bauxite and aluminum: a cradle to grave analysis by greg zelder and sebastian africano race,...

Bauxite and Aluminum: Bauxite and Aluminum: A Cradle to Grave AnalysisA Cradle to Grave Analysis

By Greg Zelder and Sebastian AfricanoBy Greg Zelder and Sebastian AfricanoRace, Poverty, and the EnvironmentRace, Poverty, and the EnvironmentProfessor Raquel R. PinderhughesProfessor Raquel R. Pinderhughes

Urban Studies ProgramUrban Studies ProgramSan Francisco State UniversitySan Francisco State University

Spring, 2003Spring, 2003

Public has permission to use the material herein, but only if author, course, university, and Public has permission to use the material herein, but only if author, course, university, and professor are citedprofessor are cited

This presentation focuses on the extraction and This presentation focuses on the extraction and refinement of Bauxite, followed by the refinement of Bauxite, followed by the production, consumption, and disposal of production, consumption, and disposal of Aluminum. Aluminum.

It is designed to enhance the readers’ It is designed to enhance the readers’ awareness of the realities behind aluminum awareness of the realities behind aluminum consumption by examining the effects of its consumption by examining the effects of its production on the people and environment of the production on the people and environment of the planet. It takes you through the cradle to grave planet. It takes you through the cradle to grave lifecycle of aluminum, paying particular attention lifecycle of aluminum, paying particular attention to the social, environmental, and public health to the social, environmental, and public health impacts of the processes associated with impacts of the processes associated with producing it. producing it.

Contents, Part I, slides 4 - 47Contents, Part I, slides 4 - 47

GeologyGeologyHistory of Bauxite UseHistory of Bauxite UseSocial Impacts of Bauxite MiningSocial Impacts of Bauxite MiningCase StudiesCase Studies– IndiaIndia– HaitiHaiti

General Impacts of Bauxite MiningGeneral Impacts of Bauxite MiningEnvironmental Impacts of Bauxite MiningEnvironmental Impacts of Bauxite Mining

Contents Part II, slides 48 - 85Contents Part II, slides 48 - 85

Distribution of BauxiteDistribution of BauxiteAluminum Smelting Inputs & ProcessesAluminum Smelting Inputs & Processes– Spent Pot Lining (SPL)Spent Pot Lining (SPL)

Energy and Resource Use in Al SmeltingEnergy and Resource Use in Al SmeltingAluminum Smelter EmissionsAluminum Smelter Emissions– Exposure to FluoridesExposure to Fluorides– Exposure to AluminumExposure to Aluminum

Aluminum in Food and WaterAluminum in Food and WaterAluminum in MedicineAluminum in MedicineFrom aluminum Metals to Consumer ProductsFrom aluminum Metals to Consumer ProductsAluminum and RecyclingAluminum and RecyclingConclusionConclusion

Geology of BauxiteGeology of Bauxite

http://www.hs.wisd.org/ddaughenbaugh/Pictures/http://www.hs.wisd.org/ddaughenbaugh/Pictures/alcoa_aluminum_smelter_and_mine.htmalcoa_aluminum_smelter_and_mine.htm

A Bauxite rock with impurities

Bauxite ore is the most Bauxite ore is the most abundant element found abundant element found in the earth's crust, in the earth's crust, although the word although the word bauxite is used to bauxite is used to describe any material describe any material that contains more than that contains more than 32 percent alumina32 percent alumina1.1.


Dislodged rock particulates in areas of heavy Dislodged rock particulates in areas of heavy rainfall percolate down to the water table, where rainfall percolate down to the water table, where aluminum silicate compounds accumulate and aluminum silicate compounds accumulate and pressure causes them to coalesce.pressure causes them to coalesce.

In this form the compounds are what we In this form the compounds are what we consider bauxiteconsider bauxite2.2.


There are three main structural types of bauxite:There are three main structural types of bauxite:

GibbsiteGibbsite

BöhmiteBöhmite

DiasporeDiaspore

Each of these three types of bauxite has Each of these three types of bauxite has different characteristics that make them more or different characteristics that make them more or less desirable for mining purposes. less desirable for mining purposes.


Gibbsite has a maximum alumina content of 65.4% Gibbsite has a maximum alumina content of 65.4%

Böhmite and diaspore both have a maximum alumina Böhmite and diaspore both have a maximum alumina content of 85%content of 85%33..

Of the bauxites currently being mined, the dominant form Of the bauxites currently being mined, the dominant form is gibbsite, followed by a mixture of gibbsite and is gibbsite, followed by a mixture of gibbsite and böhmite.böhmite.

The main impurities are compounds of iron, silicon and The main impurities are compounds of iron, silicon and titaniumtitanium44. .

Geology of BauxiteGeology of BauxiteThe three structural differences of Bauxite can be The three structural differences of Bauxite can be further categorized into two groups, the difference further categorized into two groups, the difference being in the water content of eachbeing in the water content of each55 : :

MonohydratesMonohydratestrihydratestrihydrates

Trihydrates are comprised of gibbsite and Trihydrates are comprised of gibbsite and böhmite and are found in Latin America and böhmite and are found in Latin America and Caribbean areasCaribbean areas66. .

Deposits of desirable bauxite occur as flat layers Deposits of desirable bauxite occur as flat layers lying near the surface and may cover many miles lying near the surface and may cover many miles - the average thickness of these layers is 4-6 - the average thickness of these layers is 4-6 metersmeters7.7.

History of Bauxite UseHistory of Bauxite Use

Bauxite was used long before it was ever Bauxite was used long before it was ever refined into aluminum. refined into aluminum. – In Guyana it was used to build homes with the In Guyana it was used to build homes with the

so-called "brown-mud" that would later be so-called "brown-mud" that would later be called bauxite. called bauxite.

– These deposits were also used to make pots These deposits were also used to make pots and plates, along with using it as a plaster for and plates, along with using it as a plaster for homeshomes88 . .


It was not until 1825 that western cultures It was not until 1825 that western cultures devised a way to make aluminum from bauxite. devised a way to make aluminum from bauxite. The Danish Chemist, Hans Oerstad was able to The Danish Chemist, Hans Oerstad was able to isolate a small amount of aluminum from isolate a small amount of aluminum from bauxitebauxite99 . .

Over the next few decades new procedures Over the next few decades new procedures were introduced that lowered the cost of were introduced that lowered the cost of aluminum, however it was still used only for aluminum, however it was still used only for jewelry purposesjewelry purposes1010 . .


It was not until 1886 that the Hall-Heroult It was not until 1886 that the Hall-Heroult electrolytic process, which is used to make electrolytic process, which is used to make aluminum from alumina, was discovered. aluminum from alumina, was discovered.

In 1889 Karl Bayer introduced the Bayer In 1889 Karl Bayer introduced the Bayer process of extracting mass amounts of process of extracting mass amounts of alumina from bauxitealumina from bauxite1111 . .


Four to six tons of bauxite are needed to Four to six tons of bauxite are needed to produce two tons of alumina which in turn produce two tons of alumina which in turn produces one ton of aluminumproduces one ton of aluminum1212 . .

In 1998, the total area mined for bauxite was In 1998, the total area mined for bauxite was 1591 hectares (3929.77 acres) of which 80% 1591 hectares (3929.77 acres) of which 80% was wildlife habitat, 175 hectares (432.25 acres) was wildlife habitat, 175 hectares (432.25 acres) was tropical rainforest and 577 hectares was tropical rainforest and 577 hectares (1425.19 acres) possessed important fauna (1425.19 acres) possessed important fauna speciesspecies1313..

