Academic Preparation Kit

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Academic Preparation Kit - Bergen 2015

Welcoming message 3How does the EU work? 4PECH 7LIBE 11ENVI 15ITRE 20TRAN 24INTA 28AFCO 33FEMM 37

Contents:

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President: João Moreira (PT)

Welcoming messageDear delegates of Bergen 2015,

It is my greatest honour and absolute pleasure to welcome all of you to the 13th National Selection Conference of EYP Norway - Bergen 2015. Rather than through mere words, the feeling of excitement is best defined by those little butterflies flying around your stomach, making you smile in anticipation of what’s to come. If you have not yet felt them, I’m sure you will - I know I have for a long time now!

And I’ve not been alone in this excitement… The Chairs’ Team of Bergen 2015 has been sharing this feeling and putting it into words, compiling all their expertise into the Topic Overviews that you can find in this document. Their hard work and commitment has driven them to write these highly informative overviews, that are meant to serve as the first step to your research and preparation for Bergen 2015. I urge you to take the information that was compiled for you here, and delve deeper into your own research, aiming at mastering the topics that will be on the focus of debate during your Committee Work and General Assembly.

“A New Wave: Pursuing Sustainability in Europe” is the overarching theme of this session. In a time of unsettling events, scaling uncertainties and groundbreaking questions for Europe, the need arises for stability and a harmonious equilibrium between all the pillars that sustain today’s world. To sustain is to provide what is needed for something to exist, to continue. In an age of global innovation and demograp-hic growth, where only the sky is the limit, people tend to forget that there is a world that is supposed to live on after their existence, giving home to many generations to come. Today’s ever-hungry society insists on craving for immediate benefits and short-term ambitions, without minding the future repercussions of their actions.

In Bergen 2015, we will look at today’s European panorama and find ways to better balance the needs of its citizens with the needs of our continent and the needs of our planet. We will do so in light of the true definition of sustainability, be it economic, environmental, institutional or humanitarian. With the starting point provided by our committee topics, we will seek to find sustainable approaches and solutions in areas such as fish farming, energy production, migration streams, means of transportation and devolution in Europe.

I could not stress enough how important it is that you take the preparation for Bergen 2015 seriously. Not just to capacitate you to discuss these important issues in depth, but also so you can better enjoy the session as a whole and seize every moment of it to the best of your abilities. The more prepared you are, the more you will take out of this session - I can guarantee it.

I can’t wait to meet all of you already next month in Bergen. I can’t wait to share this exciting journey with all the remarkable people that will come together to make this session something to remember.

Until then, my warmest regards.

João Moreira, on behalf of Anette, Anniken, Camilla, Can, Conrad, David, Dmytro, Fotis, Maciej, Magnus, Marta, Nina, Olivia, Sarah, Toni and Torbjørn.

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How does the EU work?A. Main Institutions

1. Within the institutional triangle

European CommissionThe European Commission (EC) is the ‘executive’ power of the EU. One Commissioner is appointed by each Member State (with one, currently Jean- Claude Juncker, being the President of the EC). The Commissioners are appointed by their respective Member States, approved by the European Parlia-ment and put in charge of specific issues. The EC monitors the Member States’ and the Uni-on’s adherence to the acquis communautaire (the

ensemble of all EU legislation), represents the Union in its foreign relations and has the exclusive Right of Initiative. The Right of Initiative is the right to propose laws. In the EU, the EC has the right to propose Regulations and Directives to the European Parliament and to the Council of the European Union.

European ParliamentThe European Parliament (EP) is the first part of the EU’s legislative branch and consists of 751 Members of Parliament (commonly, MEPs), who are elected for five-year mandates by all EU citizens. The first direct EP election was held in 1979; the latest between May 22nd and 25th, 2014. It works either in a big plenary or in its 20 different Committees, each responsible for specific issue areas. The EP shares its legislative competences with the Council of the European Union.

Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers) Also known as ‘the Council’, the Council of the EU is structured in issue-specific groups (councils), compri-sing the respective Ministers of the Member States (e.g., the Council for Justice and Home Affairs, with all Ministers of the Interior/Home Affairs). The presidency of the Council changes every six months and the ‘president’ in office supplies the different councils with a Chairperson, with the exception of the council on Foreign Affairs, which is presided to by the High Representative. The issue areas are mirrored in those of the EP (e.g., environment, education, economy, budget), with whom the Council shares its legislative competences.

2. Outside the institutional triangle

European Council The European Council is an EU institution comprising the heads of state or heads of government of the Member States, along with the council’s own President and the President of the European Commission. The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy takes part in its meetings. The European Council was established as an informal body in 1975; it became an official EU institution in 2009, when the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force. While the European Council has no formal legislative power, it is charged under the Treaty of Lisbon with defining “the general political directions and priorities” of the Union. It is, thus, the Union’s strategic (and crisis-solving) body, acting as the collective presidency of the EU.

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European Central Bank The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the euro and administers the monetary policy of the euro area, which consists of 18 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the world’s most important central banks. The bank was established by the Treaty of Amster-dam in 1998, and is headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany. The owners and shareholders of the European Central Bank are the central banks of the 28 Member States of the EU.

Court of Justice of the European Union The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) is an EU institution that encompasses the whole judici-ary. Seating in Luxembourg, it consists of two major courts and a number of specialised courts.Its mission is to ensure that “the law is observed (…) in the interpretation and application” of the Treaties. The Court reviews the legality of the acts of any EU institution, ensures that the Member States comply with obligations under the Treaties and interprets EU law at the request of the national courts.It consists of two major courts: i) the European Court of Justice, the highest court in the EU legal system; ii) the General Court;

3. Not an EU body!

Council of Europe The Council of Europe is an international organisation promoting cooperation amongst all countries of Europe in the areas of legal standards, human rights, democratic development, the rule of law and cultural cooperation. It was founded in 1949, has 47 Member States with over 800 million citizens, and is an entirely separate body from the EU. The Council of Europe cannot make binding laws. Its best known bodies are the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), which enforces the European Convention on Human Rights, and the European Pharmacopoeia Commission, which sets the quality standards for pharmaceutical products in Europe. The Council of Europe’s work has resulted in standards, charters and conventions to facilitate cooperation between European countries.Its statutory institutions are the Committee of Ministers (comprising the foreign ministers of each of its 47 Member States), the Parliamentary Assembly (composed of MPs from the parliament of each Member State) and the Secretary General (Thorbjørn Jagland).

B. What can the EU do?

1. Exclusive competences – as per Article 2 (1) and Article 3 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the Euro-pean Union (TFEU) In these areas, only the EU may legislate and adopt legally binding acts. Exceptions are possible if the EU empowers Member States to act or with regard to the implementation of Union acts.• The customs union, including an internal free trade area with common customs tariffs (Art. 31 TFEU). • The monetary policy of the EU for the Member States whose currency is the euro, overseen by the Euro pean Central Bank and with certain precepts formulated in the Stability and Growth Pact (Art.129 (3) and (4), Arts. 132, 138, 219 TFEU). • Competition rules controlling state aid from national governments and the actions of companies necessary for the functioning of the internal market. • A common international trade policy, e.g., a common position in international trade negotiations (Art. 207 TFEU). •The conclusion of certain international agreements (Art. 3 (2) TFEU). •Common commercial policy.•The conservation of marine biological resources (part of the Common Fisheries Policy, Art. 38 (1) TFEU).

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2. Shared EU competences – as per Art. 2 (2) and Art. 4 TFEU These are policy areas on which the Member States have agreed to act individually if the EU has not exer-cised (or planned to exercise) its competence. If a policy area is neither exclusive nor falls under supportive actions, it is a shared competence. Some examples are: • Internal market; • Economic, social and territorial cohesion; • Agriculture and fishing (except the conservation of marine biological resources); • Social policy; • Transport; • Environment, pollution and energy; • Consumer protection; • Area of Freedom, Security and Justice.

3. Supporting, coordinating or complementary competences – as per Art. 2 (5), Art. 6 TFEU The EU can financially support the actions of the Member states that have agreed to coordinate their domestic policies through the EU. However, it does not entail harmonisation of regulations. These areas include: • Education, vocational training, youth and sport; • Tourism;• Administrative cooperation; • Civil protection;• Protection and improvement of human health; • Industry; • Culture.

C. Legal Acts of the EU

While the EU can issue several types of legal acts, not all are fully binding for its Member States. These acts are named according to their legal strength and are divided into: • Regulations – have to be strictly adhered to in all Member States and leave no room for adjustments during the implementation process; • Directives – provide a framework and give a certain policy direction, leaving the states with more flexibi-lity and room for adjustments; • Decisions – always address certain recipients and are only valid for those specific countries/people/insti-tutions; • Recommendations – without legal force, but negotiated and voted on according to the appropriate procedure, they are not binding for the Member States; • Opinions – similar to recommendations in that they have no legal force, but not voted on, simply emit-ted. The European legislative procedure runs considerably longer than those of most Member States. In brief: the EC (which has the exclusive Right to Initiative), the Council and the EP decide if the proposal becomes a legal act after having discussed relevant details. General policy guidelines and statements, especially from the EP, are formulated in Resolutions. They can entail instructions for future procedures, as well as regulations, which are formally valid in the Member States. Legal acts passed by the EP and the Council enter into force once the national governments have transposed them into national law.

