belize || the belize river boat traffic

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THE BELIZE RIVER BOAT TRAFFIC Author(s): VERNON LESLIE Source: Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 3/4, BELIZE (SEPTEMBER & DECEMBER, 1987), pp. 1-28 Published by: University of the West Indies and Caribbean Quarterly Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40654131 . Accessed: 15/06/2014 14:45 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . University of the West Indies and Caribbean Quarterly are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Caribbean Quarterly. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 62.122.73.177 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 14:45:18 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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THE BELIZE RIVER BOAT TRAFFICAuthor(s): VERNON LESLIESource: Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 3/4, BELIZE (SEPTEMBER & DECEMBER, 1987),pp. 1-28Published by: University of the West Indies and Caribbean QuarterlyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40654131 .

Accessed: 15/06/2014 14:45

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

University of the West Indies and Caribbean Quarterly are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve andextend access to Caribbean Quarterly.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 62.122.73.177 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 14:45:18 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE BELIZE RIVER BOAT TRAFFIC

by

VERNON LESLIE

Belize City - Gateway to the West

To the Old River

Flow on gentle river to the sea; Flow on gentle river, broad and free; Dream your dreams of long ago, Whisper tales we long to know, Flow on gentle river to the sea.

To The Old River (Belizean Poets)

The settlement of Belize in the Bay of Honduras was founded mainly through the logwood trade:

The factor leading to permanent settlement and expansion was not the seafaring ways of the Carib- bean privateers, however, but the territory's forests. The demand first for logwood and later for mahogany influenced the colonization of British Honduras1

The first settlers established themselves around the mouth of the Belize or Old River and by 1839 the town of Belize was the only township in the settlement. The town became the centre of the logwood and mahogany trade, the entrepot for British goods to Central America, and the administrative capital of the Settlement. The town was strategically located too, because

the site perhaps is the best that could be chosen as far as its central position goes, as it is about midway between Yucatan and Guatemala in which countries most of the British goods imported into Belize found a ready market.2

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CO'ROZ^l TOWN

?AN *A ) 4 lGNACigXBELMOPAN '

ft/ ) ' Í 1 / DANGRIGA

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Figure 1 : Map of Belize

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It was built on the swampy banks of the river mouth - remote, near inaccessible, yet enjoying a distinct situational advantage for both internal and external trade.

However, while Belize City did benefit from its swampy environment, this very feature created an "island-like" isolation from the rest of the country.

Belize City, the former capital, is a prodigy of colonialism . . . Belize City resides on the Belizean soil, yet its first loyalty has not been to its hinter- land but to Great Britain and United States. Coupled with preponderant size, the old capital's outward orientation has caused distortions in the country's organization, especially in transportation and com- munication lines, which too often serve non-domestic ends .... in every instance accessibility of the city to Britain outweighed all consideration of suitability of site or position relative to the remainder of the colony. Until mid-twentieth century it was exceed- ingly difficult to get from Belize City to any region of the colony save coastal towns reached by boat . . . the old capital is an access and penetration point par excellence ... a 300 year old British beachhead!3

Communications between Belize City and the outlying rural areas, including embryonic townships, was primarily by water. Fig. I is a map of the country showing some of the main rivers used historically for transportation. Rivers played a crucial role, therefore, in the settlement's development, particularly the Belize River.

The river-system of this colony is a very extensive one; and it às chiefly owing to its rivers, which have afforded natural highways into the interior, that the country has been so far developed.

The settlement grew like a typical "plantation-colony" with an "economy based almost entirely on forestry". Thus it has a form of "the old colonial style of economy in which a few older firms, usually of expatriate origin but with longer standing roots in the economy, produce export crops and participate on a large scale in importing, export- ing and distributing".5 "The Belizean economy was based on timber, but her prosperity also depended on the general trade which was carried on in Belize, since the bulk of revenue came from import and export duties.6 A "timber-mercantile aristocracy" devel-

oped which controlled the economic, social and political life of the settlement. It is not difficult to surmise, therefore, why a road system did not develop - the water-ways were

adequate. Moreover, the costs appeared prohibitive.

As late as 1891 the Colonial Reports claimed that neither roads nor a road system existed. It continues, "land communications, so far as it can be effected, has to depend

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today, as it had to, doubtless, generations ago, on mahogany trucks and wing paths or logwood 'picados' (pathways in the forest cleared by machete to bring out logwood to cart roads by mules or donkeys), and on the primitive forest tracks that are utilised to connect such truck paths"7 This absence of adequate road communications remained almost unchanged until the 1940s.

A description of the river waterways done in 1891 in the Handbook of British Honduras still holds:

The most important as well as the richest river-valley in the colony is that of the Old River, otherwise known as the Belize River. The river takes its rise among the Blue Mountains in the Republic of Guatemala. Its course is very tortuous, first turning north from its rise, and then winding east and south to the coast. The lengths from its mouth at the town of Belize to the fork or 'branch', allowing for sinu- ousities, is estimated at 150 miles - 75 miles as the crow flies. Its breadth at Orange Walk is 187 feet; at the Belize Bridge 121 feet; and at the Haulover or upper outlet to the sea, it is 600 feet; the average depth from 6 to 9 feet. The water at the flood rises in some places 20, 30 and 40 feet in the main river; and in the creeks 10 and 20. At Orange Walk (90 miles from the mouth) the height from the sea- level to the top of the bank is 60 feet; at Young Gal's (93 miles), 69 feet high; at Mount Hope (100 miles), 208 feet; between Spanish Look-out and Duck Run (106 miles), 242 feet. . .

As the river is ascended, the banks on either side rise in a gentle aclivity, the banks of the river, except at the clearings, are clothed with the dense foliage of the prickly bamboo, and some distance up, the

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river is obstructed by shoals and rapids.

Dr D. Morris writing in 1883 has another good description of the river:

along the whole course of the Belize River there are numerous mahogany works, or 'banks', where logs are collected and trimmed before being dispatched to the depot at Belize. Next to the Cayo, Orange Walk (Old River) is the most important settlement. Here, and generally in the upper portions of the river, the banks on both sides are very high and generaDy covered with umbrageous figs, the fine- leaved prickly bamboo, (Guadra), or tall and rank-

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growing sedges and canes. Close to the water's edge is a beautiful white-flowered pancratium or Caribbean Lily. At Never Delay, the banks are 40 feet high, composed of yellowish clay. At Rock Dondo is a huge mass of porous limestone in the middle of the river; and a little below, at Middle-Station, are the upper rapids or falls which restrict the navigation to craft drawing only a few inches of water. The 'Big Falls', a little lower down, during certain seasons, are rather formid- able rapids, which require the utmost care on the part of loaded pitpans to pass safely up and down. Two- headed cabbage' is the name of a landing ... all along the banks of the river numerous settlements are dotted about, the people evidently looking upon it as their natural highway to the coast, as well as their

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only means of procuring supplies.

In 1931 there were "over 130 settlements or banks, 78 runs or rapids including Big Falls and Little Falls, and 34 eddies".10 Appendices 4 and 5 include the names of runs and banks respectively. Fig. 2 is a map showing the location of some of the main settlements on the river mentioned throughout the paper.