Alumina ProductionAlumina ProductionAccording to Persaud, in the Bayer Alumina According to Persaud, in the Bayer Alumina

reduction process:reduction process:

"The bauxite is first ground and mixed with "The bauxite is first ground and mixed with chemicals (chemicals (sodium hydroxide/caustic soda, sodium hydroxide/caustic soda, limelime). Then it is pumped into huge pressure ). Then it is pumped into huge pressure containers and heated, after which more containers and heated, after which more chemicals (chemicals (lime to regenerate caustic sodalime to regenerate caustic soda) are ) are added, and hydrated alumina crystallizes from added, and hydrated alumina crystallizes from the solution after being seeded with other the solution after being seeded with other ((trihydrate aluminatrihydrate alumina) crystals. These crystals are ) crystals. These crystals are then washed and heated at very high then washed and heated at very high temperatures to drive off the moisture until a temperatures to drive off the moisture until a white powder remains. This is the alumina or white powder remains. This is the alumina or aluminum oxidealuminum oxide14,1514,15””

Alumina Production, cont….Alumina Production, cont….The OSHA filed Material Safety Data Sheet for The OSHA filed Material Safety Data Sheet for Caustic Soda lists it as a highly reactive alkaloid Caustic Soda lists it as a highly reactive alkaloid dangerous to human health.dangerous to human health.

Effects of exposure to Caustic Soda: – ACUTE OVEREXPOSURE: Corrosive to all body

tissues with which it comes in contact. – CHRONIC OVEREXPOSURE: Chronic local effect

may consist of multiple areas of superficial destruction of the skin or of primary irritant dermatitis.

– Inhalation of dust, spray or mist may result in varying degrees of irritation or damage to the respiratory tract tissues and an increased susceptibility to respiratory illness16.

Alumina Production, cont…Alumina Production, cont…

Courtesy of: Courtesy of: http://www.hs.wisd.org/ddaughenbaugh/Pictures/alcoa_aluminum_smelter_and_mine.htmhttp://www.hs.wisd.org/ddaughenbaugh/Pictures/alcoa_aluminum_smelter_and_mine.htm

The World's Bauxite Sources


Social Impacts associated with Social Impacts associated with Bauxite MiningBauxite Mining

……the social impacts of bauxite mining and the social impacts of bauxite mining and production are harder to quantify.production are harder to quantify.

One must look at the societies that were living in One must look at the societies that were living in bauxite rich areas before mining started, and bauxite rich areas before mining started, and also what happened to those societies after the also what happened to those societies after the development of a mining operation. development of a mining operation.

In many cases, the societies that were living on In many cases, the societies that were living on the land that was found to be rich in bauxite the land that was found to be rich in bauxite were indigenous cultures that had lived on the were indigenous cultures that had lived on the land for centuries prior to the discovery. land for centuries prior to the discovery.


Upon the discovery of bauxite, however, the Upon the discovery of bauxite, however, the people and cultures that relied on the land were people and cultures that relied on the land were displaced at the hands of the government.displaced at the hands of the government.

Young people were forced to go to urban areas Young people were forced to go to urban areas to make a living for the families, the land to make a living for the families, the land previously depended upon for agriculture was previously depended upon for agriculture was ravaged, and basically the fabric of the cultures ravaged, and basically the fabric of the cultures was torn apart.was torn apart.


How and why does this happen? How and why does this happen? Is it necessary? Is it necessary? What is the role of the governments in What is the role of the governments in these situations? these situations?

To answer these questions one must look at To answer these questions one must look at specific cases. specific cases.

Case Study: IndiaCase Study: IndiaIn India the "problem" of indigenous cultures occupying In India the "problem" of indigenous cultures occupying bauxite-rich land has become a flash point of violence bauxite-rich land has become a flash point of violence among the population and government. among the population and government.

In 1998 the Norwegian company Norsk-Hydro found In 1998 the Norwegian company Norsk-Hydro found bauxite in Orissa, a state in India. The problem for the bauxite in Orissa, a state in India. The problem for the company was that 2100 families in 24 villages stood in company was that 2100 families in 24 villages stood in the waythe way17.17.

Out of Orissa's 32 million people, seven million are Out of Orissa's 32 million people, seven million are aboriginal, and are concentrated in the mineral-rich aboriginal, and are concentrated in the mineral-rich Raigada, Koraput and Kalahandi districts where they Raigada, Koraput and Kalahandi districts where they make up 80 percent of the populationmake up 80 percent of the population18.18.

Case Study: IndiaCase Study: India

In Orissa alone there are nearly 150 In Orissa alone there are nearly 150 million acres of once arable or homestead million acres of once arable or homestead land that is currently being mined and land that is currently being mined and there are an estimated 50,000 there are an estimated 50,000 environmental refugeesenvironmental refugees19.19.

Tribal or aboriginal people in India only Tribal or aboriginal people in India only make up 8 percent of the population but make up 8 percent of the population but account for more than 40 percent of it's account for more than 40 percent of it's displaced peopledisplaced people20.20.


In India the tribes, not the central government, In India the tribes, not the central government, control tribal land. This means that the tribes control tribal land. This means that the tribes must decide whether the mining companies can must decide whether the mining companies can be allowed to mine. be allowed to mine.

A local environmental group in the area A local environmental group in the area organized a poll that showed that 96 percent of organized a poll that showed that 96 percent of the people in the district were against the the people in the district were against the bauxite projectbauxite project2121 . .


The police in the area have taken up arms The police in the area have taken up arms against the local people, apparently against the local people, apparently working for the company's interests, and working for the company's interests, and have arrested nearly every land owner at have arrested nearly every land owner at least once and pressured them to sign least once and pressured them to sign away their landsaway their lands2222 . .


In December of 2000 there were riots against the In December of 2000 there were riots against the company and their plans to mine the region, in which two company and their plans to mine the region, in which two men were killed by policemen were killed by police2323 . .

Human rights organizations believe that Norsk-Hydro Human rights organizations believe that Norsk-Hydro was complicit in the killings because as the police have was complicit in the killings because as the police have pressured the local people to sign away their lands, they pressured the local people to sign away their lands, they have essentially become an unofficial subsidiary of the have essentially become an unofficial subsidiary of the corporation. corporation.

If the corporation is found to be complicit it would be in If the corporation is found to be complicit it would be in violation of principles one and two of the United Nations violation of principles one and two of the United Nations Global CompactGlobal Compact2424 . .


Principle one of the Compact states that Principle one of the Compact states that corporations agree “to support and respect corporations agree “to support and respect the protection of international human rights the protection of international human rights within their sphere of influence” within their sphere of influence”

Principle two requires corporations “to Principle two requires corporations “to make sure their own corporations are not make sure their own corporations are not complicit in human rights abuses.” complicit in human rights abuses.” 2525


These allegations point to the larger problem of These allegations point to the larger problem of how large transnational corporations interact how large transnational corporations interact with local peoples in their quest for natural with local peoples in their quest for natural resources and raw material. resources and raw material.

Local communities are not seen as being Local communities are not seen as being inherently needed by the country – rather, all inherently needed by the country – rather, all that is seen is the negligence of the local people that is seen is the negligence of the local people in not taking advantage of the resources that in not taking advantage of the resources that they own. they own.


Because of this perceived negligence, foreign Because of this perceived negligence, foreign investors see the situation as one in which it is investors see the situation as one in which it is their duty to the global economy (not to mention their duty to the global economy (not to mention their pocket books) that they exploit these areas. their pocket books) that they exploit these areas.

In many cases the plight of the indigenous In many cases the plight of the indigenous cultures are not taken into account by either the cultures are not taken into account by either the company or the government, leaving one to company or the government, leaving one to consider the interactions between the respective consider the interactions between the respective governments and corporations.governments and corporations.