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Anette Piirsalu (EE) Fotis Papadogeorgopoulos (GR)

PECH

1. Key Terms• Aquaculture - also known as aquafarming, it’s the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustace-ans, molluscs and aquatic plants. Involves cultivating fish populations under controlled conditions, unlike commercial fishing which involves capturing wild fish;• Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) - a genetically modified organism is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques; • Ecosystem - a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system;• Capture fishery - refers to all kinds of harvesting of naturally occurring living resources in both marine and freshwater environments.

2. Topic RelevanceThe farming of fish, shellfish and aquatic plants is one of the world’s fastest growing food sectors, already providing the planet with about half of all the fish we eat. The industry has grown at an average annual rate of 8.4% since 1970 and total production reached 65.8 million tonnes in 20081. China and the rest of Asia supply 91% of global production. Despite the overall dominance of Asia, however, aquaculture is an important economic activity on most continents and its importance is growing almost everywhere. In Europe, aquaculture accounts for about 20% of fish production and directly employs some 80 000 people2.

Fisheries’ production in the world in 1960 and 2012. Source: FAO The State of World Fisheries and Aquacul-ture 2014Many state that we have exhausted nearly all the possibilities for food production on land, thus the oppor-tunities to increase protein production could instead come from the sea and aquaculture. Aquaculture

1 www.conservation.org/publications/documents/BlueFrontiers_aquaculture_policy-brief.pdf2 http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/aquaculture/index_en.htm

Committee on Fisheries

More than 40% of all the fish consumed annually are now bred on land-based or ocean-based aquafarms. Fish farming has given the fishing industry an econ-omic boost but there are also many negative conse-quences, such as the escape of farmed fish, sea lice, diseases, and ecosystem. What should European states do to promote sustainability in the industry?

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provides stability, as it has constant yields throughout the year, whereas wild fishing depends on catches. ”Aquaculture is most likely to meet the growing demand for animal products with the least demand on ecosystems,” says Senior Vice-President Sebastian Troëng from Conservation International. On the other hand, environmentalists see many alerting factors of fish farming which can damage ecosystem as well as public health. For example, fish farming removes unsustainable quantities of water from rivers or ground sources and returns contaminated water to local water bodies.3 Moreover, fish farmers use hormones, antibiotics, aquatic biocides and unsustainable ingredients, such as GMO soybeans and the waste produ-cts of factory-farmed livestock, to feed the fish. These can, however, damage local ecosystems and have negative impacts on public health. Farmed fish are also more prone to diseases and parasites than wild fish. So when fish escape from the farms, they could infect the wild populations. Aquaculture could possibly be the solution to the world’s growing demand for seafood products, however, how can the industry be made sustainable enough to use its whole potential?

3. StakeholdersEuropean Union (EU) - The European Commission plays a leading role in drafting EU legislation. All pro-posals made by the Commission are backed up by scientific advice and further based on consultation with a wide range of parties. The final form that policies take is decided by the elected governments of the EU through their representatives in the Council of Fisheries Ministers, and after consultation with the elected representatives in the European Parliament.

Member States - National authorities are closely involved throughout the process of policy development. The dialogue between Commission and Council is not limited to the major ministerial meetings, but functions as a continuous consultation through the Council’s working groups. Even more importantly, the Member States are responsible for the implementation and control of their fisheries policy. Having esta-blished common targets through their decisions in Council, along with minimum conditions to be met and criteria which must be respected to ensure a level playing field, each EU nation has then to determine how these basic guidelines can best be translated into practice.

Fish farmers - Fish farmers set how they implement the regulations in their farm and how safe their farm is to the local ecosystem as well as to the consumers. The farmers’ interest is to get the best possible profit for their product. The licenses needed in order to start a fish farm set by the Commission also have a large impact on them.

Environmentalists - Their aims are to lessen the negative impact of aquaculture on the local ecosystems. They are also a part of the consulting process while drafting EU legislation.

Consumers - Consumers play a vital part in determining what products reach the market. Being aware of the pros and cons of both farmed and wild fish might help contextualise the price and quality of the food they consume.

4. Main ConflictsCurrently, Europe’s production of fishery products covers only 44% of its needs4. Taking into considerati-on the stock availability, Europe cannot supply the seafood demand of its citizens from capture fisheries alone. Thus, aquaculture could expand to narrow the widening gap between Europe’s consumption and production.

The Blue Frontiers: Managing the environmental costs of aquaculture report states fish farming can have environmental benefits if done sustainably. Fish process energy more efficiently than mammals such as

3 http://www.esa.org/esa/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/issue8.pdf4 International Trade and the EU Market for fisheries and aquaculture products

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cows and pigs because they are cold-blooded and live in water (so relatively more of the body converts to muscle than bone). The authors say that for each kilogram of protein from beef, a cow needs to be fed the equivalent of 61 kg of grain, for pork, a pig needs 38 kg, but for fish it is just 13 kg of grain. On the other hand, the report also warns that farming can have a greater negative impact if it focuses on carnivorous fish such as eel and salmon, or on shrimps and prawns, which require more temperature con-trol. Many species of farmed fish are carnivorous, which means that fish must be caught from the alrea-dy-exhausted oceans to feed the fish on aquafarms. It can take more than 5 pounds of fish from the ocean to produce just 1 pound of farmed salmon or sea bass. Another problem is when farmed fish escape from the farm into the nature. Farmed fish are more prone to diseases and parasites than wild fish. So when cod escape from the farms, they could infect the wild populations. Furthermore, interbreeding could also reduce the wild gene pool.

Current EU’s safety policies regarding aquaculture are not yet developed enough to be able to ensure no harm for the ecosystems. María José Cornax, a marine scientist from Oceana, said that the current measu-res in place in the EU’s marine policy are far from guaranteeing a real environmentally friendly aquaculture sector. However, the problem stemming from strict environmental protection rules is that they make it difficult for local farmers to compete with other producers outside from Europe who are less ecologically minded.

5. Legislative BackgroundEurope’s ecolabel for fishery and aquaculture products - this ecolabel would help to make the consumers aware which seafood is raised using environmentally friendly methods. Currently, the Commission has published a consultation for the ecolabel. The consultation is intended to assist the Commission in under-standing the different opinions on the positive and negative impacts and issues associated with fisheries and aquaculture ecolabels, from different stakeholder groups.

Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) - formally created in 1983, its origins date back to the early 1970s, when fisheries were originally part of the Common Agricultural Policy. The CFP encompasses the main regulati-ons relating to fishing, fair competition and stock preservation, and technical details such as stock mana-gement and quotas. The Commission now intends to boost aquaculture through a reform of the CFP, and has published Strategic Guidelines to do so.

Strategic Guidelines for the sustainable development of EU aquaculture - presents common priorities and general objectives at the EU level. On the basis of the guidelines, the Commission and EU countries will collaborate to help increase the sector’s production and competitiveness. Four priority areas have been identified in consultation with all relevant stakeholders:- reducing administrative burdens;- improving access to space and water;- increasing competitiveness;- exploiting competitive advantages due to high quality, health and environmental standards.

European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFF) - the fund for the EU’s maritime and fisheries policies for 2014-2020, one of the five European Structural and Investment (ESI) Funds. The fund:- helps fishermen in the transition to sustainable fishing;- supports coastal communities in diversifying their economies;- finances projects that create new jobs and improve quality of life along European coasts;- makes it easier for applicants to access financing.

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6. Key Questions- Should the EU encourage aquaculture, weighting both its positive and negative aspects?- How could the EU make the aquaculture industry more secure and ecologically sustainable while protecting its farmers’ ability to compete in the market?- What specific measures should the EU take in order to have a more sustainable aquafarming industry?- How can the EU aid aquafarmers in enhancing their productivity whilst diminishing the impact of their activities on the environment?- Should the EU limit the market entrance of aquaculture products (including imported products) that have not observed the EU’s environmental regulations?

7. Links for further research• European Parliament’s video on sustainable fish farming • European Commission’s policy on aquaculture• Farmed in the EU - a spin-off of the Inseparable campaign, promotes sustainable seafood and highlights the importance of aquaculture, as one of the world’s fastest growing food sectors.• EUobserver’s article ”EU in search of sustainable fishing”• The Guardian’s article ”Rapid growth in European cod farming prompts fears from green groups”• The Guardian’s article ”Fish farming is answer to increasing global meat demands, says report”• EU’s fishery infographics • Effects of Aquaculture on world fish supplies

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Sarah Geisler (NO) Marta Ocon Barcelo (ES)

LIBE

1. Key Terms• Asylum seeker - The terms asylum seeker and refugee are often confused. An asylum seeker is some one who says he or she is a refugee, but whose claim has not yet been definitively evaluated. A refugee is someone whose official status is refugee as their claim to protection has already been validated; • Migrant - A person who leaves a country to settle permanently in another; an immigrant1;• Common European Asylum System (CEAS) - A joint approach from all EU Member States to guarantee certain standards of protection for refugees. This includes fair procedures based on the same fundamen tal values and on common standards. The EU has been working on this project since 1999 to ensure asy lum seekers are treated equally in every Member State;• Human rights - Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings regardless of nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, religion, language, or any other feature. We are all equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. These rights are all interrelated, interdependent and indivisible2;• Temporary Protection Directive - An exceptional measure to provide displaced persons from non-EU countries, who are unable to return to their country of origin, with immediate and temporary protection. The directive has special procedures in order to deal with mass influxes of displaced persons3. It is intend ed to prevent asylum systems from being overwhelmed in the future;• European Refugee Fund - Cooperation between all Member States, except Denmark, to co-finance and support countries who receive larger amounts of asylum seekers. The Fund aims to guarantee access to consistent, fair and effective asylum procedures. It also supports resettlement programs and actions related to the integration of persons. It is funded by the EU annual budget. Each EU State implements the Fund through national annual programs;• FRONTEX - The European Union’s border management agency.