Demise of the Railway Project The trading of goods not only among the logging settlements along the river but

also in transit to Peten was a main reason to develop different transportation routes from Belize City to San Ignacio (Cayo).11 At first there had been used a dirt road, which could have formed the blueprint for a railway system.

In his book The Colony of British Honduras, D. Morris wrote:

Cayo is connected with Belize by the Government Road already mentioned, and this leads over the frontier to Peten and other towns in Guatemala. A fair amount of trade is carried on between Belize and Peten by way of Cayo, merchandise being carried all the way by mules or partly by river.

The road referred to by Morris was a "track" or dirt-road used for transporting goods and merchandise from Belize City to San Ignacio. Morris' quotation is significant in underly- ing the usefulness of a route between Belize City and San Ignacio in the 1880s which in turn could develop trade between Belize and the Department of Peten, Guatemala. "This trade was not without economic significance ..." by 1850 Belize "had become the chief port of entry for goods intransit to and from Yucatan and Peten".12

In the 1890s the Belize settlers were extremely solicitous about trading with Peten. They were suffering from a depression in the mahogany trade, what with the exhaustion

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CO'ROzJTf- TOWN Key:

/ i^^r^i L BurrellBoom

$y ^K y 1 2. Grace Bank

**/ ^/ORANGE WALK 3· Big Falls

ä ( r^*^ / 4. Orange Walk

1 1 I ' 5. San Ignacio

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Figure 2: Banks on the Belize River

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of timber on the banks of the main rivers of the colony and the loss of a substantial part of their trade with Central America through the opening-up of routes from Guatemala City to the Pacific Coast of Guatemala.

The traders of the Peten were also keen on maintaining the transit of goods through Belize as all foreign merchandise needed by them had to be brought either on Indians' backs for a journey often days through the forests from Coban where high prices already existed, or on mule-back from Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize. The Guatemalan authori- ties naturally favoured the Coban route because there they could exact total Customs duties; but the Peteneros preferred the Benque Viejo route, for, apart from being the shorter journey, the thick forests which girded the route provided every convenience to smugglers, and the larger part of such imports entered the Peten without paying Customs duties in Guatemala.13

The idea of the railway between Belize City and San Ignacio died around the early 1900s, just at the time when the need for adequate trade communications was becoming of pressing importance by the unexpected opening-up of the American market. Almost overnight the mahogany depression receded. Export figures soared from 6 million feet in 1899 to 16 million feet in 1914, and that with rising prices.14

It is now convenient to record the reasons the railway project to the western frontier was shelved and finally abandoned. As a project its demise began in 1904 when Mr H. E. Dale, commissioned to investigate the development of the resources of the colony and Mr Alex M. Lane, an Advisory Engineer from the Colonial Office, reported that the scheme was not only impractical because of the enormous construction costs (in the vicinity of £200,000), but also because of the heavy financial risks entailed in maintaining this railway.

They felt, too, that it would not attract immigration as might have been envisioned; that the proposed route to Guatemala would not contribute to the development of the country's resources; that it would benefit mainly the timber industry; and that the population involved was insufficient to warrant such large-scale expenditure.15

They suggested instead that the Belize River be deepened and made trafficable. The advantages which the improvement of the river would have over the old railway scheme were:

i. Half the distance could be covered by the cheapest means of transportation available, namely, water carriage.

ii. The cost of improving the river for the distance contemplated was about one percent of the cost of the projected railway.

iii. Passengers could embark/disembark and goods loaded/unloaded on both banks of the river at any point, and a river service would meet the require- ments of a large area on both banks, while the railway would only serve a narrow strip between the Belize and Sibun rivers.

iv. The traffic in the neighbourhood at the time, and in the future, would be essentially water-borne, consisting mainly of floating timber. If steamers

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could ply on the river, tug boats could "tow down" timber in periods of slight flood. The estimated cost was $18,000.16 <

This project was designed to allow "navigation of the Belize River as far as Big Falls" (see Fig. 2). For as Mr Lane stated: "I believe the establishment of steam naviga- tion to the Cayo, in a serviceable form, to be absolutely impracticable, without an ex- penditure quite beyond the resources of the colony."17

Appropriate equipment was ordered and persistent efforts made to clear the river. In December 1902 it was decided to blast away parts of various falls to allow a steam- boat of light draught to navigate the upper reaches. Mr S. J. Jones was contracted to this project and hoped to finish the work by the end of May 1903. However, it was not until 1905 that a mass of granite was blown up at Little Falls and downstream the river was greatly widened near Haulover.

In the following year the Belize River was so tans- formed (contrary to Lane's Report) that it became possible for a loaded power-launch to proceed from El Cayo to the sea without check, and a journey which used to take ten to thirty days (by pitpan) could now be performed under favourable circum- stances in 27 hours. Nothing could be done to pre- vent the droughts, of course, but an up-to-date steam dredger deepened the bed of the river.18

And so, because of the boom in the mahogany trade, because of the increasing trade with San Ignacio and its extension to the Peten District of Guatemala and the abandonment of the railway project, the Belize River further developed as one of the principal trading arteries of Belize.

The Pitpan Era

The first written descriptions of travel on the Belize River came during Spanish Colonial times in 1618, when two Franciscan friars, Bartolome de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita made a trip from Bacalar in Yucatan to Flores, Peten. They said:

The force of the river was such that oars did not suffice; one had to use poles and with the slightest carelessness the water swept the canoe back, and frequently the Indians threw themselves overboard so as to haul the canoes by hand.

In the 19th century most goods destined for the Peten were carried by pitpans to San Ignacio. These are flat-bottomed canoes of very light draught. They were able to go from Belize City up to about one mile upstream from San Ignacio. The seasonal

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water level affected the passage of the pitpans. During the dry weather when the river above Big Falls was broken up by rapids "they have to be hauled up". On the other hand, during the rainy season the "navigation is frequently interrupted by heavy floods".20

An interesting account of this form of travel may be gleaned from Lt John Caddy's Experience in 1839:

The vessel in which we travelled, called a pitpan, was one of the largest of that description of boat - about 40 feet in length and nearly 5 feet in extreme breadth, cut from one tree (it was not so flat-bottomed as most of them are, having more of the dory shape in it with the exception of the head and stern which terminated, as they all do, square. At about six feet distance from the stern an awning eight feet long fixed upon neat stanchions was erected, having painted canvas sides which could be rolled up or let down as circumstances might require. We had Mr Nod and my servant at one end, our canteen and portable kitchen in the centre and ourselves on the seat next to the stern, with our carpet bags and portmanteaux shoved away in the stern sheets. Eight paddlers in front of the awning, one besides the steersman at the stern - and thus propelled, we passed rapidly through the water."21

There were moments when paddling these pitpans became impossible against the strong currents of the river. Caddy continues:

In passing around an elbow of the river our men were obliged to take to their sitting poles, which appeared to be rather hard work. Six men standing on the seats on the fore part of the boat, two abreast and one on the stern seat near the steersman, place thin sitting poles against the bottom of the stream so as to have command of them when reaching forward as much as possible, and after pushing the pitpan ahead as far as the poles allow them, they shift with such dexterity and quickness as not to allow the force of the current to cause a retrograde motion before they again have a purchase. The steersman has a rather difficult task, as from the great length of the pitpan, if he does not keep her head directly against the stream, the current takes effect and turns her broadside on, to the great loss of time and labour,

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and to the risk of being upset - which is not at all an infrequent occurrence."22

A little less than 100 years afterwards in the 1920s Dr Thomas Gann gave a similar description of his pitpan experience on travelling from Belize City to San Ignacio:

The first part of the journey, up the Mopan River to Banana Bank, had to be done by pitpan, and from thence, on horseback to Cayo. These pitpans are curious craft, in which a great deal of the river-travel throughout Central and South America is done. Ours was dug from an immense cedar-tree, measuring 35 feet in length and 5 ft 6 ins beam. Bow and stern were square, and clear of the water for the last two or three feet of their length. In the center a small tarpaulin-covered space gave very scant accommoda- tion for the passengers; the bow was occupied by four paddlers and the stern by the steersman, armed with a paddle six feet long, which served both as propeller and rudder . . . The way the men paddled throughout the whole day was simply amazing - hour after hour under the blazing sun, without halt or rest, every now and then dipping their heads, hands or paddles into the stream and going on without the least sign of fatigue. During the most of the day they kept up a sort of low, droning song, or chant, describing inci- dents of their work, their amusements in Belize, very highly seasoned amorous adventures, and most popu- lar of all graphic accounts of the peculiarities and peccadillos of the principal white citizens of the colony. When one performer had finished, another would take up the song, till each had had his turn, all joining in a sort of chorus at frequent intervals. Whenever we came to a stretch of river where the current was particularly swift the chorus increased in volume and quickened in time to keep pace with the more rapid strokes of the paddles." 2^

There were a number of pitpans on the river, with such names as the Tongue oy leafa and the St Thomas. Among well-known captains were Mr E. A. Franklin, Mr Aaron Arnold and Mr Facundo Audinett. Mr Franklin, who retired several years ago, was one of my informants. Pitpans took from eight to twenty-one days from Belize City to San Ignacio, travelling both day and night. Pitpans like the St Thomas carried a captain and 'three hands'. Smaller ones - one captain and 'two hands'. Each crewman received rations of "four pounds of salt pork and seven quarts of flour weekly".24

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It has not been possible to trace the exact date of the foundation of the town of San Ignacio, Cay ο District. The settlement must have assumed some importance by the 1860s and 1870s because the Handbook of British Honduras 1888-9 states that Mr E. A. Coffin was District Magistrate, Western District in 1878.25 The Handbook further states that the population of San Ignacio in 1881 was 1,108, whereas Belize City had a population of 5,767 in that very year.26 In June, 1882, one B. Travers was the District Magistrate. 7 However, one source suggests the 1880s as the approximate period for the start of the settlement. "We are not sure of the date when El Cayo was settled, though it was probably in the 1880s ... El Cayo District probably began as logging camps inhabited by Syrians and Maya Indians emigrating from Guatemala because of forced labour. There were also créoles who formed the bulk of woodcutters and chicleros."28

San Ignacio stands "on a limestone hill on the western bank of the Makal branch of the Belize River at a bridging point".29 In 1883 it was a small frontier settlement which, because of its location, exhibited great potential for future development. Moreover, water-borne transportation was possible by pitpans, from Belize City to San Ignacio and thence by mule packs to Peten and other settlements in Guatemala.30

The Cayo Boat Era - The Boats The first mention of utilizing motor-boats on the Belize River was in 1867 when a

Rev B. R. Duval, a Methodist Minister of Richmond, Virginia, "proposed to establish a colony of ex-confederates about 100 miles up the Belize River. Realizing that water transportation would benecessary, he secured the right to operate a steamboat on the river. He also got the promise of a subsidy from the Colonial Government of $100 a trip for his steamboat for the first six months of operation31 The story goes that after a trip to New Orleans he returned to Belize where, despite promises of assistance from the Lt Governor Austen, a Belize merchant and a fellow American, his steamboat scheme petered out through opposition from the Colonial Office and lack of finances.

In 1883 the Colonial Guardian stated: It is singular that so important a waterway as the Belize, Old River or as it is called by the Indians - the Mopan, should have been permitted to remain for more than two centuries comparatively un- navigable, when at but very little expense, it might have been rendered navigable up to Cayo. Now that dynamite has come into existence, the blowing up of its obstructions and the consequent deepening of its channel between the "falls", and the "Cayo" is mere child's play to a competent engineer.32

And it was not until the beginning of the 20th century that the roar of the engine was heard on the Belize River as 'dories and pitpans' gave way to the Cayo boats Their iirst appearance on the Belize River was 1904 when the Clarence Mengel attempted a trial-run to San Ignacio but failed owing to engine problems. It can now be stated that the

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first successful return trip from Belize City to San Ignacio by Cayo boat took place from 10 to 19 January 1905. The following account of this first, historic trip occurs in The Clarion33 of 26 January 1905:

The motor boat Clarence Mengel ... has made a successful voyage to the Cayo and back in less than six days actual running including all stops. The boat left Belize on Tuesday, the 10th last about 6:00 a.m. and arrived at Garbutt's Bank at 5:00 p.m. having during the day passed crafts which had left Belize during the week before. About 5:30 a.m. next morning a fresh start was made with a dory and pit- pan in tow, both being loaded, and finally reached the Cayo, in spite of all difficulties, the swift current and driftwood keeping back the boat considerably, on Sunday at 1.00 p.m. As soon as the boat came in

sight of the Cayo, the news of her arrival seemed to travel like wild-fire and by the time she had made her landing the whole village was on the bank to receive the crew. Mr Franklin, the Commissioner, ordered his flag to be hoisted and dipped in honour of this triumph of science over nature. All hands on board were warmly welcomed and loud cheers and discharges of guns were heard on all sides.

After a two day stay a start on the return voyage was made on Tuesday, the 17th last, at about 10:00 a.m. with two pitpans in tow, adding another at Squirrel Bank. A stop was made at Banana Bank that night and an early start made on Wednesday morning, but on account of the flooded state of the river and the long tow, it was deemed safer to stop at a bank just below Little Falls and it was not 'til 10:00 o'clock on Thursday last that the boat returned to her wharf in town.

Our friend, Simon Smith, was once more the pilot of the craft and her engines were in the capable hands of Mr Arthur Rust.

I heartily congratulate the crew of the boat on their skilful handling of their vessel and Messrs. Mengel Bros, for having put a boat on the river which has accomplished the hitherto impossible. I learn that the firm intend running a regular service from Belize to the Cayo and every encouragement ought to be given

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them. When everything is running smoothly one ought to be able to go to and return from Cayo inside of seven days."