Case Study: HaitiCase Study: Haiti

Following the discovery of Bauxite in Jamaica in Following the discovery of Bauxite in Jamaica in 1943, companies were looking into the 1943, companies were looking into the possibility of bauxite being present in other Latin possibility of bauxite being present in other Latin America islands. America islands.

In the summer of that year Reynolds Metals In the summer of that year Reynolds Metals Company found bauxite in Haiti and proceeded Company found bauxite in Haiti and proceeded to sign a concession contract with the Haitian to sign a concession contract with the Haitian governmentgovernment2626 . .


Like most contracts between transnational Like most contracts between transnational corporations and governments of less developed corporations and governments of less developed countries, the contract was very one-sided in countries, the contract was very one-sided in favor of the corporation. favor of the corporation.

The contract granted Reynolds “exclusive rights The contract granted Reynolds “exclusive rights of privilege of making researches and of of privilege of making researches and of exploiting bauxite minerals and all other exploiting bauxite minerals and all other minerals containing or which may contain minerals containing or which may contain aluminum,” with practically the entire area of aluminum,” with practically the entire area of Haiti being specifiedHaiti being specified2727 . .

Case Study: HaitiCase Study: HaitiThe agreement was to extend to 60 years after the The agreement was to extend to 60 years after the signing, forcing the government to accept terms at an signing, forcing the government to accept terms at an early stage of the bargaining process which may not early stage of the bargaining process which may not have been suitable in the future. have been suitable in the future.

The main factor behind the acceptance of these terms The main factor behind the acceptance of these terms was the fact that the United States government gave was the fact that the United States government gave support to Reynolds negotiations for two main reasons: support to Reynolds negotiations for two main reasons:

– demand for aluminum had grown due to World War II and, demand for aluminum had grown due to World War II and, – at the time, the U.S. government was trying to break the at the time, the U.S. government was trying to break the

monopoly of Alcoa in the aluminum industrymonopoly of Alcoa in the aluminum industry2828 . .

Case Study: HaitiCase Study: HaitiAlong with the “nudging” of the U.S. government, Along with the “nudging” of the U.S. government, there were other reasons that the Haitian there were other reasons that the Haitian government believed that the contract would be government believed that the contract would be good for the country:good for the country:– Included in the contract was the promise of Included in the contract was the promise of

employment (even though the company only had to employment (even though the company only had to hire unskilled workers and no training for managerial hire unskilled workers and no training for managerial or administrative positions was offered)or administrative positions was offered)2929..

– TheThe country was to also receive a royalty payment country was to also receive a royalty payment tied to the production of bauxite - at the time the tied to the production of bauxite - at the time the royalty amounted to 30.5 cents per 1000 kilosroyalty amounted to 30.5 cents per 1000 kilos3030..

– In 1963 the contract was renegotiated and the royalty In 1963 the contract was renegotiated and the royalty was actually lowered to 20 cents per tonwas actually lowered to 20 cents per ton3131!!

Case Study: HaitiCase Study: HaitiThe government also believed that the company The government also believed that the company would add to the country’s infrastructure.would add to the country’s infrastructure.

All the country received in terms of infrastructure All the country received in terms of infrastructure was an 8-mile road connecting the mine to the was an 8-mile road connecting the mine to the port, which was only used to ship the refined port, which was only used to ship the refined alumina to the United States - the road had little alumina to the United States - the road had little effect on the economy as a wholeeffect on the economy as a whole3232 . .

The company also built a power plant, water The company also built a power plant, water supply infrastructure, and a hospital to be used supply infrastructure, and a hospital to be used by the company and it’s employees onlyby the company and it’s employees only3333 . .

Case Study: HaitiCase Study: HaitiAlong with these “oversights” by the Along with these “oversights” by the government, the biggest, in relation to the government, the biggest, in relation to the population, was that the government agreed to population, was that the government agreed to help prevent strikes, creating an unsettling help prevent strikes, creating an unsettling alliance to stop even the most basic forms of alliance to stop even the most basic forms of labor empowerment. labor empowerment.

It is necessary to mention that the number of It is necessary to mention that the number of people employed by Reynolds was small in people employed by Reynolds was small in relation to the rest of the workforce relation to the rest of the workforce (approximately 0.5%) of 45,000 workers(approximately 0.5%) of 45,000 workers34.34.


This kind of agreement reinforces the notion of This kind of agreement reinforces the notion of complicity when it comes to the dealings of complicity when it comes to the dealings of governments, especially those in developing governments, especially those in developing nations who are dependant on industrialization, nations who are dependant on industrialization, and transnational corporations who have no and transnational corporations who have no accountability to the citizens of the countries in accountability to the citizens of the countries in which they extract their resources. which they extract their resources.

Impacts associated with Bauxite Impacts associated with Bauxite MiningMining

In the early days of bauxite mining, hydraulic In the early days of bauxite mining, hydraulic strip mining was used to retrieve the bauxitestrip mining was used to retrieve the bauxite3535

Hydraulic strip mining is the process of using Hydraulic strip mining is the process of using high-powered streams of water to dislodge rocks high-powered streams of water to dislodge rocks and minerals that are then collected and minerals that are then collected downstream. downstream.

This process is very damaging to the This process is very damaging to the environment because of the large amount of silt environment because of the large amount of silt that is created and that flows into nearby that is created and that flows into nearby waterways.waterways.


With time it was shown that a much more With time it was shown that a much more economically viable way of mining bauxite economically viable way of mining bauxite was to simply create an open pit where the was to simply create an open pit where the bauxite, along with the surrounding bauxite, along with the surrounding materials could be hauled awaymaterials could be hauled away36.36.



Digging Up the Bauxite (Along with everything

else)



The Bucket from the previous slide


Bauxite is now generally extracted with this Bauxite is now generally extracted with this method by removing the topsoil and then hauling method by removing the topsoil and then hauling away the 4-6 meters of bauxite underneath.away the 4-6 meters of bauxite underneath.

80% of the world's bauxite is mined from blanket 80% of the world's bauxite is mined from blanket deposits where open-pit mining is useddeposits where open-pit mining is used3737..

The other 20% comes from Southern Europe The other 20% comes from Southern Europe and Hungary where underground excavation is and Hungary where underground excavation is utilizedutilized38.38.


According to the industry, after the mining According to the industry, after the mining is completed the habitat is returned to its is completed the habitat is returned to its normal state…normal state…39.39.

This may be the case, but the original This may be the case, but the original disruption is so great that one may wonder disruption is so great that one may wonder if it is possible to return a mined area to its if it is possible to return a mined area to its “original” state.“original” state.


Because of the high alumina content of bauxite Because of the high alumina content of bauxite there is no need to use highly polluting there is no need to use highly polluting procedures in the separation such as those in procedures in the separation such as those in other industries (e.g. copper or iron)other industries (e.g. copper or iron)40.40.

The main pollutants that are released are The main pollutants that are released are caustic acids which, through spills or dumping, caustic acids which, through spills or dumping, make their way to creeks and rivers and cause make their way to creeks and rivers and cause "fish-kill“, where "dead fish can be seen floating "fish-kill“, where "dead fish can be seen floating on the water,“on the water,“4141..

Impacts associated with Bauxite MiningImpacts associated with Bauxite Mining

The most noticeable impacts of mining and production is The most noticeable impacts of mining and production is red-dustred-dust (sometimes referred to as red-mud). (sometimes referred to as red-mud).

Red-dust is mainly a by-product of the Bayer process, Red-dust is mainly a by-product of the Bayer process, composed of the impurities in the bauxite that are not composed of the impurities in the bauxite that are not dissolved in the refining process. dissolved in the refining process.

