and rotation of the drill , forms chips at the cutting edge
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b) Reaming
• Operation of finishing and sizing an already existing hole
• The tool use is called the reamer, which has multiple
cutting edges
• This operation removes a very small amount of metal
from the drilled hole
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REAMER
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c) Boring
• Enlarging an already existing hole by means of an
adjustable single point tool
• Single point tool traversed through the hole and parallel
to the axis of the rotation removes metal and thus
increases the diameter of the hole
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BORING TOOL
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d) Counter Boring
Operation of increasing the diameter of a hole for a certain distance down
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COUNTER BORING TOOL
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e) Counter Sinking
Operation by which a cone shaped enlargement is made at the end of a hole
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COUNTER SINKING TOOL
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f) Spot Facing
• Operation of smoothening and squaring the surface
around a hole drilled in a rough surface
• It provides a flat seating for nut and washer
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SPOT FACING TOOL
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g) Taping
• Operation of cutting internal threads in a drilled hole by
means of a tool called tap
• Tap cuts a thread on the inside surface of a hole
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MILLING MACHINE
• Process of removal of metal by feeding the work piece against rotating multi-point cutter
• As the cutter rotates, each cutting edge removes small amount of material from the work piece
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MILLING CUTTER
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Principle Of Operation
• Based on the direction of the cutter motion and work piece feed, milling can be classified into two
• Conventional milling or Up milling
• Climb milling or Down milling
• Based on spindle position milling can be classified into two
• Horizontal milling machine
• Vertical milling machine
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Conventional Milling or Up Milling
• Work piece is fed in the opposite direction of that of the
rotating cutter
• Chip thickness varies from minimum at the start of cut to a
maximum at the end of cut
• Load on each cutting edge is gradually increased
• Cutter tends to lift the work piece from the table
• Poor surface finish
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Climb Milling or Down Milling
• Work piece is fed in the same direction of that of the
rotating cutter
• Chip thickness varies from a maximum at the start of cut to a
minimum at the end of cut
• Cutter forcing the work piece towards the table
• Down milling produce higher surface finish, because the
cutting pressure keeps the work piece firmly pressed against
the table
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Horizontal Milling Machine
Spindle axis is kept horizontal
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Principal Parts
1) Base
• Foundation for all other parts of the milling machine
• Gives the machine the required strength and rigidity
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2) Column
• Main supporting frame mounted vertically on the base
• Front face of the column has vertical guide ways
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3) Knee
• Slides up and down on the vertical guide ways of the column
• It has horizontal guide ways on its top surface
• It supports saddle and table
• Elevating screw for adjusting the height of the knee
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4) Saddle
• It supports and carries the table
• It is adjustable on guide ways on the top of the knee
• Horizontal movement
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5) Table
• It rests on guide ways on the saddle
• It can be moved longitudinally, perpendicular to the
motion of saddle
• It supports the work piece
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6) Elevating Screw
• Height of the knee is adjusted by elevating screw
• It also supports the knee
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7) Spindle
• It obtains power from the motor and transmits it to an arbor
• Spindle has a tapered socket for inserting the arbor
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8) Overarm
• Mounted on the top of the column
• Overarm support provided at the free end of overarm can be
moved horizontally on the guide ways provided at the bottom
surface of the overarm
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9) Arbor
• Rod on which cutter is mounted
• It is tapered at one end to fit into the spindle
• Other end of the arbor is mounted in a bearing provided in
the overarm support
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Vertical Milling Machine
Spindle axis is kept vertical
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Principal parts
1) Base
• Foundation for all other parts of the milling machine
• Gives the machine the required strength and rigidity
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2) Column
• Main supporting frame mounted vertically on the base
• Front face of the column has vertical guide ways
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3) Knee
• Slides up and down on the vertical guide ways of the column
• It has horizontal guide ways on its top surface
• It supports saddle and table
• Elevating screw for adjusting the height of the knee
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4) Saddle
• It supports and carries the table