2. Topic Relevance The humanitarian crisis that unfolds as a result of the unceasing stream of asylum seekers is taking place both at Europe’s external borders but also in the heart of Europe, namely in Calais. Driven by temporary regional conflicts, such as those currently unfolding in Afghanistan, Eritrea and Syria, the number of people seeking protection in Europe is growing exponentially. This is also happening within Europe, with the conflict in Ukraine that has caused more than 300,000 applications for asylum and other forms of legal stay to the Russian Federation alone4. The scenario unfolding as a result of the Ukrainian conflict is com-mon: One country carries the bulk of the burden while other countries fail to co-operate or accommodate. Comparatively, European countries have received 6000 applications in total while the Russian Federation has received 300,000 alone.

1 The Free Dictionary, definition for the term “migrant”.2 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: to read more about human rights, visit United Nation’s website on the topic.3 Directive on temporary protection: to read more about the directive on temporary protection please visit this website. 4 Please visit the following link to read more about the UNCHR: The UN Refugee Agency

Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs

During the first five months of 2015, the number of migrants detected at Europe’s external borders was 149% higher than in the same period of 2014. How can European states better react to the inceasing stream of asylum seekers trying to cross Europe’s borders, while maintaining European human rights standards?

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The United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR) has reported that “[m]any countries are still not fully in conformity with international standards: poor reception conditions, status determination procedures, low recognition rates, as well as lack of access to durable solutions are particular challenges”5. Objectives such as preventing loss of life at sea, building and maintaining effective asylum and protection infrastructures and securing durable solutions are a process of learning by doing, as the migration crises escalates beyond figures seen at any point previously in history. Challenges faced by countries at the forefront often revolve around economic ones, an example being the most recent recession in Greece.

Distinguishing between migrants and asylum seekers or refugees confuses efforts to protect both groups. Migrants who leave home in order to seek a new life in another country or region are a natural phenom-enon. Broadly the word refugee refers to civilians fleeing danger. The risk of violence and exploitation is constant for those not receiving help from official agencies. In addition to this, there is a “significant public anxiety about migration in Europe” (Open Society Foundations) with many European countries opting towards shutting down their borders to isolate the crisis and avoid involvement. Individual countries seem not to be able to solve this crisis alone, hence further European cooperation is needed. These countries need to accommodate the sudden flow of migrants and refugees alike with measures that can easily be put into place and be adapted to regional struggles.

3. StakeholdersThe European Commission: One of the main institutions of the European Union, it is responsible for pro-posing new laws and enforcing them, as well as negotiating agreements with other countries.

The EU Member States: Many believe that the CEAS is insufficient, and a broader and deeper common agreement has to be reached since it does not encompass all 28 Member States currently in the EU - Ire-land, the UK and Denmark are not bound. Member States bound by the CEAS have already incorporated the system’s four legislative acts - Qualification Directive, Procedures Directive, Conditions Directive, Dublin Regulation6 - into their own national laws and judicial systems to comply with the demands of the CEAS.

The European Asylum Support Office (EASO): supports Member States and associate countries in dealing with refugees and asylum seekers procedures. It is a regulatory agency and independent European body who works closely with the national authorities responsible for asylum, the European Commission and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees. It also publishes annual reports, which can be found on their web-site7.

Asylum seekers: The number of migrants at the European borders has risen by 149% in 2015, compared to the same period in 2014. With the death tolls rising every day, hitting 1,865 by the 10th of June, it is clear that something needs to be done8.

4. Main Conflicts The irregular movement to other European countries is disrupted by the “Dublin system regulation” which states that asylum seekers are to be returned to the first European country they were registered in9. This hands the problem back to Italy and Greece, and forces migrants who seek safety and a future in Northern European states to continue their journey using increasingly desperate methods. One example of this is when migrants try to avoid registration in Italy and Greece and continue through Macedonia, Serbia and Hungary. 5 The UN Refugee Agency6 Welcome to Europe, Independent information for refugees and migrants coming to Europe7 ”2011 Annual Report on the Situation of Asylum in the European Union and on the Activities of the European Asylum Support Office”, Euro-pean Asylum Support Office 8 ”Why is EU struggeling with migrants and asylum?”, BBC News 9 ”Understanding Migration and Asylum in the European Union”, Open Society Foundations

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Even though the crisis is repeatedly referred to as a migrant crisis, it is important to remember that often the people trying to cross the border are fleeing from severe situations in their home countries. They can be children separated from their families, victims of war, stateless and displaced people wanting to flee the conflicts they have a basic human right to escape from. Of the more than 77,000 arrivals in Greece from January to August 2015, 85% were refugees, according to the Guardian10. The majority of people arriving in Italy are fleeing armed conflicts in Somalia and Eritrea. Solutions ought to be adjusted to the countries they are to be implemented in - the same means can’t be used in Italy and Greece. The situation has been escalating for years, and without legal alternatives for migrants, they are likely to continue being at risk from human trafficking, gangs and corrupt officials that benefit from the chaos and lack of regula-tion.

5.Legislative BackgroundSince 2009, immigration of non-EU nationals to the EU has been increasing, reaching 626,000 people11 in 2014.

Firstly recognised in the 1951 Geneva Convention on the protection of refugees, asylum is a fundamental right. In order to grant it, several legislative measures such as the CEAS or the policy plan on asylum have been taken by the EU Commission.

Since 1999 the EU has been struggling to create a Common European Asylum System (CEAS), harmonis-ing and reducing the differences between Member States’ laws. This system went through various phases, and ended up being finally agreed upon in 2006, being revised and updated in 2012. It includes one regu-lation12, three directives and minimum standards that all Member States agreed upon, except for Ireland, UK and Denmark.

In addition, the Thematic Program for Migration and Asylum is the main instrument the EU has to ad-dress migration and asylum issues in other countries. It funds projects and cooperates with third countries giving them financial and technical assistance.

Moreover, in response to the refugee crisis in Kosovo during the 1990’s, the EU council created a Tempo-rary Protection Directive13

10 ”These are refugees, not migrants, arriving in their thousands on Greek shores”, The Guardian11 Eurostat: This link leads to statistics about migrants and asylum seekers of the past years, with tables and graphics that help understanding the topic 12 The Dublin II Regulation identifies which European State is responsible for deciding on an asylum application. ”According to the Dublin regulation, you can only apply for refugee status in one member state. Usually, this is the first member state which you reach. In practice this normally means that any subsequent country where you apply will return you to the appropriate state.” There are vast divergences in the way Member States apply the Dublin Regulation and it has lead to massive deportations to countries such as Greece.13 European Commission - Migrant and Home Affairs : Temporary protection Directive, created with the intention of preventing the asylum systems of Member States from being overwhelmed in the future. However, it has never been applied due to the difficulty of achieving the conditions that the Council requires.

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Since September 2014, the European Council has been recommending and working on a shared respon-sibility between Member States towards the countries receiving a vast amount of asylum seekers. It was introduced on the resolution adopted on 29 April 2015.14 Agreed upon by the Council, the proposal has divided Europe. The number of people that each country will accept is still unknown.

6.Key questions- How can the EU ensure a common and equal protection for asylum seekers in all Member States?- How can the EU tackle the problem of unevenly distributed asylum seekers/immigrants among Member States?- How can the EU guarantee that every Member State is going to have enough resources to deal with immigrants fairly?- How can protection to asylum seekers be ensured while their application is being considered?- How can the EU ensure that measures are implemented in accordance to each location while at the same time promoting equality?

7. Links for further research• Asylum Information Database: information about EU asylum legislation;• Council of Europe, Commissioner of Human Rights: information about human rights of immigrants, refugees and asylum seekers;• ”In focus: European approaches to migration in the Mediterranean - A new quota system to distribute refugees throughout Europe”, Andrew & Renata Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law, UNSW Australia;• European Council on Refugees and Exiles;• Eurostat: statistics about asylum applicants;• United For Human Rights: video explaining and defining human rights.

14 The resolution adopted on 29 April 2015 that explicitly calls on the European Commission ”to establish a binding quota for the distribution of asylum seekers among all the Member States”. The proposal asked for the 40,000 asylum seekers who have arrived by boat in Italy and Greece to be relocated across Europe over a period of 24 months.

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Torbjørn Reitan Fyrvik (NO) David Corish (IE)

ENVI

1. Key Terms• Resource Extraction – the process or business of extracting ore or minerals from the ground, such as oil, gas or coal. Due to warming climates, resource extraction is becoming more accessible within the arctic region;• New Trade Routes – the melting of sea ice in the Arctic Region is opening new cross continental pas sages. The Northwest and North Sea passages are being considered as alternative seasonal routes to the Panama and Suez canals, connecting sites of extraction, production and consumption within the global network;• Arctic Region – the Arctic is a region of the planet, north of the Arctic Circle, and includes the Arctic Ocean, Greenland, Baffin Island, other smaller northern islands, and the far northern parts of Europe, Russia (Siberia), Alaska and Canada;• Arctic Petroleum Reserves – it is estimated that the Arctic petroleum reserves account for one-fifth of the world’s undiscovered, recoverable oil and natural gas1. 2. Topic RelevanceGlobal warming is one of the greatest problems faced by today’s society. Increases in average temperatures cause the climate to change drastically. With a temperature increase at almost twice the rate of the global mean2, the Arctic is particularly affected by global warming, undergoing huge changes with the melting of the Arctic ice sheet, as well as surrounding ice caps like the one in Greenland. These changes have made the Arctic an area of increasing geopolitical interest for several reasons.