The amount that is generated per ton of alumina produced The amount that is generated per ton of alumina produced varies between 0.3 tons to 2.5 tons, depending on the varies between 0.3 tons to 2.5 tons, depending on the grade of bauxite usedgrade of bauxite used4242

Red-dust is non-toxic, although it is highly alkaline, but the Red-dust is non-toxic, although it is highly alkaline, but the lakes that it is stored in have been noted to produce a lakes that it is stored in have been noted to produce a "harsh smell that is offensive and suffocating"harsh smell that is offensive and suffocating4343““

The dust is so fine that it "pollutes the air and finally settles The dust is so fine that it "pollutes the air and finally settles in the most secret parts of homes,in the most secret parts of homes,4444""


Recently an Australian researcher found a Recently an Australian researcher found a way to utilize red-dust in an ecologically way to utilize red-dust in an ecologically sound manner. sound manner. Instead of just dumping the dust into Instead of just dumping the dust into specially formed lakes, he mixes it with specially formed lakes, he mixes it with seawater to make an alkaline sludge.seawater to make an alkaline sludge. This sludge can then be used to "mop up" This sludge can then be used to "mop up" the heavy metals left in the tailings of other the heavy metals left in the tailings of other mining operationsmining operations45.45.


Another type of pollution that is produced by Another type of pollution that is produced by bauxite mining is noise pollution from all of the bauxite mining is noise pollution from all of the machinery that is needed and from the machinery that is needed and from the production facilities that run 24 hours a dayproduction facilities that run 24 hours a day46.46.

Most workers from the mines and production Most workers from the mines and production facilities live near their worksites with their facilities live near their worksites with their families - the operations run incessantly, families - the operations run incessantly, creating a near-urban racket in otherwise rural creating a near-urban racket in otherwise rural areas. areas.

Impacts associated with Bauxite MiningImpacts associated with Bauxite Mining

Environmental damage also comes in the form Environmental damage also comes in the form of increased development. of increased development.

In Haiti the Reynolds corporation built an 8-mile In Haiti the Reynolds corporation built an 8-mile road from the production facility to the port, a road from the production facility to the port, a power plant, water supply buildings and a power plant, water supply buildings and a hospital, not to mention housing for all of the hospital, not to mention housing for all of the workers, all in a very remote part of the tiny workers, all in a very remote part of the tiny island-nation that hadn't been developed island-nation that hadn't been developed beforebefore4747 . .

The development disrupted major portions of the The development disrupted major portions of the tropical forest surrounding the bauxite minetropical forest surrounding the bauxite mine48.48.


Generally speaking, Generally speaking, aluminaalumina (Al (Al22OO33 - aluminum oxide) is - aluminum oxide) is the base input material used to make aluminum for all the base input material used to make aluminum for all applications.applications.

After all of the production of alumina is complete, it is After all of the production of alumina is complete, it is shipped to industrialized nations where it is made into shipped to industrialized nations where it is made into aluminum. aluminum.

The shipping involves immense fossil fuel consumption The shipping involves immense fossil fuel consumption and emissions and, less obviously, involves the transport and emissions and, less obviously, involves the transport of ballast water contaminated with foreign bacteria and of ballast water contaminated with foreign bacteria and sea life to the industrialized port destination, causing sea life to the industrialized port destination, causing irreparable ecological harm. irreparable ecological harm.

Distribution of BauxiteDistribution of Bauxite

After its production from raw bauxite, the powdered After its production from raw bauxite, the powdered alumina is transported to a primary aluminum smelter.alumina is transported to a primary aluminum smelter.

Alumina produced in East Asia could be sent to a Alumina produced in East Asia could be sent to a smelter in the Pacific Northwest – an ocean journey of smelter in the Pacific Northwest – an ocean journey of 5000 miles. Alumina produced in Jamaica could be 5000 miles. Alumina produced in Jamaica could be shipped to a smelter in Tennessee – a journey of only shipped to a smelter in Tennessee – a journey of only 1400 miles by comparison. 1400 miles by comparison.

Different aluminum products call for varying Different aluminum products call for varying compositional percentages of specific alloys, which could compositional percentages of specific alloys, which could determine which plant receives what quantities of determine which plant receives what quantities of alumina, and from where. alumina, and from where.

Below is a map of Alcoa’s Worldwide Operating LocationsBelow is a map of Alcoa’s Worldwide Operating Locationswww.alcoa.com/globa/en/about_alcoa/map/globalmap.aspl

Aluminum Smelting Inputs and ProcessesAluminum Smelting Inputs and Processes

Alumina (ALAlumina (AL22OO33 – Aluminum Oxide) is reduced to pure aluminum – Aluminum Oxide) is reduced to pure aluminum metal through the metal through the Hall-Heroult electrolytic processHall-Heroult electrolytic process – named after its – named after its inventors. inventors.

The alumina is dissolved by passing an electric current between two The alumina is dissolved by passing an electric current between two nodes – a carbon anode (+) made of petroleum coke and pitch, and nodes – a carbon anode (+) made of petroleum coke and pitch, and a cathode (-), the thick carbon lining of the electrolytic cell, or “a cathode (-), the thick carbon lining of the electrolytic cell, or “potpot””4949. .

The pot contains both the aluminum oxide powder and a molten The pot contains both the aluminum oxide powder and a molten cryolite-based electrolyte, cryolite-based electrolyte, sodium aluminum fluoridesodium aluminum fluoride, which is used , which is used as the conductor of electricityas the conductor of electricity5050..

The electric current is passed between the two nodes, breaking the The electric current is passed between the two nodes, breaking the aluminum and oxygen bond of alumina, and leaving pure aluminum aluminum and oxygen bond of alumina, and leaving pure aluminum metal and oxygen – the latter which combines with the carbon metal and oxygen – the latter which combines with the carbon anode to form CO2, which is released into the atmosphereanode to form CO2, which is released into the atmosphere5151. .

Aluminum Smelting Inputs and ProcessesAluminum Smelting Inputs and Processes

Aluminum is formed at 900°C - Aluminum is formed at 900°C - a temperature that requires a temperature that requires 150,000 amperes of electricity 150,000 amperes of electricity to be reachedto be reached5252. . Once the aluminum in the pot Once the aluminum in the pot is molten, it is siphoned off into is molten, it is siphoned off into holding furnaces, either to be holding furnaces, either to be mixed to an alloy specification, mixed to an alloy specification, or cleaned and cast into or cleaned and cast into ingotsingots – the primary unit of aluminum – the primary unit of aluminum fabricationfabrication5353..Pots are set up in lines of 150-Pots are set up in lines of 150-300 pots, each pot producing 300 pots, each pot producing between 360-2350 kg of Al per between 360-2350 kg of Al per dayday5454. .

Aluminum IngotsAluminum Ingots – – www.ingot.alcan.com

Spent Pot Lining (SPL)Spent Pot Lining (SPL)The carbon cathode lining in the pots experience constant wear and are The carbon cathode lining in the pots experience constant wear and are periodically discarded.periodically discarded.

Spent pot lining (Spent pot lining (SPLSPL) is treated as hazardous waste because it contains ) is treated as hazardous waste because it contains traces of absorbed fluoride as well as cyanide, two substances known as traces of absorbed fluoride as well as cyanide, two substances known as toxic to humanstoxic to humans5555..

Approximately 20 tons of SPL are produced for every 1000 tons of Approximately 20 tons of SPL are produced for every 1000 tons of aluminum produced – its disposal is “the largest environmental problem of aluminum produced – its disposal is “the largest environmental problem of the aluminum industrythe aluminum industry5656..

Currently SPL is disposed of in landfills, but worldwide concern about the Currently SPL is disposed of in landfills, but worldwide concern about the safety of this practice, due to leaching potential, has caused it to be safety of this practice, due to leaching potential, has caused it to be stockpiled around the world for later use or disposalstockpiled around the world for later use or disposal5757

Research is currently being conducted, having reached costs of $26 million, Research is currently being conducted, having reached costs of $26 million, to determine if the SPL could be re-used as the molten electrolytic to determine if the SPL could be re-used as the molten electrolytic conductor in the smelting processconductor in the smelting process5858. .