• It is adjustable on guide ways on the top of the knee
• Horizontal movement
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5) Table
• It rests on guide ways on the saddle
• It can be moved longitudinally, perpendicular to the
motion of saddle
• It supports the work piece
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7) Spindle Head
• It is mounted on the top of the column
• It has a swivel base and hence the spindle head can be
swiveled at an angle for machining angular surfaces
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9) Arbor
• Rod on which cutter is mounted
• It is tapered at one end to fit into the spindle
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Milling operations
Slab or plain
milling
Face milling
Side milling
End milling
T-slot milling
Angular milling
Form milling
Gear cutting
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Milling Operations
a) Slab or Plain Milling
• Production of flat surfaces with the milling cutter axis parallel to the surface being milled
• Flat surfaces may be milled with a plain milling cutter mounted on the arbor
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PLAIN MILLING CUTTER
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b) Face Milling
• Flat surface perpendicular to the axis of cutter is produced
• Cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation perpendicular to the work piece surface
• Face milling cutter is used
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FACE MILLING CUTTER
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c) Side Milling
• Flat vertical face is produced at the side of a work piece
• Side milling cutter is used
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SIDE MILLING CUTTER
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d) End Milling
• Cutter generally rotates on an axis vertical to the work piece
• End milling cutter has cutting edges on the periphery of a shank, these cutters are the most common tool used in a vertical milling
• It is used for producing slots, grooves, keyways etc
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END MILLING CUTTER
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END MILLING CUTTER
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e) T-slot Milling
• T-slot cutter is used
• First of all a plain slot is cut on the work piece using an end milling cutter. Then the T-slot cutter is fed from one end of the work piece
• Neck portion of the cutter passes through the already milled plain slot
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T –SLOT CUTTER
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f) Angular Milling
• Process in which angular surface are produced on a work piece
• Angle milling cutter is used
• Usual angle of the cutter is 45⁰, 50⁰, 55⁰ or 60⁰
• Eg. Milling dovetails
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ANGLE MILLING CUTTER
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g) Form Milling
• Process by which profiles on the work piece are produced
• Form milling cutter is used
• Shape of form milling cutter corresponds to the profile of the surface to be produced
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FORM MILLING CUTTER
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h) Gear Cutting
• Process by which gears are produced using gear cutters
• Profile of the cutter corresponds to the tooth space of the gear
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GEAR CUTTER
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Specification of Milling Machine
• The dimension of table
• Maximum length of vertical and horizontal movement of knee and saddle
• Number of different speeds of spindle
• Power of electric motor
• Floor space required
• Net weight
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Grinding Machine
Process of metal removal in which the cutting tool used is an abrasive wheel
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Purpose for grinding
Remove small amount of metal from the work piece to bring its dimension within very close tolerance of the size desired
Obtain better finish on the surface
Sharpen the cutting tool
Machine hard surfaces which are otherwise difficult to be machined by other means
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Grinding Wheels
• These are made of abrasive particles bonded together by some suitable bond
• Natural abrasive particles: sand stone, emery, diamond…etc
• Artificial abrasive particles: silicone carbide, aluminium oxide and boron
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GRINDING WHEEL
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DIAMOND GRINDING WHEEL
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Types Of Grinding
Cylindrical Grinding
Surface Grinding
Form Grinding
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Types of Grinding
1) Cylindrical Grinding
• Produces cylindrical surface on a work piece
• Work piece is rotated about its axis and is traversed across the face of a rotating abrasive wheel
• Both tool and work piece are rotated by separate motors and at different speeds
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2) Surface Grinding
• It produces flat surfaces
• Grinding wheel can be fed downward in very small increments into a work piece, which is moved to the left and the right and in and out
• Work is traversed under the revolving grinding wheel
• This allows the wheel to contact all areas of the surface of the work piece
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3) Form Grinding
• Produces formed surfaces on a revolving cylindrical work piece
• Grinding wheel has the exact shape of the final product
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FORM GRINDING TOOL
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Types of grinding
machines
Cylindrical grinding machine
Surface grinding machine