Source: http://phys.org/news/2012-09-planetary-emer-gency-due-arctic-experts.html The melting of the ice sheets reveals areas of the seas that have earlier been inaccessible and opens the pos-sibility of new trade routes, such as the North-West Passage and the Northern Sea Route. These trade routes can shorten the shipping time from China to Europe by more than 10 days as compared to the Suez Canal Route.

1 http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/arctic/2 https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains1.html

Committee on Environment, Public Health and Food Safety

The melting of the ice in the Arctic led to new oppor-tunities for resource extraction, energy production and new trade routes. With the growing strategic importance of the Arctic region, how can European states best develop its Arctic Policy in order to protect the region’s fragile environment whilst ensuring its economic prosperity?

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Source: http://www.businessinsider.com/the-competition-for-arctic-resources-2014-6 Furthermore, about 20% of the world’s undiscovered, recoverable reserves of hydrocarbons is estimated to be located in the Arctic region3. As the ice sheet is melting, more and more of these will become avail-able for research and potential extraction, making the surrounding countries eager to get their share of the resources.

At the same time, the Arctic has a low diversity of living organisms - its ecosystem is a very fragile one. The increased human activity in the area causes damage and disturbances to this fragile environment and fur-ther contributes to global warming, which again causes enhanced climate change, completing the vicious circle. There is, therefore, a conflict between economic prosperity and protection of the region’s fragile environment, as well as between the extraction of fossil fuels and climate change; there could be signif-icant benefit to exploiting these new resources, but there are environmental considerations to doing so. In addition, the altered geopolitical dynamics of the Arctic have potential consequences for international stability and European security interest, as the Arctic countries seek the resources and opportunities that hide behind the ice sheet.

3. StakeholdersThe European Union (EU): as the largest single market in the world, the EU is comprised of 28 Member States. It is important to remember that the EU is not a homogeneous super-state that acts with a single voice, but rather a complex arrangement of treaties, institutions, and legislation designed to promote the collective interests of the Member States across a range of issues. The EU is inextricably linked to the Arctic region. Three Member States — Denmark (Greenland), Finland and Sweden — have territories in

3 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&language=EN&reference=P7-TA-2014-0236

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the Arctic. Two other Arctic states — Iceland and Norway — are members of the European Economic Area (EEA).

The Arctic Council (Arctic States): a high level intergovernmental forum with the aims of promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic States, with the involvement of the Arctic In-digenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues. The Arctic Council Member States are Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden, and the United States of America. Arctic Council Observers: decisions at all levels in the Arctic Council are the exclusive right and responsi-bility of the eight Arctic States with the involvement of the Permanent Participants. However, Observers4 are invited to attend Arctic Council meetings and make proposals and contributions, even though they have no decision power.

The Indigenous People:The Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC)5 represents Inuit in Greenland/Denmark, Canada, Alaska in the US, and Chukotka in Russia. According to the ICC, the Inuit “welcome the opportunity to work in full partnership with resource developers, governments and local communities in the sustainable development of resourc-es of Inuit lands.”

4. Main ConflictsThe EU and the Arctic CouncilThe EU has clearly shown interest in Arctic affairs, but its involvement in Arctic matters remains conten-tious. Earlier this year, the EU’s application for Permanent Observer status in the Arctic Council was de-ferred by the council6. Some Arctic states are skeptical of EU motives, claiming the EU is too far away and ill-informed about important Arctic issues. Previously, there have been tensions between the EU, Canada and other arctic regions relating to the European Parliament’s decision in 2009 to ban trade in seal fur7. However, if the EU wants to thoroughly develop its Arctic Policy, it needs to reach a consensus with the Arctic States.

Oil vs EnvironmentThe combination of the melting of the Arctic sea ice and the economic and political attractiveness of non-renewable resources, are giving rise to a new Arctic. Even though the rush for Arctic oil and gas has begun, it is fair to say that the safe and efficient extraction of these resources still pose many challenges. The European Parliament itself has no consensus on the question of whether Arctic oil and gas should be used or not: the parliament’s environment committee (ENVI) was willing to introduce a moratorium on offshore oil and gas drilling in the Arctic in 2012, but the Parliament’s committee on industry (ITRE) reject-ed the idea.Despite divergent stakeholder views about oil and gas development, there is agreement in one area: that there is a real risk of industrial or shipping-related environmental disaster. Oil extraction represents the most severe threat to the Arctic environment and to the traditional livelihoods of Arctic peoples. Harsh conditions, including extreme weather and temperatures, winter darkness and icebergs make Arctic oil spills extremely dangerous and difficult to deal with.However, Arctic States, the region’s central decision-makers, have indicated that oil and gas reserves will be developed according to the highest environmental standards. The EU, therefore, will need to proceed with caution, and demonstrate clear respect for the very real sensitivities that Arctic states and peoples have about perceived outsiders encroaching on their affairs.4 http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about-us/arctic-council/observers5 http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about-us/permanent-participants/inuit-circumpolar-council6 http://barentsobserver.com/en/arctic/2015/05/eu-bid-become-arctic-council-observer-deferred-again-04-057 http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/16/greenland-inuits-urge-eu-reverse-seal-ban-save-way-of-life

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5. Legislative Background“Arctic governance is widely recognised as a complex system of fragmented international and regional regulations, which are complemented by non-binding soft law mechanisms, usually as a result of Arctic Council initiatives.”8 However, the EU has also made legislations after European Parliament resolutions stressing the EU’s need to ensure legitimacy and local support for its Arctic engagement9.

Directive 2013/30/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on safety of offshore oil and gas operations (an amendment of Directive 2004/35/CE), sets out the minimum requirements for preventing accidents in offshore oil and gas operations and for limiting the consequences of any such accident. It has four main objectives that read as follows:• To prevent as far as possible the occurrence of major accidents and potential oil spills resulting from oil and gas operations;• To establish minimum conditions for the safe exploration and production of oil and gas, thereby increas ing protection of marine environments against pollution;• To improve the response in the event of an accident;• Where prevention is not achieved, for clean up and mitigation to be carried out to limit the consequenc es. Regulation (EC) No 1007/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council on trade in seal products is a regulation banning the trade of seal products within the EU. Commission Regulation (EU) No 737/2010 of 10 August 2010 lays down detailed rules for the implementation of this regulation. The EU Arctic policy10, with its roots in several resolutions (European Parliament 2008, 2011, 2014), conclu-sions (Council of the EU 2009, 2014) and communications (2008 and 2012), has 3 main policy objectives:• Protecting and preserving the Arctic in cooperation with the people who live there;• Promoting sustainable use of resources;• International cooperation. 6. Key Questions- What countries have territory/interests and what human activity is currently happening in the Arctic region?- How, and to what extent, can the EU cooperate with stakeholders rather than compete about the re sources that will be revealed when the Arctic ice melts?- Given the fragile environment of the Arctic, how can we ensure economic prosperity without harming the surrounding nature?- What stance should the EU take to the exploration and recovering of fossil fuels in the Arctic? 7. Links for further research• Current Intelligence article analysing the different Arctic stakeholders, their interests and what questions are being posed: http://www.currentintelligence.net/analysis/2013/4/1/cool-hunting-mapping-arc tic-stakeholders.html;• The Arctic Council Website: http://www.arctic-council.org/;• The EU’s Arctic Policy: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/fpi/showcases/eu_arctic_policy_en.htm;• Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on The European • Union and the Arctic Region: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52008D C0763&from=EN;

8 http://www.arcticcentre.org/EN/RESEARCH/NIEM/Projects/International-Arctic-Law9 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2014-0236+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN10 http://www.eeas.europa.eu/arctic_region/

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• Opinion piece on the increasing power of the ‘Arctic Five’: http://arcticjournal.com/opinion/1732/arctic- five-strike-again;• Blog post on the recent developments between the EU and the Arctic Council: http://www.worldpolicy. org/blog/2015/06/24/european-union-arctic;• Article about the “Cold Response” in Norway: http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/en/blogs/natosource/six teen-nations-participating-in-norway-s-cold-response-military-exercise-this-week;• Russia’s interest and presence in the Arctic: http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2014/04/23/russias-ter ritorial-ambition-and-increased-military-presence-in-the-arctic/;• Video explaining the situation and developments in the Arctic: http://www.rt.com/news/arctic-reclama tion-resources-race-524/.