Energy and Resource Use in Energy and Resource Use in Aluminum SmeltingAluminum Smelting

Aluminum smelters are located Aluminum smelters are located in areas where electricity can in areas where electricity can be produced in abundance at a be produced in abundance at a reasonable pricereasonable price

Typically this means locating Typically this means locating the smelter near a the smelter near a hydroelectric dam, coal hydroelectric dam, coal source, nuclear energy plant, source, nuclear energy plant, or building an energy source in or building an energy source in conjunction with and conjunction with and specifically for the production specifically for the production facilityfacility

Over 55% of the energy used Over 55% of the energy used in aluminum production in aluminum production worldwide comes from hydro-worldwide comes from hydro-electric sourceselectric sources5959..

Chief Joseph Dam, Columbia Chief Joseph Dam, Columbia River, Washington – Second River, Washington – Second Largest Hydroelectric Dam in Largest Hydroelectric Dam in the United Statesthe United States

http://www.nws.usace.army.mil/opdiv/cj/Chiefjo.htm

Energy and Aluminum, cont…Energy and Aluminum, cont…To produce To produce one kilogramone kilogram of aluminum from alumina of aluminum from alumina requires approximately requires approximately 15.7 Kilowatt Hours15.7 Kilowatt Hours of electricity of electricity -- this is roughly the same amount used to power an -- this is roughly the same amount used to power an average California home per dayaverage California home per day60,6160,61..

In the U.S. aluminum industry’s prime, electricity In the U.S. aluminum industry’s prime, electricity consumption rates for aluminum producers matched that consumption rates for aluminum producers matched that of New York City -- it is currently producing 1,000,000 of New York City -- it is currently producing 1,000,000 metric tons metric tons lessless per year than it did 5 years ago, due to per year than it did 5 years ago, due to increased energy costs, market fluctuations, and increased energy costs, market fluctuations, and subsequent plant closings in the Pacific Northwestsubsequent plant closings in the Pacific Northwest6262. .

The U.S. produced about 11.4 billion kilograms of The U.S. produced about 11.4 billion kilograms of aluminum in 2001, equating to the use of roughly 179 aluminum in 2001, equating to the use of roughly 179 billion Kilowatt hours of electricitybillion Kilowatt hours of electricity6363..

Energy and Aluminum, cont…Energy and Aluminum, cont…Hydroelectric damsHydroelectric dams, while being one of the cleaner forms , while being one of the cleaner forms of electricity production, also flood natural habitats upon of electricity production, also flood natural habitats upon construction, erode riverbeds, alter natural flooding and construction, erode riverbeds, alter natural flooding and flow patterns of rivers, inhibit natural fish runs, and flow patterns of rivers, inhibit natural fish runs, and displace communities around the worlddisplace communities around the world

In Brazil, where 93% of energy comes from In Brazil, where 93% of energy comes from hydroelectricity, a total land area larger than the country hydroelectricity, a total land area larger than the country of Belgium has been flooded by dam building, displacing of Belgium has been flooded by dam building, displacing countless communities of indigenous peoplescountless communities of indigenous peoples6464..

In pristine southern Chile, roughly 25,000 acres of native In pristine southern Chile, roughly 25,000 acres of native habitat and 40 families are threatened by the intended habitat and 40 families are threatened by the intended construction of three hydroelectric dams designed to construction of three hydroelectric dams designed to power the proposed Noranda Alumysa Aluminum power the proposed Noranda Alumysa Aluminum SmelterSmelter6565. .

Energy and Aluminum, cont…Energy and Aluminum, cont…Combustion of coal is the second major energy Combustion of coal is the second major energy source for aluminum production.source for aluminum production.

The Alcoa Aluminum Smelter in Rockdale, TX The Alcoa Aluminum Smelter in Rockdale, TX requires 36 million pounds of coal to fuel its requires 36 million pounds of coal to fuel its operations operations EACH DAYEACH DAY6666. .

It gets its coal from the Sandow Lignite Coal It gets its coal from the Sandow Lignite Coal Mine in Central Texas, removing 250 vertical Mine in Central Texas, removing 250 vertical feet of soil in 100 cubic yard scoops at a time to feet of soil in 100 cubic yard scoops at a time to reach the coal – a common dump truck we reach the coal – a common dump truck we would recognize at a construction site carries would recognize at a construction site carries between 5-7 cubic yardsbetween 5-7 cubic yards6767. .

In one year, a typical 500 Megawatt coal fired power plant:In one year, a typical 500 Megawatt coal fired power plant:

– Burns 1.4 million tons of coalBurns 1.4 million tons of coal– Uses 2.2 billion gallons of waterUses 2.2 billion gallons of water– Generates 10,000 tons of sulfur dioxide and 10,200 tons of Generates 10,000 tons of sulfur dioxide and 10,200 tons of

nitrogen oxidenitrogen oxide– Produces Produces

3.7 million tons of carbon dioxide3.7 million tons of carbon dioxide500 tons of small particulate matter500 tons of small particulate matter220 tons of hydrocarbons220 tons of hydrocarbons720 tons of carbon monoxide720 tons of carbon monoxide125,000 tons of ash125,000 tons of ash193,000 tons of sludge193,000 tons of sludge170 pounds of mercury170 pounds of mercury225 pounds of arsenic225 pounds of arsenic114 pounds of lead and 114 pounds of lead and 4 pounds of cadmium4 pounds of cadmium6868

Aluminum Smelter Emissions – Health Aluminum Smelter Emissions – Health Effects on Human, Animal, and Plant Effects on Human, Animal, and Plant

CommunitiesCommunities

The electrolytic reduction cells (pot line) are The electrolytic reduction cells (pot line) are the major source of the air emissions in an the major source of the air emissions in an aluminum smelter, including gaseous and aluminum smelter, including gaseous and particulate fluorides, sulfur and carbon particulate fluorides, sulfur and carbon dioxides, and various dusts, with dioxides, and various dusts, with the the gaseous and particulate fluorides being gaseous and particulate fluorides being of prime concernof prime concern6969..

Exposure to FluoridesExposure to Fluorides

Around the globe, a number of cases have been Around the globe, a number of cases have been documented illustrating the negative effects of documented illustrating the negative effects of fluoride emissions from aluminum production.fluoride emissions from aluminum production.

The International Program on Chemical Safety The International Program on Chemical Safety (IPCS),(IPCS), a program of the World Health a program of the World Health Organization, has listed the effects of fluorides Organization, has listed the effects of fluorides on biotic communities as completely destructive, on biotic communities as completely destructive, absorbed through the respiratory or absorbed through the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract of humans and/or animals gastrointestinal tract of humans and/or animals and deposited “almost exclusively” in the bones and deposited “almost exclusively” in the bones and teethand teeth7070..

Exposure to Fluorides, cont…Exposure to Fluorides, cont…

Unicef describes the symptoms of skeletal Unicef describes the symptoms of skeletal fluorosis as follows:fluorosis as follows:

– ““Chronic intake of excessive fluoride can lead to the Chronic intake of excessive fluoride can lead to the severe and permanent bone and joint deformations of severe and permanent bone and joint deformations of skeletal fluorosis. Early symptoms include sporadic skeletal fluorosis. Early symptoms include sporadic pain and stiffness of joints, headache, stomach ache, pain and stiffness of joints, headache, stomach ache, and muscle weakness… The next stage is and muscle weakness… The next stage is osteosclerosis (hardening and calcifying of the bones) osteosclerosis (hardening and calcifying of the bones) and finally the spine, major joints, muscles, and and finally the spine, major joints, muscles, and nervous system are damagednervous system are damaged7171”.”.