Tool and cutter grinding machine
Internal grinding machine
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1. Surface Grinding Machine
• Produce finish and flat surface
• It consists of a base, table, column and wheel head
• Spindle is horizontal
• Wheel head can be raised or lowered with the grinding
wheel
• Table can be moved along the ways
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2. Cylindrical Grinding Machine
Two types
• Centre Type Grinding Machine
• Centreless Type Grinding Machine
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a) Centre Type Grinding Machine
• It consists of a bed, wheel head, headstock and a tailstock
• Work piece is supported in between the centres
• Wheel head is located back of the headstock and tailstock
• Grinding wheel is driven by a motor
• Table on which the headstock and tailstock are mounted can
be moved to and fro in the bed guide ways
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b) Centreless Type Grinding Machine
• Work is supported and fed to the grinding wheel on a knife edge support
• It consists of a bed, wheel head, regulating wheel and a work rest blade
• Work is supported on the work rest and is backed up by regulating wheel
• Regulating wheel controls the speed of rotation of the work piece and also the rate of feeding of the work piece past the grinding wheel
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3. Tool and Cutter Grinding Machines
• Used for sharpening of tools and cutter
• These machines hold the cutter while a rotating abrasive wheel is applied to the edges for the purpose of sharpening it
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Automation
• Automatically controlled operation of an apparatus, process, or system by mechanical or electronic devices that take the place of human organs of observation, effort and decision
Types of automation
• Numerically controlled(NC) equipment
• Computer numerical control(CNC)
• Direct numerical control(DNC)
• Computer-Aided manufacturing(CAM)
• Computer integrated manufacturing(CIM)
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NUMERICAL CONTROL
• Control of a machine tool by means of recorded information on punched tape or cards
• It is a method of automation in which various functions of machine tools are controlled by letters, numbers and symbols
• System automatically interprets these data and converts them to output signals, which, in turn control various machine components
• Functions carried out by an operator in a conventional machine are translated into instructions that can be understood by a MACHINE CONTROL UNIT(MCU).
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• The MCU translates it into electrical signals. These signals operate a servo system which controls the motion of tool, work piece and the related auxiliaries
It consists of 3 basic components
• Program of instructions
• Machine Control Unit(MCU)
• Processing equipment
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• Program of instructions: detailed step by step commands that directs the actions of the processing equipment. Co-ordinate information(x, y and z movements required for work and tool) regarding the component is recorded on a tape and is fed to the control unit
• MCU: it consists of tape reader, data buffer, signal output channels, sequence control and related control hardware that stores the program of instruction. Control unit convert the commands into electric signals and these signals are sent to processing equipment(machine tool)
• Processing equipment: performs useful work with the help of a servo system
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• Feed back transducer is provided to check the positions achieved and to send signals to the control unit for position correction
In NC machine tools one or more of the following functions may be automatic
• Starting and stopping of machine tool spindle
• Controlling the spindle speed
• Controlling the rate of movement of the tool tip(feed rate)
• Changing of tools in the spindle
• Positioning the tool tip at desired locations and guiding it along desired paths
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Advantages
• Greater accuracy
• Lower scrap rates
• More – complex part geometries are possible
• Less floor space is required
• Operator skill level requirements are less
• Higher production rate
Disadvantages
• Higher investment cost
• Higher maintenance effort
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CNC MACHINES
• A computer is used to prepare and control the operations of the machine tool
• CNC refers to a computer that is joined to the NC machine
• The program is entered into the computer through a keyboard or disc or tape and stored in its memory
• Whenever the part is to be machined, the program is called from its memory
• Also, if it is required to have a change in any dimension, the program can be called and edited to incorporate the changes(not possible in a NC machine). This eliminates the repeated use of tape
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Advantages
• High accuracy in machining
• Storage of more than one program
• Program can be edited
• Short production time
• Greater manufacturing flexibility
• Better quality control
• Repeatability of accuracy is possible
Disadvantages
• High cost
• Requirement of skilled programmer
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CNC LATHE MACHINE
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CNC MILLING MACHINE
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DNC
• In Direct Numerical Control(DNC) system, a number of machine tools are controlled by a single computer
• The program was transmitted to the MCU directly from the computer, one block of instructions at a time
• Central computer also received data back from the machines
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