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ITRE

Olivia Rashidi (NO) Magnus Berg Sletfjerding (NO)

1. Key Terms • Fossil fuels - any material of biologic origin that can be used as a source of energy, e.g. gas, petroleum or coal. Fossil fuels provide around 80% of global energy, but this percentage is decreasing and is es- timated to continue doing so in the long term, with the increased focus on sustainable and renewable energy sources1;• Renewable energy - any energy source that is naturally regenerated over a short time period and de- rived, directly or indirectly, from natural movement and mechanisms of the environment, such as sun- light, tidal waves and wind;• Energy mix - the usage of energy from different sources available for each country in order to meet its energy needs. For each country, the energy mix depends on the availability of resources or the possibility of importing these;• Energy supply security - the combination of national security and the availability of natural resources for energy consumption;• Supply diversification - measurement of the abundance and flexibility of suppliers for a certain product, used to better prepare one’s supply chain for market complications and unpredictabilities;• Microgeneration - the small-scale generation of heat and electricity, usually done by a business, house hold, or a community. Microgeneration usually involves renewable energy, and can provide surplus ener- gy back to the main grid;• Smart grids - electricity grids that communicate real-time energy consumption data to energy produc- ers, in order to more effectively distribute and produce energy. A smart grid will process data for the grid to calculate when electricity is most likely to be used, and adjust the production accordingly. 2. Topic RelevanceThe focus on renewable energy within the European Union (EU) is increasing as a result of the EU’s desire for common policy objectives that would ensure competitiveness, security of supply and sustainability of Member States with regards to energy. In January 2014, the European Commission proposed the 2030 climate and energy package, which contains policies aimed at extending the EU’s climate policies beyond Horizon 2020 to 2030. This was a direct result of worldwide incidents that had an impact on the European energy sector, thus making the 2030 climate and energy package not only limited to being a climate target alone, but also intended to serve as an energy vision for Europe. Bearing in mind goals set forth for the EU in the Energy Roadmap 2050, the 2030 package will not move Europe in a new direction, but primarily further the goals set for the development of renewable energy production in previous policies.

However, current predictions show that 13 Member States will not to reach the 2020 legally binding en-vironmental targets unless additional measures are taken, thereby delaying the completion of the 2030 and 2050 targets. Given the fact that the EU produces less energy than it consumes - of which a rough 24%

1 http://theenergycollective.com/scottbittle/257356/25-years-now-and-still-relying-fossil-fuels

Committee on Industry, Research and Energy

Europe is experiencing a “green shift”, with its focus turning towards renewable energy sources in order to decrease greenhouse gas emissions, increase energy sustainability and tackle climate change. To what ex-tent should locally produced energy be used in order to increase reliable, sustainable and affordable energy to Europe’s citizens?

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is collected renewable resources2 - many areas need to be addressed regarding the EU’s dependency on external energy imports. Due to these imports, the EU is heavily reliant on its trade relations with coun-tries such as Algeria, Norway, Saudi-Arabia, but primarily Russia - the EU’s biggest energy supplier. A new narrative is emerging from the European Commission, one where energy security is proclaimed to be as necessary for the EU’s development as limiting the emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHG). Self-sustain-ability is becoming more and more desirable, but in an increasingly conflicted world, both economically and politically, making renewable energy more accessible is one of the biggest environmental and political challenges the EU is facing today.

3. Stakeholders

European Commission: as the executive body of the EU (made up of 1 commissioner per Member State), the EC proposes and enforces legislation, manages the EU budget, allocates funds and represents the EU internationally.

European Council: composed by the heads of state of each Member State and the president of the EC, the Council defines the general political direction and priorities of the EU.

European Parliament (EP) and the Council of the EU: made of political representatives from the Mem-ber States, the EP and the Council of the EU approve the legislation proposed by the Commission. The Parliament can also ask the Commission to submit a proposal for legislation.

Member States: they are responsible for the integration and implementation of EU laws in their national territories. Due to energy being a shared competence, Member States have the competence to make their own laws concerning energy, but need to primarily comply with the targets outlined by EU legislation.

Suppliers/Supplier States: energy suppliers and states whose main export is energy may have to find

2 http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Renewable_energy_statistics

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alternative ways to support their economy if locally produced energy takes over, and some countries may need to import less energy. Energy suppliers, especially the ones using non-renewable energies, might be against legislation encouraging microgeneration and renewable energy.

Enterprises: for enterprises, there will be an initial high upfront cost if they decide to endorse microgen-eration. Although the investment is likely to pay off, the return on investment may take up to a decade which may cause many enterprises may be reluctant about such investment.

Civil Society: civil society includes Non-Governmental Organisations, initiatives by local communities, and other activities driven by consumer power and independent movements. 4. Main ConflictsThe EU promises to focus on energy independence but is still heavily reliant on fossil fuels, with 53% of the energy consumed by the EU each year imported from external actors3. States whose main energy and economic source is fossil fuels will be heavily affected by a change or cut in energy trading in the sector.

Domestically produced energy is primarily obtained from nuclear power or renewable energy sources and, in contrast, the energy imported is primarily obtained from oil and other fossil fuels4. There seems to be a lack of an unified strategy within the EU regarding the issue, with some Member States importing the ma-jority of their energy from countries like Russia and some being able to develop their own energy sources; each Member State has their own particular set of natural resources and energy mix.

Energy supply is largely dependent on economic and political situations, thus the distribution of energy is different from one region to another. The responsibility of each country’s energy mix characteristics is up to them, as this is a shared competence of the EU thus granting a lot of flexibility to Member States. As a result of this, the progress towards a low carbon economy is still slower than desirable.

Source: The European Wind Energy Association

With Russia being the leading external supplier of energy to the EU5 and with most energy traveling through Eastern Europe, the fear of geopolitical events limiting the access to energy sources is increasing and the topic of upholding existing trade relations is a huge part of the discussion regarding the develop-ment of renewable energy. The European Commission has put forward an European Energy Security Strat-egy, but it mainly focuses on reducing its reliance on third countries, rather than fossil fuels as a whole, and does not discuss energy security and climate policy in general.Finally, the high costs and slow progress associated with renewable energy and technology installation make the field less attractive for Member State investment.

3 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-15-4497_en.htm, key figures.4 http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Energy_production_and_imports#Primary_production5 http://epthinktank.eu/2015/03/25/eu-russia-energy-relations-stuck-together/

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5. Legislative Background There is no current EU-wide legislation concerning locally produced energy, or microgeneration, due to the fact that under the Lisbon Treaty, energy is a shared competence of the EU. Hence, Member States are individually responsible for introducing or altering national legislation concerning energy, in order to comply with the EU’s binding targets.

However, the EU has imposed binding renewable energy targets as part of the 2020 Strategy and 2030 Strategy, making Member States create and adhere to National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAPs). The Renewable Energy Directive (RED) sets a 20% target for renewable energy in the EU by 2020, and Member States are responsible for providing the means to this end. The 2030 Energy Strategy, adding new targets to the 2020 strategy, was passed into law this summer, and requires Member States to reduce emissions by approximately 40%, planning towards 80% in the 2050 Framework6. In July, the EC published the Energy Union Framework Strategy 7 to empower consumers - however, this has not yet become law.

In 2014, the Energy Security Strategy was introduced, establishing energy security as a matter of impor-tance, with notes on increasing energy efficiency and energy production within the EU, diversifying suppli-ers and supply routes, making the EU speak with one voice in matters of external energy policy, strength-ening emergency and solidarity measures between different Member States and protecting as well as completing critical infrastructure for an internal energy market.

6. Key Questions - How can investment in green, carbon-efficient technologies better be incentivised and made more at tractive within the EU to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels and energy trade?- To what degree should the EU facilitate Member States’ development of locally produced, renewable energy?- Does the diversification of suppliers guarantee energy independence in the long term?- Are the climate and energy targets for 2030 a sufficient intermediary step between Europe 2020 and the EU’s Roadmap for moving to a low-carbon economy in 2050, or should more legislation be introduced? 7. Links For Further Research• Video on renewing Europe’s energy self-sufficiency: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MlMJaOdmdE;• Blog-post about the challenges that come with renewable energy: http://oneinabillionblog.com/summa ry-2/laws/additional-challenges-facing-renewable-energy/;• Vision of the Roadmap for moving to a low-carbon economy in 2050 along with video of EU Climate Commissioner, Connie Hedgaard: http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/roadmap/index_en.htm;• Energy challenges and policy by the EC: http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/pdf/energy2_en.pdf;• Increasing the EU’s energy independence: http://www.ecofys.com/en/publication/increasing-the-eus-en ergy-independence;• Contributing to EU energy independence: renewable ethanol: http://www.epure.org/ethanol-for-fuel/ benefits/contributing-eu-energy-independence;• Forbes article on EU fossil fuel reliance: http://www.forbes.com/sites/mikescott/2014/05/29/europe- must-reduce-reliance-on-all-fossil-fuels-not-just-russias/• Governing towards renewable energy in the EU: competences, instruments and procedures: http://www. maastrichtjournal.eu/pdf_file/ITS/MJ_21_01_0039.pdf.

6 http://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-strategy/2030-energy-strategy7 http://ec.europa.eu/priorities/energy-union/index_en.htm

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TRAN

Dmytro Zinchuk (UA) Can Elvanlioglu (TR)

Committee on Transport and Tourism

Since the invention of the motorised vehicle, the infrastructure of cities has been developed according to the facilitation of their use. With rapidly growing populations, pollution and deteriorated air qua-lity, what measures should European states take to ensure the environmental sustainability of means of transportation in European cities?