The boat made a second trip in February: "The boat left here last Thursday and in 31 running hours, reached the Cayo. The return trip was made in 16 running hours. She returned to her wharf on Tuesday last at 3:30 p.m."34

John C. Card writing in 1905 stated:

The victorious voyage of the motor boat Clarence Mengel is to be a sign of progress shortly to be effected in the colony. Many predicted that the attempt would have been a failure, because in the past it was considered impossible, for any such boat to reach the Cayo. Attempts have been made in the past and failed but seeing the vast strides mechanical knowledge has made in the last century, it has at last been successfully accomplished. I rejoice at this and am patiently awaiting greater ventures in our midst. The railroad is the venture that is most needed and should follow next.35

Finally, the following description of the Clarence Mengel is worth noting: A curious looking craft was landed from the Mail Steamer on Monday. She is named the Clarence Mengel, and is owned by the Mengel Co. She is a powerful gasoline motor boat and will be used in the firm's business between here and the Cayo. She is to make' her trial trip about the end of this week.36

Another reference occurs in The Clarion's edition of 20 October 1904:

The boat is a powerful one and her motive power is supplied by gasoline. Her draught is only 9 inches and her wheel works in a tunnel on the principle of a turbine boat. On her trial trip before being supplied from the United States she made 9 knots against a 3 knots current.

The Cayo boat was a special kind of boat: "long and sleek"38 flat-bottomed "tunnel-boats able to travel in 2 or 3 feet of water, with a huge oval gouge (or tunnel) by the stern in which was accommodated the propeller of the boat".

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They were officially known as 'River Tunnel Boats' and had tne following dimen- sions.

Length: from 43'6" (in the case of the "Olga") to 52' (Deutz) Beam: from 7' (Minerva) to 9' (Olga, Apollo, Deutz) Depth: 3 'Average Draught: 6" to 8" (Deutz) - 10"

(These figures were extracted from the Registration Book 1939: 45 at H.M. Customs). Tonnage was between 7 and 10 tons. According to Captain Edward St Clair boats like the Deutz could carry about 130 mule-loads and thirty odd passengers. Captain Oliver Neal states that some boats carried 50-55 mule-loads (a mule-load being reckoned at 200 lbs).

The names of famous boats which plied the river after 1905 are seen in Appendix 1 . Other boats included the Cruiser, Peten, Maya Indian, Positive, W ά W, Apollo, Venus, Petenero, Comet, Icie D., Canada, Albert, Green Parrot, Zeru, Amy, Mi Amigo, Olga, Quetzal, Minerva, VA., Cutter. It is claimed that the largest boat was the Apollo, and the smallest "Mi Amigo".39 Anything up to fifteen boats plied the river simultaneously.

Belizeans repaired these boats and afterwards local shipwrights built them. The names of famous shipwrights often mentioned were Ivor Bevans, Joe & C. E. Betson. Boats normally required repairs every two or three months for coating the hulls with copper paint against termites and every four or five months in the dry-season for replacing planks or leaking tunnels. Boats usually got thorough overhauls at the end of the dry-season.

The engines used in the early days were of the Metz & Weiss brand which burnt kerosene and required heating the head to start, since it did not have any electrical ignition. Other engines were the 12 HP Wolverine "make" and "brake", which pro- duced an 8 mph forward movement. Later came the 22 HP "jump-spark" Wolverine engine, and, later still, larger and more powerful versions of between 22 and 40 HP. The average speed of such engines was 10-12 knots. The agent for Wolverine was A. H. Briton. Briton in an advertisement of 1919 described the Wolverine as "the engine with the bore and stroke".40

Finally, diesel engines were introduced: Junkers (Turton's Agency), Deutz (Nord & Usher Agencies), Thornycroft/Doorman (Melhado Corrêa). The El Coloso had a Junkers 50 HP engine; the Apollo, a Thornycroft 65 HP; the Deutz, a 65 HP Deutz 12-13 knots.

Other sources dispute some of these facts. They state that the El Coloso had a Wolverine two-cylinder engine which made her the fastest boat on the river. She once did a trip from San Ignacio to Belize City in 12 hours flat in "half-and-half water (not too flooded and not too low). It was also stated that the Deutz had to abandon its engine during the war (it was German-made), when it "cracked the head", and was replaced by the Buda engine. Other engines included double-opposed two cylinder Junker and three cylinder Wolverine gas engines.

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The boats were equipped with winches of the crank wheel or axle type, the hoist- ing-machine or windlass, or the capstans. The winches were an average 3 feet in height and Wi feet in diameter, with the sizes varying according to the dimensions of the craft. One source claims that most of the winches were obtained from Nova Scotia, Canada, where they were used for hoisting sails of ocean-going yachts or sailing vessels.

To these winches were attached warplines, manilla rope 200 yards or more in length and Wi to 2 inches thick, reputed for durability and strength.) The warpline and winch were used to pull forward the boat when flood waters were too strong. The warpline was usually kept in a coil on the 'house-top' and when needed a length was wrapped around the waist of a crew-man with a timber-hitch knot. The warpline man also held another length of rope in his hand and, with the assistance of other crew, he would advance to the proposed destination or a tree sturdy enough to take the weight of the boat. The rope would be passed twice around the tree and tied with a half-hitch knot. Sometimes the line would break, and damage passengers and cargo. Besides, the positioning of the line had to be such as to prevent tripping of the craft in turbulent waters. To ensure prolonged service, warplines had to be opened up and dried after every trip.

The poles used were 'Ma Lady', noted for their strength, flexibility and longevity. The 'Ma Lady' tree grows to nearly a hundred feet in height and eighteen inches to two feet in diameter. All fuel required was transported on the boats, and this meant barrels would be kept either on the pitpans or barges. Fires were not common, and all boats were required to carry fire extinguishers.

Each boat had an awning against rainy weather. There were tarpaulin curtains, with a peep hole in the bow-curtain for the Captain. Boats were equipped with a helm or steering wheel (average 2 ft diameter). The Captain sat on a padded drum in the early days, but afterwards benches were installed in most boats. From there captains controlled the boat with the aid of two bells, a gong and a jingle. Every boat carried adequate lights (hurricane lanterns in the pioneer days) - for the port and star- board as well as headlights and signal lights.

There were fairly rigid regulations concerning river boat traffic in the "Navigation of River" Ordinance. These laws were designed to allow for the safe flow of boat traffic by day and night. Appendix 2 contains some of the regulations.

Boats were obliged by law to carry lifeboats and their hulls were protected by an 'iron-shoeing' running lengthways down the middle of the craft. The tunnel of each boat was coated with a tin or metal casing for protection against missiles occasionally flung against it by the propellers. Boat-hulls were usually constructed of 2-inch planking -

cypress, pine and cedar. The wood had to be tough and light. Occasionally a boat sank, like the cruiser which sank among the shallows of White Sandy Bay when she hit a stump.

The boats docked in Belize City along the banks of the Haulover Creek from the sawmill area to the Swing Bridge. They left at various hours of the day or night depending on the freight received; and passengers had to wait endlessly sometimes for the start of a trip.

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There were smaller boats that plied the river buying and selling merchandise, foodstuff. They travelled the river-branches mostly - Black Creek, the Mopan River and others. In addition there were even smaller boats like the Sunbeam which could negotiate the river in the dry season, particularly that portion between Mount Hope and San Ignacio, when the larger boats could not.