Exposure to Fluorides, cont…Exposure to Fluorides, cont…In India, China, and parts In India, China, and parts of Northern, Eastern, of Northern, Eastern, Central, and South Africa, Central, and South Africa, the occurrence of the occurrence of endemic skeletal fluorosis endemic skeletal fluorosis has been classified as has been classified as “high”, by the WHO’s “high”, by the WHO’s IPCS program, due to IPCS program, due to elevated levels of fluoride elevated levels of fluoride in drinking water, in drinking water, preparation of food in preparation of food in fluoridated water, and fluoridated water, and burning fluoride rich burning fluoride rich coalcoal7272..

A victim of skeletal fluorosis A victim of skeletal fluorosis http://nalgonda.org/images/flourine/pic19.jpg


A study done in the Indian State of Orissa cites A study done in the Indian State of Orissa cites that “aluminum smelting, which consumes 30% that “aluminum smelting, which consumes 30% of the power produced in the region, has of the power produced in the region, has contaminated the groundwater around aluminum contaminated the groundwater around aluminum smelters...the state pollution control board tested smelters...the state pollution control board tested water wells and ponds (local to the plant) and water wells and ponds (local to the plant) and found fluoride well in excess of the regulatory found fluoride well in excess of the regulatory limitlimit7373”. ”.

In this particular vicinity of Orissa, an estimated In this particular vicinity of Orissa, an estimated 67% of men and 64% of women suffer from 67% of men and 64% of women suffer from fluorosis, and cattle populations have dropped fluorosis, and cattle populations have dropped “precipitously” as a result of over-fluoridation“precipitously” as a result of over-fluoridation7474..


A villager living in view of a Chalco (Aluminum A villager living in view of a Chalco (Aluminum Corporation of China) aluminum smelter in Tibet, Corporation of China) aluminum smelter in Tibet, was quoted in an article on the Fluoride Action was quoted in an article on the Fluoride Action Network website as saying:Network website as saying:

““The smoke settles on the hillsides. If we The smoke settles on the hillsides. If we let our sheep or donkeys out to graze, their let our sheep or donkeys out to graze, their teeth turn yellow and brittle, then fall out. teeth turn yellow and brittle, then fall out. Our animals starve, and we lose our Our animals starve, and we lose our

livelihoodlivelihood7575”.”.


The IPCS report also states that The IPCS report also states that “anthropogenic sources of fluoride have “anthropogenic sources of fluoride have been shown to be correlated with damage been shown to be correlated with damage to local terrestrial plant to local terrestrial plant communities… ...fluoride induced effects, communities… ...fluoride induced effects, such as lameness and tooth damage, such as lameness and tooth damage, have also been reported in wild ungulates, have also been reported in wild ungulates, such as deer, and in small mammals close such as deer, and in small mammals close to anthropogenic sources of fluorideto anthropogenic sources of fluoride7676”. ”.


Workers in the aluminum production Workers in the aluminum production industry are also at great risk of being industry are also at great risk of being exposed to fluorides.exposed to fluorides.

Risk of exposure, to a detrimental end, Risk of exposure, to a detrimental end, usually depends on the degrees of usually depends on the degrees of precaution exercised by both the workers precaution exercised by both the workers and the plant. The use of protective and the plant. The use of protective equipment and good ventilation during equipment and good ventilation during work lessen the occupational risk.work lessen the occupational risk.

Exposure to AluminumExposure to AluminumThe IPCS report on Aluminum maintains that aluminum The IPCS report on Aluminum maintains that aluminum concentrations in the air that would affect the general concentrations in the air that would affect the general public are low and negligiblepublic are low and negligible7777. .

Most of the aluminum in the air enters the atmosphere Most of the aluminum in the air enters the atmosphere as soil derived dust, as aluminum represents 8% of the as soil derived dust, as aluminum represents 8% of the earth’s crust by compositionearth’s crust by composition7878..

While exposure to aluminum dust particles for process While exposure to aluminum dust particles for process and production workers are estimated at and production workers are estimated at <1mg/8hr shift<1mg/8hr shift, , and for welders and for welders 40mg/8hr shift40mg/8hr shift, exposure for the general , exposure for the general population is estimated at 40 micrograms daily (1mg = population is estimated at 40 micrograms daily (1mg = 1000 micrograms)1000 micrograms)7979..

Exposure to Aluminum, cont…Exposure to Aluminum, cont…AcuteAcute exposures to aluminum dust in laboratory animals exposures to aluminum dust in laboratory animals were shown to produce developmental problems, were shown to produce developmental problems, mutagenic effects, and neurotoxic effects including:mutagenic effects, and neurotoxic effects including:

skeletal malformations, skeletal malformations, interference with DNA replication, and interference with DNA replication, and learning performance impairmentlearning performance impairment8080

These effects, however, were a result of acute These effects, however, were a result of acute exposures, which produce more marked effects than exposures, which produce more marked effects than gradual exposure over time. gradual exposure over time. Effects of chronic exposure upon process and production Effects of chronic exposure upon process and production workers can include shortness of breath, weakness, and workers can include shortness of breath, weakness, and cough, potentially increasing the risk of emphysema and cough, potentially increasing the risk of emphysema and lung fibrosislung fibrosis8181..

Exposure to Aluminum, cont…Exposure to Aluminum, cont…Excessive exposure to aluminum has also been Excessive exposure to aluminum has also been positively correlated to positively correlated to Alzheimer’s DiseaseAlzheimer’s Disease in various in various studies, but a definitive link and subsequent consensus studies, but a definitive link and subsequent consensus still eludes the medical community. still eludes the medical community. Insoluble aluminosilicate (the naturally occuring element Insoluble aluminosilicate (the naturally occuring element combination of aluminum and silicon) can be made into a combination of aluminum and silicon) can be made into a toxic, soluble aluminum ion (Altoxic, soluble aluminum ion (Al3+3+) in an ) in an “acidic condition”,“acidic condition”, thereby allowing it to be absorbed by the bloodstream thereby allowing it to be absorbed by the bloodstream upon its consumption in drinking water and foodsupon its consumption in drinking water and foods8282..As the function of the Blood Brain Barrier retards with As the function of the Blood Brain Barrier retards with age, Alage, Al3+3+ in the bloodstream is able to enter and in the bloodstream is able to enter and accumulate in the brainaccumulate in the brain8383..The incidence of aluminum in the brains of Alzheimer’s The incidence of aluminum in the brains of Alzheimer’s victims has caused the concern of a connection to be victims has caused the concern of a connection to be raised, but no definitive link has been established.raised, but no definitive link has been established.

Aluminum in Food and WaterAluminum in Food and Water

Exposure to aluminum is unavoidable – it is a Exposure to aluminum is unavoidable – it is a ubiquitous, naturally occurring, and abundant ubiquitous, naturally occurring, and abundant element.element.

95% of aluminum intake by humans takes place 95% of aluminum intake by humans takes place in the consumption of food and waterin the consumption of food and water8484..

90% of this aluminum is excreted by normal 90% of this aluminum is excreted by normal human processes within 4 monthshuman processes within 4 months8585..

The remaining 10% is either secreted, or The remaining 10% is either secreted, or absorbed by the skeletal or renal systems, or by absorbed by the skeletal or renal systems, or by the brainthe brain8686..