1. Key Terms• Transport 2050 - a comprehensive strategy by the European Commission that aims to increase mobility and re- duce emissions;• Horizon 2020 - a research and innovation programme ensuring that Europe stays at the cutting edge of techno- logical advances in science, including transport. It is a financial instrument with nearly €80 billion of funding being made available from 2014 – 2020;• Trans-European transport network (TEN-T) - a longstanding and ambitious project to modernise and ‘knit to- gether’ today’s patchwork of Member States’ transport network into a smooth-running network that connects all corners of Europe while making the best use of all the different means of travel;• Transport Industry - the industry that encompasses freight and passenger transport by modes of air, road, rail, maritime and inland waterways;• Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) - integration of information and communication technologies (ICT) with vehicles and transport infrastructure to improve economic performance, safety, mobility and environmental sus- tainability;• E-Mobility - clean and environmentally friendly transport using electric vehicles (EV);• Conventionally Fuelled Vehicles - all vehicles using non-hybrid, internal combustion engines.

2. Topic RelevanceAir quality across Europe has improved substantially over the past decade - visible air pollution has disappeared from many cities due to initiatives on local, national and European levels1. Nevertheless, it is still a concern in Eu-rope, with the focus shifting from industrial air pollution to the one caused by transportation.

The transport industry significantly harms the environment, namely air quality. The transport sector is responsible for around a quarter2 of the EU’s greenhouse gas emissions, while heavily relying on fossil fuels, which are not a sus-tainable fuel source. Therefore, despite the EU’s ambition towards creating a more competitive transport system, concerns linked to environmental damage and lower air quality in urban areas are still pressing.

1 Air Quality in Europe2 “Reducing Emissions form Transport”, European Commission

Source: European Commission

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On the other hand, transport plays a vital role in European economy and its recovery from the downfall of recent years. The sector, besides directly employing more than 10 million people, accounting for 4.5% of total employment and 4.6% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)3, is very important for the EU as it connects its citizens and businesses. The European society is thus faced with a dilemma. A higher quality of transport services has major positive con-sequences on peoples’ quality of life and in the creation of new jobs in the sector. However, the negative conse-quences of these standard of living improvements are the reason why society faces environmental stress and lower air quality, which will in itself lower the standards again. The EU, in alliance with industries, is a key player in the effort to achieving cleaner air and a sustainable transportation system. Yet society itself is potentially an even bigger part of the equation, as they can reshape the future of European Transport Infrastructure by using their power and influence as consumers.

3. Stakeholders

The European Union: sets central environmental targets, launches initiatives on a European level and strategises the means needed to reach the set goals, aiming at a more efficient, safe and environmentally friendly transport infrastructure.4 The Member States are responsible for implementing the targets and policies set by the EU and transpose its legislation into national law. With transport being a shared competence inside the EU, both the EU and its Member States can adopt legally binding acts in the transport area, however the Member States can only do so if the EU has not already exercised its competence. Member States report their improvements concerning emission levels and transportation to the EU.

Market & Industry: working under the legislative framework provided by the EU and Member States, the industry sector invests on research to expand and optimise its effectiveness, profitability and efficiency, as well as ideally maximising its benefits to civil society and the environment.

3 Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area: Facts and Figures: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/strategies/facts-and-figures/all-themes/index_en.htm4 About Us Directorate General of Mobility and Transport Official Webpage

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Civil Society: at the very end of the spectrum, civil society represents the collective rights and interests of society as a whole. Its crucial role is to work on a voluntary and independent basis by collectively or individually serving soci-ety’s interests through entrepreneurial ideas, start-ups and initiatives. Civil society can be a major driving force for positive change and highly influence decision makers at a local, national and European level.

4. Main Conflicts

5. Legislative BackgroundIn 2011 the Commission published a White Paper - a strategic document explaining the roadmap to a single Europe-an transport area aiming at achieving a developed but more environmentally friendly transport sector.

The Commission also adopted a comprehensive strategy, Transport 2050, which also aims to achieve a single Euro-pean transport network to increase mobility, remove major barriers in key areas and fuel growth and employment, by:- shifting 50% of all medium-distance passenger and freight transport from the roads onto rail and waterborne transport for intercity travel;- increasing the efficiency of new engines, fuels and traffic management systems of long-distance travel and inter-continental freight, air travel and ships, as these modes will continue to dominate long-distance travel. This increase in efficiency will help reduce emissions5.

The Commission also implemented Horizon 2020, a research funding program to ensure that Europe stays at the cutting edge of technological advances in transport in addition to the Trans-European transport network - a long-

5 Transport 2050: Commission outlines ambitious plan to increase mobility and reduce emissions

- Member States have started using improved traffic man-agement and information systems and Intelligent Commu-nication Systems for optimal route calculation that encour-ages reduction in GHG emissions.

- The EU has set ambitious targets and some progress has already been made towards a single European Transport area through initiatives such as TEN-T and Transport 2050

- The EU and its Member States look forward to new tech-nologies, the implementation of smart ticketing and e-ser-vices, and the reduction of the costs of freight transport, in an effort to reach the set environmental goals.

- The European Commission is currently aiming to become a global actor in the international transport network.

- The Member States are renewing their infrastructures to incorporate European Initiatives, which leads people to change their conventional mode of transport by financial arrangements or creating better accessibility.

- The transport infrastructures and research investments across Member States vary greatly, which hinders the TEN-T programme goals.

- Member States have administrative differences that lead to divergences in the implementation of EU policies and the meeting of EU targets.

- Financial interests of freight transport companies need to be taken into account. While an overall increase in efficiency to the transport sector benefits them, their primary concern is their own profit margins.

- There are other regions that also share the same interest of becoming a global actor in international transport network such as Middle Eastern and Asian countries.

- Citizens are used to using conventional modes of transport, that is, road transport in Europe.

- Sectors like road and rail transport lack fair and open com-petition and new markets.

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standing and ambitious project to connect all corners of Europe while making the best use of all the different means of travel.

The Civitas, (City, Vitality and Sustainability) initiative was launched in 2002 with the aim to redefine transport mea-sures and policies in order to create cleaner, better transport in cities.In addition to the legislation currently in place, civil society has also been involved in tackling the issue at hands through initiatives such as urban city transportation start-ups in car sharing and taxi hailing.

6. Key Questions- How can the clash of research interests and differences in infrastructure capabilities and administrative structures of Member States be overcome to achieve a Single European Transport Network? - How can different modes of transportation be combined in order to achieve a fully integrated European-wide transport infrastructure? - While increasing the mobility potential and freight capacity in transportation, how can a sustainable infrastructure be prepared? - What measures can promote a transition to a more environmentally friendly and sustainable transport network while considering all of the stakeholders’ interests?

7. Links for Further Research• “The European Union explained: Transport”, (2014), European Union;• “White Paper on Transport: Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area - Towards a Competitive and Re source-Efficient Transport System”, (2011), European Commission, Directorate General for Mobility and Transport; • “Reducing Emissions from Transport”, European Commission, Climate Action - EU Action, May 2015.• “EU Transport GHG: Routes to 2050 - Developing a better understanding of the secondary impacts” (2012), Euro pean Environment Agency.• “Transport 2050: The Major Challenges The Key Measures” (2011) European Commission• “Do the Right Mix – Sustainable Urban Mobility” (2012), European Commission video

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INTA

Camilla Hatling (NO) Conrad Bali (NO)

1. Key Terms • European Economic Area (EEA) – an agreement that brings together the EU Member States and the three EEA EFTA states - Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein - in an internal market governed by legisla- tion that covers the four freedoms - the free movement of goods, services, capital and persons- throughout the 31 EEA States in an open and competitive environment; • Transparency – an attitude of openness, honest communication and accountability when conducting financial activities, aiming at lowering secrecy and increasing people’s level of trust in said activities;• Free Trade Agreement (FTA) – a binding agreement between two parties (typically countries or trade blocs) to cooperatively reduce trade barriers such as tariffs or quotas, promoting the free trade of goods and services between them;• Non-tariff barriers (NTBs) – any restrictive measure (excluding tariffs) that aims to make importation and exportation of products difficult or costly, such as quotas, embargoes and domestic regulations.

2. Topic Relevance Negotiations between the United States (US) and the European Union (EU) to forge an ambitious Trans-atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) started in July 2013. The main purpose of the partnership is to create a single transatlantic free trade market. By reducing tariffs and non-tariff barriers as well as enhancing closer regulatory cooperation, TTIP will make it easier for firms on both sides of the Atlantic to do business together and will increase overall trading activity1. It is estimated that around 80 per cent2 of the total economic gains of the TTIP will come from cutting costs related to the removal of tariffs and un-necessary regulations. The TTIP might encompass a broad array of sectors including, but not limited to, farming and agriculture, public procurement, data protection, banking, risk management, foreign direct investment, investor-state dispute settlement, technical standards and the environment.

While the EU and the US have decreased their shares of world trade in recent years3, leading Asian coun-tries, in particular China, have increased theirs. Through TTIP, the EU and the US believe they can re-estab-lish their influence over international trade rules and regain a leading position in world trade.Depending on how ambitious it turns out to be, TTIP could bring significant economic gains - 119 bil-lion euros a year for the EU and 95 billion euros a year for the US. This translates to an extra 545 euros in disposable income each year for a family of 4 in the EU, on average, and 655 euros per family of 4 in the US4. The increased level of economic activity and productivity gains created by the agreement will benefit the EU and US labour markets, both in terms of overall wages and new job opportunities for high and low skilled workers.