The river boats themselves could not carry all the load especially during the peak seasons of transporting labourers and cargo. At such periods one or more pitpans would be towed. Captain E. A. Franklin confirms that it was in 1907 that the Positive took the first pitpan on tow to San Ignacio. These pitpans, obviously models of the earlier river- craft, were puntlike vessels hollowed out of a single log and carried up to 30 paddles. When a pitpan is sawn in half lengthwise and a wide plank inserted, it becomes a bateau with up to 40 paddlers. "They were between 45 and 50 feet long and 30 inches wide". The pitpans were made from mahogany and cedar logs and carried a crew of three - a captain and two others. Two men usually sat forward, while the captain occupied the stern. These vessels were hard to manoeuvre and sank easily, necessitating considerable skill on the part of captains. At some runs like Big Falls, there were 'pitpan-channels'. At times, unemployed boat-captains would act as 'pitpan-captains'.

Pitpans were controlled by two large mahogany paddles about Wi feet wide, one on each side of the stern of the vessel, lashed together by a rope. They carried between 45 and 55 mule loads. Some people assert that the firm of C. Melhado and Sons rented pitpans, tarpaulins and paddles to clients.

The names of some pitpans were Mopan, Queen Bee, Bumble Bee, Hanging Rock, Peppermint, Spearmint, Double Mint, Black Rock, White Wine, Dynamite and Zeno. Captain Franklin states that barges were introduced later in the early 1920s. They were safer and could carry more cargo; besides, more powerful engines were installed in the Cayo-boats for towing them. They carried a crew of three or four men, a captain and two or three others. These Open barges' as they are officially known, were used for transport- ing general cargo up the Belize River and for bringing back cargo such as bananas from the Canton Agency and chicle from the Turton's Agency, cattle and other provisions. The general cargo included food, lumber, mail and tractor parts for mahogany works along the river. Many times captains and pursers would notify banana growers on the river-banks about the expected time of their return trip.

From 1918 to 1920 the average charges for freight were $4.00 per mule load, $1.00 per bale of chicle (between 100-150 bales were carried in pitpans per trip). There was little storage done in the boats, except for light loads in the bow to keep the stern higher up, thus elevating the propeller and allowing the boat to make better time. Barge captains received $15.00 to $18.00 per trip and some famous names were Ernest Neal (Ding), Christopher Gomes and Stanley Gentle.

Barges were usually 'tied short' to the boats, and winched together across 'falls' or 'runs'. Barges had an average length of 42 ft to 50 ft overall, a beam of 7 ft 6 ins to 10 ft, a depth of 3 ft 6 ins to 4 ft, and a draught of 6 ins to 12 ins. They were from 10 to 16 tons. Barge names such as the Dougal, Helper, Reliance, Relief, Sapo, Surprise occur in the records (1939-1945). On exceptionally crowded trips, passengers would have to

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travel on barges and when there was substantial cargo, boats would carry two barges. Some barges took 150 while others took 200 mule-loads - a 'mule-load' being reckoned at 200 pounds.

Goods for San Ignacio were delivered to merchants in the township itself, and to agents such as the Juans, Massiahs, Guerras, and others, for trans-shipment by mule- teams to Peten. The goods were generally kept in a large zinc-covered intransit-w are- house located on the site of the present market in San Ignacio. The boats normally cocked at the water-side.

On the return trip, chicle, bananas, and passengers were received in San Ignacio. Cattle were collected at Floral Park, Banana Bank, Mount Hope, Happy Home and Big Falls, while bananas were obtained along the banks from San Ignacio to Willows Bank.

The crew of the tunnel boats consisted of a captain, engineer, purser, oiler, and sometimes three to four sailors. It took between seven and eight men to man these boats. The crew had to be tough and skilled, able to travel day and night in all kinds of weather, and be prepared to plunge overboard any hour of nitht or day to help get the boat or barge across a run or fall. One captain described a good crew as an 'all-weather' crew. The stamina and skill of the crew were important as the pay scale depended on the number of trips made, and strong men were essential to make a maximum number of trips. It was possible to make two and a half trips per month in the dry season, and five trips in the wet season or flood time.

The crew slept anywhere they could find a place - the house-top, stern, bow, or cargo. They had to be prepared to take the warpline. This meant having to jump at odd hours of the day and night under all kinds of weather into the water and bush to clear away any obstacles in the riverway such as floating logs. In jumping overboard the men had to be wary of snakes. One informant said that one Charles Bruce got bitten by a snake at Mount Hope and died before reaching Baking Pot. 'Taking the warpline' also meant fastening the winch rope to a tree to propel the boat at the very strong current of runs and rapids.

The crew was of utmost importance to ensure success, safety and speed in a boat's progress. The crew worked as a team. One informant stated that although the journey was difficult he "looked forward to going out". "When you arrived in Belize City you looked forward to return to the river. Always looking ahead to the next trip" . . . And the men were not totally mercenary (with a few exceptions). They had purpose: they felt a sense of appreciation by the people on the river banks and at San Ignacio. The people living along the banks knew the boats by the sounds of their engines and were always waiting to receive the cargo and crew. This in turn made the crew conscious of perform- ing a highly appreciated job, delivering a much needed parcel here or carrying a message to an expectant merchant further upstream. It went beyond their work obligations and bestowed on them a sense of fulfilment in being of much needed service to "their" river people.

Most sailors preferred to work on the boats in preference to barges or pitpans. It was more demanding, requiring training through apprenticeship. The captains' shouts of "inside", "outside" had special meaning as the boats negotiated the falls. The men

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had to know how to handle their poles. Tope Pius', 'Chicken Young', 'Ben Vacarro', were some of the outstanding sailors on the river. Some sailors got from $9.00 to $10.00 per trip, although other informants insisted that sailors' pay ranged from $5.00 to $18.00 per trip during the dry season. Each trip was a complete unit and the crew were recruited on a trip by trip basis. No contracts were signed; no insurance coverage extended; and all agreements were made orally between agent or employer and crew member. There were no physical examinations to ensure fitness. Occasionally sailors got drowned, as did one Henry Gordon of the Minerva, "and another sailor off crossing-landing" (according to Captain Oliver Neal).

The crew received three to four meals daily consisting offish, fowl, bread, Johnny cakes, fried-jacks, meat, pigtail, rice, beans, tortillas, salt-meat, occasionally wild-game, chicken and eggs, hiccattee and bocatora (types of river turtle well known for their meat that is delicate and luscious). These meals were regarded as part of their wages.

After the captain, the purser was the officer in charge of collecting passengers' fares, money, freight, mail, and general business of the voyage. Not all boats could afford such personnel.

Captains had to know every twist and turn of the river, every eddy, sandy -bay, stump, turn and channel. And when one considers that these obstacles were liable to change after every flood, and that they had to be encountered in the mists of the morn- ing, at night and in blinding rain, one can appreciate the skill, daring and responsibility that lay on their shoulders.