Aluminum in Food and Water, cont…Aluminum in Food and Water, cont…

Examples of how aluminum is present in food include: Examples of how aluminum is present in food include: – The use of aluminum ammonium sulfate as a buffering agent The use of aluminum ammonium sulfate as a buffering agent

used to maintain acidity during food processingused to maintain acidity during food processing– Aluminum calcium silicate as an anti-caking agent to prevent Aluminum calcium silicate as an anti-caking agent to prevent

food powders from compactingfood powders from compacting– Aluminum compounds added to frozen strawberries, maraschino Aluminum compounds added to frozen strawberries, maraschino

cherries, and pickles to improve their appearancecherries, and pickles to improve their appearance– Aluminum salts sometimes added to processed cheeses and Aluminum salts sometimes added to processed cheeses and

beerbeer– Naturally aluminum rich foods including potato skins, spinach, Naturally aluminum rich foods including potato skins, spinach,

prune juice, and teasprune juice, and teas8787

Consumption of aluminum in conjunction with certain Consumption of aluminum in conjunction with certain acidic foods and drinks, such as orange juice, coffee, acidic foods and drinks, such as orange juice, coffee, and wine, significantly increases the uptake of aluminum and wine, significantly increases the uptake of aluminum by the body’s systemsby the body’s systems8888..

Aluminum in Food and Water, cont…Aluminum in Food and Water, cont…

Surface water treatment plants use aluminum Surface water treatment plants use aluminum sulfate to treat harmful colloidal matter particles sulfate to treat harmful colloidal matter particles and water born microorganisms by causing them and water born microorganisms by causing them to coagulate, thus making them easier to filter to coagulate, thus making them easier to filter outout8989..

A study by the Australian Institute for Biomedical A study by the Australian Institute for Biomedical Research determined that over a period of Research determined that over a period of seven or eight decades of drinking aluminum seven or eight decades of drinking aluminum treated tap water, a microgram of aluminum treated tap water, a microgram of aluminum would accumulate in the human brainwould accumulate in the human brain9090. .

Aluminum in MedicineAluminum in Medicine

Aluminum hydroxide is used widely as an Aluminum hydroxide is used widely as an antacid to reduce gastrointestinal distressantacid to reduce gastrointestinal distress9191..Aluminum intake from antacids results in Aluminum intake from antacids results in ingestion levels of 840 - 5000mg/day ingestion levels of 840 - 5000mg/day (recommended max. weekly intake for a 130 lb (recommended max. weekly intake for a 130 lb adult is 420mg/day)adult is 420mg/day)9292..Aluminum salts are used to stimulate the level Aluminum salts are used to stimulate the level and duration of immunity boosting antibodies and duration of immunity boosting antibodies provided by a vaccineprovided by a vaccine9393. . Also, soluble aluminum compounds are used in Also, soluble aluminum compounds are used in antiperspirants – forming an aluminum hydroxide antiperspirants – forming an aluminum hydroxide “plug” within the human sweat duct“plug” within the human sweat duct9494..

From Aluminum Metals to From Aluminum Metals to Consumer ProductsConsumer Products

As described earlier in this report, once the As described earlier in this report, once the aluminum in the pot is molten, it is siphoned off aluminum in the pot is molten, it is siphoned off into holding furnaces, either to be blended to an into holding furnaces, either to be blended to an alloy specification or cleaned and cast into alloy specification or cleaned and cast into ingots”. ingots”. Ingots are grouped by specification and sold to Ingots are grouped by specification and sold to the markets in which aluminum is used. the markets in which aluminum is used. Primarily this includes the transportation sector Primarily this includes the transportation sector (32%), the packaging sector (21%), the (32%), the packaging sector (21%), the construction sector (13%), and the electrical construction sector (13%), and the electrical sectorsector9595..

***NOTE******NOTE***

The effects associated with the production The effects associated with the production of these consumer goods is secondary to of these consumer goods is secondary to the purposes of this report, therefore will the purposes of this report, therefore will not be discussed. The reader should not be discussed. The reader should instead note how aluminum is used, and instead note how aluminum is used, and where the opportunities lie for producing where the opportunities lie for producing and using less of it.and using less of it.

The Transportation SectorThe Transportation SectorThe transportation sector is the largest market The transportation sector is the largest market for aluminum in the United Statesfor aluminum in the United States9696..Aluminum recently passed plastic as the third Aluminum recently passed plastic as the third most-used material in automobilesmost-used material in automobiles9797..Studies show that replacing 2 pounds of steel Studies show that replacing 2 pounds of steel with 1 pound of aluminum to make a vehicle with 1 pound of aluminum to make a vehicle lighter can save 20 pounds of CO2 emissions lighter can save 20 pounds of CO2 emissions over the life of that vehicleover the life of that vehicle9898..The body of cars as well as components of the The body of cars as well as components of the engine are now typically made, in part, from engine are now typically made, in part, from aluminumaluminum9999. .

The Transportation Sector, cont…The Transportation Sector, cont…

Aluminum is the primary material used in Aluminum is the primary material used in aircraft, subway cars, freight railroad cars, aircraft, subway cars, freight railroad cars, and light high-speed-rail cars as well. and light high-speed-rail cars as well.

Aluminum or aluminum alloys are used in Aluminum or aluminum alloys are used in airplanes to lower the plane’s weight, save airplanes to lower the plane’s weight, save fuel, reduce emissions, and increase the fuel, reduce emissions, and increase the plane’s payloadplane’s payload100100..

Over 80% of an aircraft’s weight is Over 80% of an aircraft’s weight is aluminumaluminum101101..

The Packaging SectorThe Packaging Sector

Containers and packaging rank second in the Containers and packaging rank second in the market for aluminum use.market for aluminum use.Aluminum’s lightness helps reduce the costs of Aluminum’s lightness helps reduce the costs of transporting packaged consumer goods and transporting packaged consumer goods and further reduces emissions from transporting further reduces emissions from transporting goods.goods.Aluminum is touted as an indispensable Aluminum is touted as an indispensable packaging item because of the benefits it packaging item because of the benefits it possesses:possesses:– Heat conductivityHeat conductivity - Strength- Strength– HygieneHygiene - Impermeability- Impermeability– Non-toxicity Non-toxicity - Corrosion resistance - Corrosion resistance – Deadfold (stays wrapped around food items without Deadfold (stays wrapped around food items without

needing further sealing)needing further sealing)102102

Aluminum in CookwareAluminum in CookwareToday about half of all cookware sold is made of Today about half of all cookware sold is made of aluminum - the potential for aluminum cookware aluminum - the potential for aluminum cookware to leach aluminum into foods has been to leach aluminum into foods has been scrutinized and debated over for decadesscrutinized and debated over for decades103103. . A recent study done at the University of Surrey A recent study done at the University of Surrey in Australia have found levels of leached in Australia have found levels of leached aluminum between 1.5-3 parts per million for aluminum between 1.5-3 parts per million for wine, and 9.4 ppm in apple juice stored in wine, and 9.4 ppm in apple juice stored in aluminum containers for two yearsaluminum containers for two years104104. . Soft drinks in aluminum cans show levels of Soft drinks in aluminum cans show levels of aluminum 6 times higher than the same soft aluminum 6 times higher than the same soft drink stored in bottlesdrink stored in bottles105105..Beef cooked in aluminum increases its Beef cooked in aluminum increases its aluminum content by 38 timesaluminum content by 38 times106106..

Aluminum and RecyclingAluminum and Recycling The most promising, and perhaps the most The most promising, and perhaps the most controversial aspect surrounding aluminum is the controversial aspect surrounding aluminum is the fact that fact that it can be recycled indefinitely it can be recycled indefinitely – 2/3 of the – 2/3 of the aluminum ever produced since 1886 is still in aluminum ever produced since 1886 is still in useuse107107!!

This does not change the fact that between 1990 This does not change the fact that between 1990 and 2000, 7.1 million tons of aluminum cans and 2000, 7.1 million tons of aluminum cans (only (only cans!)cans!) were wasted – enough to reproduce the were wasted – enough to reproduce the world’s commercial air fleet 25 timesworld’s commercial air fleet 25 times108108!!