1 http://www.efta.int/sites/default/files/images/15-615%20150317%20JPC%20Report%20TTIP%20and%20the%20implications%20on%20the%20EEA%20587319_2_0.pdf 2 http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/march/tradoc_150737.pdf page 73 http://www.efta.int/sites/default/files/documents/advisory-bodies/consultative-committee/cc-opinions/EEA%20CC%20Resolution%20and%20Report%20on%20TTIP%20final.pdf page 54 http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/march/tradoc_150737.pdf page 7

Committee on International Trade

The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership is currently being negotiated between the EU and the US. With deeply integrated economies, this part-nership will also be of big importance for Norway and the EEA. Bearing in mind the growing opposition to certain crucial aspects of the agreement and its over-all secrecy, how should the EU and the EEA position themselves towards the TTIP negotiations?

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Norway and the other EEA-states now have a very limited amount of time to affect the outcome of the ne-gotiations, and how the agreement will affect them. Although the European Commission - the institution that negotiates on behalf of the EU5 - is obliged to take into account different perspectives and consider the interests of stakeholders, the EEA-states are not formally included in the negotiations.

3. Stakeholders EEA States – the TTIP agreement will unquestionably affect the EEA States, which themselves do not get to formally participate in the negotiations. The EEA can be involved either through the Joint Parliamentary Committee or the EEA Consultative Committee, but they do not have any legislative powers, only consul-tative ones. Trade ethics require that EU negotiators provide an informal space to convince EEA countries their consumers’ interests are being taken into consideration6. The EEA EFTA States have proposed to the EU to use Protocol 12 of the EEA Agreement as a model for establishing cooperation on the EEA-relevant aspects of the TTIP negotiations. Protocol 12 on Mutual Recognition Agreements provides some guidance with regards to cooperation and information exchange between the EU and the EEA EFTA States in this field7. European Union – even though the Commission argues that the TTIP negotiations are “the most open ever”8, the European Union’s civil society members still demand an increase of the negotiations’ level of transparency. Accordingly, the Commission has published online material and information on the negoti-ations, such as negotiating texts, proposals, fact sheets and position papers. In spite of this, the EU believes a certain level of secrecy is still necessary to protect its interests, and the US has also been reluctant towards increasing the disclosure of information on the TTIP.

United States – prior to launching negotiations, the United States set out its negotiating objectives in a publicly available notification to the U.S. Congress. The United States Trade Representative (USTR) wants less transparency9 on the deal. One of the U.S. goals of TTIP is to reduce trade barriers that can burden small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The SMEs supply larger exporting firms, who will also benefit directly from increased exports – and more jobs. Additionally, the U.S. and the EU aim to increase their influence on global marketplace guidelines, quality norms and safety criteria that benefit industries and consumers worldwide10.

4. Main Conflicts The most debated and controversial issue arising from the TTIP is the possibility that the EU will lower its quality standards and allow many new products to be imported from the US and enter the European market, which is deeply linked to health concerns and food safety. The European Commission has said that “EU standards simply aren’t up for negotiations11. However, in May 2015, it was revealed12 that the EU dismissed pesticide laws due to pressure from the US. As the EU standards are overall more demanding 5 http://ec.europa.eu/atwork/decision-making/index_en.htm 6 http://www.beuc.eu/blog/how-ttip-will-affect-consumers-in-the-eus-neighbouring-countries/ 7 http://www.efta.int/sites/default/files/documents/advisory-bodies/consultative-committee/cc-opinions/EEA%20CC%20Resolution%20and%20Report%20on%20TTIP%20final.pdf page 98 http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2015/march/tradoc_153266.pdf 9 http://keionline.org/node/2021 10 http://germany.usembassy.gov/ttip/ 11 http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2015/march/tradoc_153266.pdf page 412 http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/may/22/eu-dropped-pesticide-laws-due-to-us-pressure-over-ttip-documents-reveal

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than US ones, the harmonisation of regulations could lead to the lowering of EU standards.

The lack of transparency on the negotiations is also one of the main reasons for the growing opposition towards the agreement, amongst EU citizens. Many are worried that the TTIP will give corporations too much power and change the role they play in politics. Anti-TTIP movements argue that business lobbying groups have been cooperating across the Atlantic. They believe these lobbying groups, hired by big corpo-rations to protect their interests, are affecting the negotiations more than elected officials are, and under-mining a democratic process around the negotiations.

Whether the investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) should be a part of the TTIP-agreement or not, is highly debated. The ISDS is a mechanism that would give foreign investors the right to sue states in pri-vate arbitration courts for any actions that could damage their profit expectations, increasing the power of big corporations. As a one-way legal system, the ISDS allows corporations to sue states, but not states to sue corporations. This mechanism has previously been used to sue a government for implementing envi-ronmental laws, as was the case with the Swedish energy company Vattenfall13.

Another conflict arising from this partnership is the tariff versus liberalisation debate. The tariff scenario would involve the complete removal of tariffs in all trades between the US and the EU. It is considered to be a less ambitious and comprehensive outcome of the negotiations, which might not bring the EU-US trade relationship to its full potential. The liberalisation scenario, on the other hand, would represent a significantly wider and more ambitious outcome of the TTIP - the removal or reduction of restrictions that go beyond tariffs, such as NTBs, enabling free trade to a greater extent. Although average tariff levels are relatively low already, the current plan is to cut tariff barriers to zero and other non-tariff barriers (NTBs) by 25-50%14.The first image shows how the TTIP will affect wages, the average per-person income, around the world in a tariff scenario. The second one shows the impact on the wage level in a full liberalisation scenario

13 https://stop-ttip.org/europeans-dont-want-investor-state-dispute-settlement-trade-agreements/ 14 http://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jul/03/what-is-ttip-controversial-trade-deal-explained

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5. Legislative Background The EU is the world’s largest exporter, with over 500 million consumers, a single market with common rules and an attractive export market for non-Eu countries. The EU has exclusive power15 to legislate on trade matters16 and to conclude international trade agreements, based on World Trade Organisation ru-les, on behalf of its 28 Member States. Its policy covers trades in goods and services but also matters such as commercial aspects of intellectual property and foreign direct investment. It has enacted trade defence and market access instruments mainly with the purpose of protecting EU businesses from obstacles to trade.

There are several measures already in place to ensure transparency to some extent when it comes to the negotiations of trade deals. The standards for such transparency are stated in a factsheet made by the European Commission. On the preparatory stage of every trade deal, there are public consultations were stakeholders and interest groups get two months to reflect on the topic before submitting their view. Other measures in the preparatory stages are regular meetings with stakeholders (civil society dialogue), a sustainability impact assessment with an independent study of the possible economic, social and environ-mental impacts of the agreement, and lastly in the preparatory stage, the European Commission initiates a dialogue with the Council of the EU and the European parliament.

6. Key Questions - Should the level of transparency of negotiations increase or decrease and what are the consequences of each scenario?- How can the EEA-states best affect the negotiations?- Are the EU and the US ultimately responsible for other economies in the world?- To what extent should the EU weight consumer and environment protection against the potential eco nomic benefits of TTIP?

15 http://europa.eu/pol/comm/index_en.htm16 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/search.html?qid=1439663216599&type=named&SUM_2_CODED=0701&SUM_1_CODED=07&name=summa-ry-eu-legislation:external_trade

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7. Links for further research• European Commission - TTIP in focus: http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/in-focus/ttip/ • Inside TTIP - an overview and chapter-by-chapter guide published by the European Commission: http:// trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2015/july/tradoc_153635.pdf • TTIP Explained - video by IBT Partners: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w4J2InGns3Y • What is the TTIP? - video by the british activist group 38 Degrees: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Y4OQeekSD6s • ISDS – a corporate system of injustice. Video by Campact: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dSuIGKS m7z0 • Resolution and report on the impact of the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership on the EEA Agreement published by the EEA Consultative Committee: http://www.efta.int/sites/default/files/documents/advisory-bodies/consultative-committee/cc-opinions/ EEA%20CC%20Resolution%20and%20Report%20on%20TTIP%20final.pdf• The expected impact of the TTIP on EU Member States and selected third countries published by the Directorate-General for External Policies (European Parliament): http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2014/536403/EXPO_IDA(2014)536403_EN.pdf • Internet security with respects to TTIP legislatures published by Economy In Crisis: http://economyincrisis.org/content/sopa-and-pipa-are-coming-back-unless-we-stop-the-trans-pacific- partnership• Updated news on international TTIP negotiations, published by the Office of the United States Trade Representative (Executive office of the President): https://ustr.gov/ttip

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AFCO

Anniken Knutsen (NO) Toni Dirlinger (AT)

1. Key Terms• Euroscepticism - opposition towards the EU as an institution or towards increasing its powers and competences: • hard Euroscepticism: opposition to membership or the sole existence of the European Union; • soft Euroscepticism: support to membership and the existence of the European Union, but with opposition to specific EU policies, and opposition to a federal Europe;• Secession - the withdrawal of a group from a larger entity, especially a state, but also any organisation, union or military alliance;• Devolution - giving powers from the central government of a sovereign state to a regional level. It is a form of decentralisation. Devolved territories have the power to make legislation relevant to their area;• Sovereignty - the supreme power of a state to independently govern itself or another state;• Intergovernmentalism - arrangements whereby nation states, in situations and conditions they can con trol, cooperate with one another on matters of common interest. The existence of control, which allows all participating states to decide the extent and nature of this cooperation means that national sover eignty is not directly undermined;• Supranationalism - extending beyond or transcending established borders or spheres of influence held by separate nations. This could be outside or beyond the authority of one national government, as a proj ect or policy that is planned and controlled by a group of nations.