Few people realise that a river-boat captain's* knowledge of the Old River was enormous. He had to know every stretch by day and night, by starlight and in every phase of the moon, at ordinary times and in flood time, in rain, for the appearance of the river changes and it takes a keen eye and a prodi- gious memory of every snag, shoal, turn, bend, to be one of the river's elite.4

Fog was especially hazardous on the river. Fog descends on the Old River like a "piblan" (pavilion - mosquito net), a cotton one at that, all enveloping, opaque, impene- trable, swirling, dense, clammy and the wise captain would tie up at the most convenient bank for the night and wait for the rising sun to reveal the shrouded banks. One captain boasted that when he was in a hurry, not even such fogs stopped him as he would put out the lights and steer by the glare of the sky. In addition, captains had to know what one master called "the water", "top-gallon flood", "half-and-half water", and "dry-weather water". This same captain recalls that the 1923 flood was the highest he had ever experi- enced on the river.

After the sinking of the E.M.L. a test was given to all those who wanted to become captains to safeguard standards. Captain Oliver Neal stated that he worked on the river- boats until 1925 when he sat his examinations successfully and became a certified master.

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His examinations were set by 'old' Coxswain Flowers, 'old' Mr Longsworth and Mr R. K. Masson.

Captains received about $18.00 to $20.00 per trip but some got even more. Captain Oliver Neal states that at flood-time captains received $15.00 per trip, and in the dry- season $25.00 per trip. The responsibilities of the captain included being sole master and commander of the craft. A captain could order even the boat-owner ashore once the journey began. They had to steer the boat, sometimes for 20 to 25 hours without relief, if the boat lacked capable crew (only a licensed man could relieve the captain). In addition, he was responsible to take the boat safely to and from San Ignacio, for the total welfare of the passengers and crew, and for the delivery of all cargo in good condition.

Names of famous captains include probably the first and leading captain - Simon Smith. Other names were Atanacio Patnett, Facundo Audinett, Iraquo Hill, David Humes, Joseph Humes, Oliver Neal, Alexander Goff, Edward St Clair, Ben Vacarro, James Hill, Ebenezer Lamb, Ernest Torres, Norman Joseph, Joe Evans, Percy Flowers, Ambrosio Requena, E. A. Franklin, Willie Neal, Austin Young, Isaac Young, William Young, Jose Timmons, Jack Jordan, 'Daycall' Young and Johnny Buckley.

One of my informants, Captain Oliver Neal, who was in his late 70s, went on the river in 1918 at 18, as a sailor for Mr Willie Neal, captain of the Belona, owned by C. Melhado & Sons. It had a capacity of 75 mule-loads and could accommodate 6 to 8 passengers and as many as 40 passengers, if necessary.

Captain Neal worked as a sailor and barge-captain until 1925 when he sat his Master's examination successfully. He became captain of the Alert, one of the smaller boats belonging to one Silva. Over the years he worked on almost every boat in the trade, sometimes as captain, often in other capacities. He was longest employed by Mr Eddie Usher. He recalls that Messrs Iraquo Hill and Facunto Audinett were the strongest men on the river. He further stated that "No two men could handle a boat better than myself and Joe Evans".

In 1947 Captain Neal took the Apollo to San Ignacio. Captains had to have a strong personality, sense of leadership and skill to instil confidence among crew mem- bers. Physical strength or prowess was also an advantage. Such attributes inspired team- work, which was essential for the voyage. Each crew became a unit after "cast-off. There was competition between crews as each tried to regard their boat as the best in negotiating the river. There was friendly competition among captains. Offshore, captains were friendly with the crew members but aboard ship they were in full charge. Most popular captains were Atanacio Patnett and Facundo Audinett. Theirs was a humane temperament - always compassionate to the river-people and charitable with free passages to the distressed and dispossessed in time of need. Their never-ending obliga- tions made them legends - taking parcels, goods, letters - constantly, and receiving the many provisions, food, love and admiration of the river people.

One informant asserts that Edward St Clair (alias Pajarito) was "the professional of his trade". All his transactions were professional as were his punctuality on departure. He was intensely popular.

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Each boat had at least one engineer. Engineers must have had a hard life and sometimes performed the duties of cook. "The engineer was also the cook and he had to provide hot meals three times a day for the crewmen on the boat itself and on the laden barges as well as for the passengers".45

Moreover, the heat from the engines and the dampness of the river could not have contributed to good health. The names of engineers again were legendary: Lee Wallace, Arthur Pattico, Jimmy Lewis, Edgar Young, George Pommels, George Bernard, Percy Betson, Bungie Hyde, Jim Flowers, Oliver Hyde, Jim Gill, Alfred Collins, Edward Collins, "Bibi" Gentle, Donald Haylock, Herman Wagner, Edward Broaster, Denham Hyde, Dergan, Berutich, Eddie Usher, Cecil Usher, Donald Flowers, Charles Stamp, H. Collins, Herman Flowers, Lee College and others. Engineers got the same salary as captains and were held in very high regard. Engineers had to be licensed on passenger- boats. One had to be apprenticed as oiler and learn on the job. It was a hard life of practical training, for the engineer had to be truly resourceful, having to take a boat to San Ignacio and back under any circumstances. Very infrequently boats did not complete their trips because of the incapacity of the engineers. Moreover, he had to conduct re- pairs while in port. To one former engineer, Harold Collins and Jim Gill were the best engineers in his time.

One informant stated that he was on the river when he was 13 years old, about 1938. Harold Collins was his 'prentice-master'. On his first trip, he received 5c; three months later 25c; then 50c when he could take a "watch" (morning to 12 noon). Finally, when more experienced, he received $2.00 per trip. He ended up by becoming a "Second Engineer". He stated that he went on the river to learn 'engineering', then as he progressed he found a sense of fulfilment not only in the profession, but with the people.

On arrival in port, the engineer would indicate job assignments on engine-cleaning, scrubbing of the engine-room, fuel checks, before final payment.

Passenger boats were licensed to carry a specific number of passengers after the sinking of the E.M.L. Licences specifying maximum passenger capacity of every boat were carefully prepared, allowances being made for loaded against unloaded boats. Apparently such instructions were not closely observed. Some boats were licensed to carry seven or eight passengers when loaded, while they could transport thirty when empty.

Passenger traffic was heaviest around 15 December when the timber-gangs "broke", and again in mid-January when the "works" resumed. Gangs were taken to Young Gal, Camalote, Spanish Look-out, Duck-Run, Mount Hope, Halliday, Mt Hope, Iguana Creek, and to San Ignacio intransit to Vacca Falls and Bullet Tree Falls.