At an avg scrap value of $.58/lb, this represents At an avg scrap value of $.58/lb, this represents $8.236 billion$8.236 billion in lost revenue – just in cans in lost revenue – just in cans109109!!

Aluminum Cans Wasted in the U.S., 1970 – Aluminum Cans Wasted in the U.S., 1970 – 2001; total = 903 billion cans2001; total = 903 billion cans

Aluminum and Recycling, cont…Aluminum and Recycling, cont…

Recycling aluminum saves Recycling aluminum saves 95%95% of the energy used to of the energy used to produce aluminum from bauxite – mainly because it cuts produce aluminum from bauxite – mainly because it cuts out the energy intensive smelting processesout the energy intensive smelting processes110110. .

Recycling also reduces 95% of the greenhouse Recycling also reduces 95% of the greenhouse emissions put out by the aluminum industryemissions put out by the aluminum industry111111..

If the 50.7 billion aluminum cans wasted in 2001 had If the 50.7 billion aluminum cans wasted in 2001 had been recycled, energy equivalent to been recycled, energy equivalent to 16 million barrels of 16 million barrels of crude oilcrude oil would have been saved – enough to power 2.7 would have been saved – enough to power 2.7 million U.S. homes, or over 1 million cars for a yearmillion U.S. homes, or over 1 million cars for a year112112!!

Also, emissions of 75,000 tons of sulfur dioxide and Also, emissions of 75,000 tons of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide would have been preventednitrogen oxide would have been prevented113113. .

Aluminum and Recycling, cont…Aluminum and Recycling, cont…The Bottle Bill Resource Guide states that, “Bottle bills The Bottle Bill Resource Guide states that, “Bottle bills are a proven, sustainable method of capturing beverage are a proven, sustainable method of capturing beverage bottles and cans for recycling. The refund value of the bottles and cans for recycling. The refund value of the container (usually 5 or 10 cents) provides a monetary container (usually 5 or 10 cents) provides a monetary incentive to return the container for recyclingincentive to return the container for recycling114114”. ”. In the 10 states where “Bottle Bill” legislation exists, In the 10 states where “Bottle Bill” legislation exists, approximately approximately 85%85% of cans get recycled, compared with of cans get recycled, compared with about about 50%50% in the remaining 40 states in the remaining 40 states115115. . Bottle bills generally shift the costs of litter cleanup, Bottle bills generally shift the costs of litter cleanup, recycling and waste disposal from government and recycling and waste disposal from government and taxpayers to the producers and consumers of beverage taxpayers to the producers and consumers of beverage containerscontainers116116..This, in effect, places responsibility on the industry that This, in effect, places responsibility on the industry that creates a wasteful product in the disposal or recycling of creates a wasteful product in the disposal or recycling of that productthat product117117. .

Aluminum and Recycling, cont…Aluminum and Recycling, cont…A 1996 report by the U.S. Public Interest Research A 1996 report by the U.S. Public Interest Research Group revealed that the beverage industry spent over Group revealed that the beverage industry spent over $14 million dollars between 1989 and 1994 to defeat any $14 million dollars between 1989 and 1994 to defeat any attempts of a national bottle bill being passed, attempts of a national bottle bill being passed, outspending proponents outspending proponents 30:130:1118118..Bottle bill opponents, as listed on the Consumer Bottle bill opponents, as listed on the Consumer Recycling Institute’s Bottle Bill Resource Guide, include Recycling Institute’s Bottle Bill Resource Guide, include beverage container manufacturers, soft drink bottlers, beverage container manufacturers, soft drink bottlers, beer, wine and liquor distributors and retail grocersbeer, wine and liquor distributors and retail grocers119119. . California Senate Bill 23California Senate Bill 23, which would double redemption , which would double redemption rates for containers in CA, is currently being debated and rates for containers in CA, is currently being debated and voted upon. A University of California study estimates voted upon. A University of California study estimates that its passing would boost recycling rates to 80% that its passing would boost recycling rates to 80% diverting approximately diverting approximately 8,058 more tons8,058 more tons of aluminum of aluminum from landfill than are diverted currently in Californiafrom landfill than are diverted currently in California120120..

ConclusionConclusionAs we have seen, aluminum pervades almost As we have seen, aluminum pervades almost every aspect of our society and lives. It affects every aspect of our society and lives. It affects what and how we eat, drink, consume, travel, what and how we eat, drink, consume, travel, and live day-to-day.and live day-to-day.

This report was designed to inform consumers This report was designed to inform consumers about the processes involved in producing about the processes involved in producing aluminum, and how these processes and their aluminum, and how these processes and their subsequent effects could be averted through subsequent effects could be averted through recycling and the practice of consuming more recycling and the practice of consuming more responsibly. responsibly.

Conclusion, cont…Conclusion, cont…As aluminum can be recycled indefinitely without As aluminum can be recycled indefinitely without degrading in quality, wasting it in the manner degrading in quality, wasting it in the manner that we do creates avoidable, unnecessary, and that we do creates avoidable, unnecessary, and immeasurable impacts on the earth, its people, immeasurable impacts on the earth, its people, and its biotic communities via the destructive and its biotic communities via the destructive and resource intensive processes of aluminum and resource intensive processes of aluminum production.production.

Educating the global public on the negative Educating the global public on the negative effects of aluminum production and the benefits effects of aluminum production and the benefits of recycling and conservation will systematically of recycling and conservation will systematically increase positive and sustainable practices increase positive and sustainable practices around resource use to the benefit of the entire around resource use to the benefit of the entire planet. planet.

Bibliography, Part IBibliography, Part I1. 1. Persaud, Thakoor. Persaud, Thakoor. Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Developed CountriesDeveloped Countries. Arno Press, New York. 1980. Arno Press, New York. 19802. 2. Barham, Bradford, et al. Barham, Bradford, et al. States, Firms and Raw MaterialsStates, Firms and Raw Materials. The University of . The University of Wisconsin Press. 1994 Wisconsin Press. 1994 3. 3. http://www.world-aluminium.org/iai/publications/bauxite.html, March 1, 2003, March 1, 20034. ibid4. ibid5. 5. Persaud, Thakoor. Persaud, Thakoor. Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Developed CountriesDeveloped Countries. Arno Press, New York. 1980. Arno Press, New York. 1980

6. 6. http://www.world-aluminium.org/iai/publications/bauxite.html, March 1, 2003, March 1, 20037. ibid7. ibid8. 8. Quamina, Odida T. Quamina, Odida T. Mineworkers of GuyanaMineworkers of Guyana. The Bath Press, Avon. 1987. The Bath Press, Avon. 19879. 9. Persaud, Thakoor. Persaud, Thakoor. Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Developed CountriesDeveloped Countries. Arno Press, New York. 1980. Arno Press, New York. 198010. 10. Graham, Ronald. The aluminium industry and the Third World : multinational The aluminium industry and the Third World : multinational corporations and underdevelopment. corporations and underdevelopment. Zed Press, London. 1982Zed Press, London. 198211. 11. Persaud, Thakoor. Persaud, Thakoor. Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Developed CountriesDeveloped Countries. Arno Press, New York. 1980. Arno Press, New York. 198012. 12. http://www.world-aluminium.org/iai/publications/bauxite.html, March 1, 2003, March 1, 200313. ibid13. ibid14. 14. Persaud, Thakoor. Persaud, Thakoor. Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Conflicts Between Multinational Corporations and Less Developed CountriesDeveloped Countries. Arno Press, New York. 1980. Arno Press, New York. 1980

Bibliography, Part I, cont…Bibliography, Part I, cont…

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