The boats were small and invariably quite crowded. It was a most uncomfortable trip for passengers as there was only sitting space in which to stay, sleep and eat; except for those who could put up a hammock in which to sleep. Food could be acquired from the cook. "It was a tedious trip, alleviated only by the natural beauty of the scenery along the river banks".46 The writer of Fifty Golden Years in B. H. of the Pallotine

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Some of the turns could only be negotiated by wind- ing the vessels up them; the inherited skill of the watermen and the ripple of their muscles as they worked the 40 feet vessel around the jagged rocks in the rushing waters was a sight well worth seeing.51

Although the river boats performed invaluable public service for passengers and freight, they functioned primarily for the use of their owners who were multi-purpose entrepreneurs with businesses in Belize City, communities along the banks, San Ignacio, and further in Peten. They were general merchants and commission agents - the larger firms being C. Melhado & Sons, Reyes & Yearwood, S. M. Gomez & Sons, M. Carbajal, Usher and Austin, R. S. Turton's Belize Commercial Co., Huges, Leric & Massiah, and the Usher Brothers. From Belize City goods were shipped upstream by John Harley & Co., James Brodie & Co., and Nords.

Summary and Conclusion The Cayo boat era began its eclipse in 1937 when TACA Airlines initiated a regular

flight between Belize City and San Ignacio. It waned completely in 1947 - 1948 when the Western Highway connecting Belize City with San Ignacio was completed. Captain Edward St Clair stated that it was 1945 when he took the last boat the Empress to San Ignacio. Captain Oliver Neal added he took the Apollo to San Ignacio in 1947. But by that time passenger and freight trucks had put an end to the Cayo boat era. The boats themselves were left to rot in the shipyards of Belize City. No longer would the clang of bells, roar of boat engines, and the shouts of boatmen be heard along the river.

This brief insight into the Cayo boat era has given us glimpses of the transportation system that linked Belize City with communities along the banks of the Old River, and the town of San Ignacio. As the cheapest mode of transportation, the boat trade super- seded the building of a cross country railway system and circumvented the building of an all-weather road until well in the middle of this century. Having begun in the Spanish Colonial period, this mode of transportation was most used during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During that period the significance of trade in imported and local goods assumed prominence linking the important commercial and exporting houses of Belize City with subsidiaries along the river, at San Ignacio, and further into the Guatemalan province of Peten. The owners of the commercial firms were the ones who acquired the maximum benefit from the importance of Belize City as an entrepot for trade with western Guatemala. They were also the ones who made profits from the sweat and hard work of the captains and crews of the boats and the inconveniences suffered by the passengers.

But the Cayo boat trade remained a vital link in the human drama of Belizeans travelling west and knowing so much more of their great country. In one of the most touching interviews, Captain Oliver Neal reminisced nostalgically, calling the names of some of the great Old River families: The MacFadzens of Willows Bank, the Burns of Big Falls, the Talbots of Double Head Cabbage, the Banners of New Home, the Arnolds

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Missionary Sisters had this to say: "... then the tiresome river trips. These sometimes took 8 to 10 days on boats having no passenger facilities except a few hard benches, some- times not even benches were available - sacks of flour had to serve the purpose' Dr Thomas Gann, who travelled on the Tennefly, accompanied by the celebrated Maya Archaeologist J. Eric Thompson in 1928, described his trip in this way:

We found the flat wooden awning of our cabin literal- ly swarming with passengers - the few square feet of space between them packed with pataquis - the great, watertight travelling baskets of the Caribs, and mahogany cutter's gunny sacks, bundles tied up in towels and shawls, and other miscellaneous baggage. All these passengers travelled the entire distance to Cay ο with us.48

While it must be admitted that passenger facilities were almost non-existent and passengers had to take their own food, in later days toilet facilities were installed in a few boats. However, passengers had to drink "unboiled" river water. A passage cost about $7.00 (no class), and a charter from Belize City to San Ignacio cost $100.00 to $250.00. Yet, one informant adds: "I have had many a most enjoyable trip aboard a Cayo boat. Passengers of both sexes travelled as one huge family in the cramped space for days on end and food baskets were gladly shared".49

Often, prisoners in handcuffs were transported to Belize City, and had to endure all the hardships of boat-life under the watchful eyes of an armed policeman.

The uncertainty of a boat's departure created great hardships for passengers, who often had to wait endlessly for a trip to begin. Captain Edward St Clair was well known for his punctuality on departure. Departure time was determined normally by the owner and captain, and circulated orally.

The trip to San Ignacio usually took about four days, although when the water was high or the river in flood some boats did it much quicker. This leg of the trip usually took longer as the boats were proceeding against the currents. The average length of a return trip (Belize City-San Ignacio) was seven days, but that time varied according to the level of water and the weather.

According to some boatmen, the most damaging and difficult part of the river was between Big Falls and Middle-Stream. Little Falls also proved difficult sometimes. Captain Oliver Neal stated that the places he utilized the winch most frequently were Little Falls, Big Falls, Meditation and Pull Frock. The journey was fairly clear to about Bermudian Landing, then started Little Falls and Big Falls and the innumerable turns and eddies. As the boat approached one of these, workers went ahead and attached cables to sturdy trees along the river banks and commenced to work the winch. In areas where the river twisted terribly, passengers would walk across the land and wait for hours for the boat, while it travelled cautiously through the curves and twists. A. H. Anderson comments:

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of Happy Home, Dickie Smith at Hollywood Park, Dada Gentle at Santa Maria Run, the Neals of Orange Walk, old Peter Anderson at Rock Dunda, the Russells of Bermudian Landing, and the Flowers of Flowers Bank. To him they were once the persons who greeted him as he passed by in his boat.

NOTES

1. Norman Ashcraft, Colonialism and Underdevelopment: process of political and economic

change in British Honduras, New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1973, p. 26.

2. David Pendergast, M. Palenque: the Walker-Caddy expedition to the ancient maya city, 1839-

1840, Oklahoma, University of Oklahoma Peress, 1967, p. 20.

3. Charles D. Collins, "The Political geography of nation-building: the case of Belize," Ph.D.

Dissertation, University of Kansas, Lawrence Kensas, 1973, p. 33.

4. Lindsay Bristowe, W. G. B. Wright Handbook of British Honduras 1888-1889, London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1890, p. 18.

5 . George Cumper, The Economy of the West Indies, 1960, p. 90.

6. Narda Dobson,A History of Belize, London: Longman Caribbean 1973, p. 134.

7. Annual Colonial Report, 1891, p. 7. London: H.M. Stationery Office.

8. Handbook of B.H., p. 18.

9. Daniel Morris, The Colony of British Honduras, its resources and prospects: with particular reference to its indigenous plants and economic production. London* Edward Stanford, 1883,

p. 11.

10. J. C. Sologaistoa & M.C. Sologaistoa Guide to British Honduras. Belize City: Trumpet Press and V. Goodrich, 1919, p. 45.

11. San Ignacio is the present-day name for the Western town earlier called El Cayo. Both names are used in the paper interchangeably.

12. D. H. Romney, et al (eds), Land in British Honduras - report of the B.H. Land Use Survey Team. London: Colonial Office Research Publications, No. 24, 1959.

13. Wayne Cleghern, M. British Honduras, Colonial deadend, 1859-1900. Louisiana; Louisiana State University Press, 1967, p. 87.

14. Stephen L. Caiger,. British Honduras: Past and Present, London: Allen & Unwin, 1951, p. 180.

15. See The Clarion, Belize City, 22 December 1904.

16. Ibid., 29 December 1904.

17. ibid., Lane Report, 9 February 1905.

18. Caiger, 1951 p. 141.

19. Cogolludo Lopez, D., Historia de Yucatan, Merida, First Edition, Madrid 1688.

20. Cleghern, 1967, p. 88.

21. Pendergrast 1967: pp. 36-37.

22. Ibid., 1967, p. 42.

23. Thomas Gann,, Mystery Cities, exploration and adventure in Lubaantun, New York: Scribner, 1925, p. 23.

24. Ibid., p. 26.

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25. Handbook of British Honduras 1888-1889, p. 112.

26. ibid., p. 204. 27. Ibid., p. 234. 28. Leo Bradley, H. Glimpses of our Country, Belize City, Government information Service, 1966. 29. Peter Furley, A. & A. J. Crosbie, Geography of Belize, London: Collins, 1974, p. 31. 30. Daniel Morris, p. 11 31. Daniel G. Rosenberger, . An examination of the perpetuation of Southern United States institu-

tion in British Honduras by a colony of ex-confederates. Ph. D. dissertation, New York Uni- versity, 1958, pp. 152-153.

32. Colonial Guardian, 14 July 1883, p. 2.

33. The Clarion, 26 January 1905, p. 100. 34. ibid., 9 February 1905, p. 163. 35. ibid., Odds and Ends of Local items, 26 January 1905, p. 104. 36. ibid., 13 Occober 1904, p. 388. 37. ibid., 20 October 1904, p. 414. 38. Bradley, Glimpses 1963 p. 7.

39. Reporter, 25 January 1976, p. 7. 40. Guide to B.H. 1919, p. 18, 41. "Navigation of River" Ordinance, Sec. 2 Ch. 50 of Consolidated Laws in Guide to B.H. 1919,

p. 115. 42. Reporter, 27 February 1970, p. 11.

43. ibid., Armchair Commentary: Amos 18 January 1976, p. 4.

44. Ibid., Armchair Commentary: 25 January 1976.

45. ibid., Armchair Commentary: 18 June 1976, p. 4.

46. Bradley, Glimpses, p. 8. 47. Pallotine Missionary Sisters, Golden Years in B.H. 1963, p. 9 48. Thomas Gann, Discoveries and adventures in Central America, London Duckworth 1928 p. 36. 49. The Reporter, Armchair Commentary, 18 June 1976, p. 4.

50. Bradley, Glimpses. 51. Anderson, A. H. Brief Sketch of British Honduras, Belize City: Government Printing Depart-

ment, 1963, p. 16.

APPENDIX 1

NAMES OF BOATS AND OWNERS

The following are the names of famous boats, which plied the river after 1905, along with the names of their owners:

Boat Owner

Cairo ) Bellona ) C. Melhado & Sons Cacique )

Cayo ) Stuart W&S )

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Thistle Jim Silvan

Nameless ) Tireless ) Gomez & Sons

Amy ) Usher Creole )

Cricket (Preston) Haylock Arethusa Thurton Empress Bowen & Bowen Deutz Nord Amigo Gullap Elenita Espat Tennefly Arnold Phoenix James Burns Vester (Coloso) Vallan Usher; Awe Star Carbajal

APPENDIX 2

Some Regulations on the Navigation of the river from Sec. 2 Ch. 50 of the Consolidated Laws of British Honduras (Guide to B.H. 1919:195) -

- "when two boats are meeting head-on or nearly head-on in a river so as to involve risk of collision, each shall alter her course to starboard (right hand) so that each may pass to the port (left hand) side of the river.

- "every boat overtaking any shall keep out of the way of the overtaken boat. But it shall be the duty of the overtaken boat to allow a free passage, where practicable, for the overtaking boat to pass.

- "no boat shall be anchored in any river or other inland water so as to be in the way of any other boat navigating such river or inland water."

The rules concerning lights shall be complied with in all kinds of weather from sunset to sunrise.

A motor boat when under way shall carry :- "in the forepart, a bright white light where it can best be seen and at a height above the gunwhale of not less than two feet.

- "Green and red lights on a combined lantern show a green light and a red light from right ahead to two points abaft the beam on their respective sides. Such combined lantern shall be carried where it can best be seen at a height below the white light of not less than one foot. "a motor boat when towing another boat or raft shall, in addition to the side lights prescribed in Rule II (b) carry two bright white lights in a vertical line one over the other, not less than two feet apart. Both of these lights shall be of the same character." (Navigation of Rivers - Section 2 of Ch. 56 of the Consolidated Laws - Guide to B.H. 1919:197).

APPENDIX 3

NAMES OF INFORMANTS Captain Oliver Neal Captain Edward Sinclair Captain E. A. Franklin Mrs Jane Fuller Mr Leo Bradley Mr Elutero Sabala Rev G. R. Hülse Mr Jose Zayden Mr George August Mr William August

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28

Mr Christopher Gomez Mr James Hyde Sr. Mr S. E. Harris Mrs Mabel Simpliss Mr JohnSmikle

APPENDIX 4

NAMES OF RIVERS AND RAPIDS The following are the names of runs or rapids encountered travelling from Belize City to San

Ignacio, as recounted by Captain Oliver Neal: Runs: Gracie Rock, Double Run, Baker Rock, Budd Bank Run, Flint Stone Bank, Grace Bank, Underwood Run, Cecilia, Little Falls, Mackenzie Run, Big Falls, Monkey Run, Lower Beaver Dam, Upper Beaver Dam, Tanish Creek, Meditation, Pullby Dam, John Crow Gulley, Rock Dunda, Cocos Run, Cow Run, Lower Mt. Pleasant, Upper Mt. Pleasant, Lower Banana Bank, Baboon Eddy, Orange Walk Run, White Sandy Bay, Taste Am, Camalote, Tom Smith Caye, Rinstun Eddy, New Hope, John Crow Run, Happy Home Run, Hog Sty, Monkey Tail, Red Bank, Mericocha, Lower Younger Gal, Upper Younger Gal, Paslow Rock, Tea Monkey Falls, Warree Head, Mamee Run, Society Hall, Pull Frock, Blackman Sandy Bay, Iguana Creek, Seven Bells, Icabon, Barton Creek, Floral Park, Cohune Run, Santa Maria Run, Newtown, Spanish Lookout, Platon, 4 lbs. of Pork, Malee Hickee, Tiger Run, Muddy Lane, Baking Pot Run, Billy White, Crossing Landing, Bruk Mouth, Duck Run, May Pole Run, Three Sisters, Triantilobo, Loretta Run, Bark Log Run, Gabourel Run, Branch Mouth.

APPENDIX 5

NAMES OF BANKS ON THE BELIZE RIVER

Travelling from Belize City one meets the following banks:

Burrell Boom St James Boom Davis Bank Grace Bank Bermudian Landing Double Head Cabbage Willows Bank Cockloft St Paul's Bank Big Falls Cocriquo Beaver Dam Castile Middle Station Rock Dunda Cotton Tree Bank Never Delay Saturday Creek Cocos Banana Bank Orange Walk Roaring Creek White Sandy Bay New Home Happy Home Young Gal Tea Kettle Mount Hope Spanish Lookout Baking Pot Duck Run

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