2. Topic RelevanceCurrently, various peoples across Europe are calling for increased independence and self-governance.

Fuelled by the economic recession, Euroscepticism is rising in its Member States1 and some consider the EU to pose infringements to their national sovereignty. Eurosceptics call for a decrease of EU competences or even withdrawal of their respective countries. At last year’s European Par-liament elections, Eurosceptic parties gained votes across several Member States, as the map shows.

A referendum in the United Kingdom is planned in 2017, in order to determine whether the country is going to stay in the EU, making the withdrawal of one of the EU’s largest Member States a possible scenario2. Further-more, the possibility of a Grexit - Greece leaving the EU due to its public indebtedness - has been heavily discussed. A Member State leaving the EU would have an enormous impact not only on the nation itself but also on the remaining countries.

1 http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/insrv/resources/edc/Euroscepticism.pdf - guide to Euroscepticism over 2 http://www.theguardian.com/membership/2015/jun/19/guardian-live-brexit-what-would-happen-if-the-uk-left-the-eu

Committee on Constitutional Affairs

Devolution in Europe: Following a wave of seces-sionist movements and the possible withdrawal of Member States from the EU, how can cooperation be sustained while respecting nations’ right to self-go-vernance and independence?

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While Eurosceptics call for more national sovereignty, secessionist movements in several regions across Europe strive for autonomy and aspire to become independent nations themselves. Nationalists in for example Catalonia, Scotland or Flanders seek to break away from their countries. This would have major implications on the seceding region, the original country and also on the EU.

Economical and political cooperation are core principles of the EU and they have proven mutually bene-ficial for EU member states. The question at hand is how the EU should meet those claims for more sov-ereignty both at a national and a regional level without diminishing the amount of cooperation between European countries.

3. Stakeholders The European Union: In order for the EU to function, its Member States must give up parts of their com-petences to EU bodies. There are different sorts of competences for different policy areas3. In some areas - such as trade or customs - the EU has exclusive competences; in many areas - such as environment, transport or consumer protection - the EU shares competences with Member States; in other areas - such as education and culture decisions lie with the Member States and the EU only has supporting compe-tences.

Member States: Giving up parts of their competences is seen as a loss of national sovereignty by some parties in several EU Member States. While soft Eurosceptics want to change the status quo towards in-creasing their independence, hard Eurosceptics do not see a way of compromising and want their coun-tries to withdraw form the EU. Withdrawal of Member States from the EU is an actual possibility in Greece (Grexit) and Britain (Brexit)4.

Potential breakaway regions: Within several Member States, there are regions - such as Scotland, Cata-lonia or Flanders - in which secessionist movements are currently active. Their goal is to gain autonomy from their respective mother countries and to form new independent European states. The public’s view on secession in those regions is, however, mostly split as there are both arguments for and against seces-sion.

4. Main Conflicts Intergovernmentalism vs Supranationalism - more or less EU?Turnout in the European Parliament elections has steadily declined over three decades from 62% in the first election in 1979 to 43% in the 2009 election5. There is great concern that the legitimacy of the Euro-pean Union is at stake should there be a further slide in voter turnout. Such legitimacy is of particular concern since the crisis has been accompanied by a growing European divide between the “north” and the “south,” between the “core” and the “periphery.” Instead of growing closer together, Europe seems to have stagnated or even be going backwards in the integration process. The question that has to be asked is whether Europe should meet Eurosceptic movements with more or less EU.

What stance should the EU take on secessionist movements? Should the EU encourage or discourage secessions? Should the EU be in favour of a devolution or a cen-tralisation of its Member States? Most secessionist movements see the future of their region, after poten-tially gaining independence, in an united and integrated Europe. For instance, the slogan of the Catalonian Independence Movement translates to: “Catalonia, new state in Europe.” They want their regions to be-come part of the EU in order to ensure cooperation, stability and prosperity. The economic and socioeco-

3 http://ec.europa.eu/citizens-initiative/public/competences/faq4 http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/28/eu-summit-migration-greece-crises-uk-referendum5 http://bruegel.org/2014/05/will-voters-turn-out-in-the-2014-european-parliamentary-elections/

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nomic consequences of potentially loosing EU membership (even if just temporarily) are a major discoura-gement for people voting in referenda on secessions. That is why the EU’s stance concerning secessionist movements matters greatly to the people in these regions6.

5. Legislative BackgroundMember States’ withdrawal from the European UnionAccording to article 50 of the Treaty of Lisbon, Member States can withdraw from the European Union in accordance with their own constitutional requirements. In most cases, that would be a referendum held in that country (such as the one in the UK in 2017).

Enhanced Cooperation The enhanced cooperation process happens when a group of at least 9 Member States decides that it will move ahead with an initiative proposed by the Commission, when it proves impossible to reach unanimo-us agreement among all Member States on it. It is only relevant to policy areas which require unanimity, and it aims to overcome the situation whereby certain Member States are prevented from advancing with a common approach due to the reluctance and non-agreement of others. This process can only happen within the Union’s non-exclusive competencies framework. Clear provisions and conditions for enhanced cooperation are set out in Article 20 of the TEU and Articles 326 to 334 of the TFEU.

Opt-outUsually, EU legislation is applied in all 28 Member States. However, Member States occasionally negotiate opt-outs, thus keeping them out of certain policies or treaties. For example Ireland and the UK opted-out of the Schengen Agreement. Another example is the opt-out from the Monetary Union, like Denmark and the United Kingdom. They have ‘opt-out’ clauses in the Treaty exempting them from participation7.

6. Key Questions- Which measures should be taken in order to prevent further euroscepticism in the European countries? - What should the EU do to prevent a “national security threat” in the form of an independence movement? - Can the EU meet the Member State’s demands for sovereignty in order to prevent further secessionist movements, and if so, how?- If one of the Member States decides to leave the EU, what should be done to continue the cooperation between European countries? - Should the EU take a neutral stance at regional secessionist movements, or should it encourage or discourage them?

7. Links for further research• Guide to Euroscepticism, providing an overview as well as listing eurosceptic organisations and parties; Article focusing on the EU’s stance towards secessionism: “Towards a plausible EU response to breaka way regions”, euobserver;• Memo by the European Commission explaining the enhanced cooperation process with an example of cooperation on a financial transaction tax; Lengthy but very informative paper on “Independence in Europe: Secession, Sovereignty, and the Euro pean Union”;• Policy brief on “Independentism and the European Union” by the European Policy Centre, giving backgro und, state of play and prospects of secessionist movements in Europe; Paper discussing the issue of national sovereignty within the European Union: “A Critical Analysis of EU Member State Sovereignty under the Treaty of Lisbon. Sovereignty v Democracy”;

6 http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1396&context=djcil7 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:l25060

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• University student paper discussing whether EU membership and national sovereignty can coexist: “Does membership of the EU undermine national sovereignty?”.

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FEMM

Maciej Krynski (PL) Nina Selmer (NO)

1. Key Terms• Gender - The differences between men and women that are not rooted in biology, but that are socially constructed;• Stereotypes - Perceptions that are deeply ingrained both in society and in our consciousness. “They spring from particular historical, cultural and social contexts1”;• Social Norms - Pattern of behaviour in a particular group, community, or culture, accepted as normal and to which an individual is expected to conform to;• Gendered employment segregation - Segregation in terms of how occupations will favour one gender over an other, because of society’s perceptions of genders;• Discrimination - The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex.

2. Topic RelevanceWe have all experienced it - expectations and assumptions made about us based purely on our gender. They might be small things such as what toys we are given as children or what hobbies we are expected to take up, but often they focus on more important aspects of our lives, such as the professions we choose. Countless women and men have encountered problems in their professional lives, or during their education, when they choose to pursue some-thing that is seen as ‘untraditional’.

We might believe that concepts about ‘gender roles’ are something that we left behind in the last decade, but unfor-tunately the numbers tell a different story. They show us that “three in five Europeans think that inequalities be-tween men and women continue to be widespread in their country”2, that at the current rate it will take 70 years to close the gender pay gap3 and that a large number of people are psychologically struggling because they do not feel like they resemble the socially constructed image of their gender. When what we assume of someone just by look-ing at them contributes to discrimination and limitations, it is time to take action that will lead to an actual change. When a problem is as deeply rooted in society as this, and where previous measures have not been able to fully combat the issue4, one needs to consider whether politics alone can tackle this issue, or whether this is something that requires a social movement.

3. StakeholdersNon-governmental organisations (NGOs): non-profit organisations driven by people with a common interest. They can be organised at a local, national or international level. The most influential ones in terms of gender equali-ty are HeForShe and the NOH8 Campaign.

1 ”A study on collected narratives on gender perceptions in the 27 EU Member States – Synthesis report” (2013), European Institute for Gender Equality 2 ”Gender inequalities persists in Europe”, EurActiv 3 ”Gender inequality ’100 years away’ if EU policy remains unchanged”, The Parliament Magazine 4 Although the concept of gender equality was included already in 1957 with the treaty establishing the European Economic Community, the economic aspect was then the only focus. This only covered a small aspect of what the battle for gender equality calls for. However, changes have been made since then, and now EU policies include a much wider agenda. More about a historical overview can be found here, (overview p. 2-5).

Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality

Previous generations’ perceptions of gender roles still remain today. What should European countries do to dismiss gender roles, stereotypes and discrimi-nation in Europe?

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European States: all European States, including the 28 EU Member States, have a responsibility in combating gender inequality. Through national legislation, countries can take direct measures in making sure that their policies contribute to a more equal and fair scenario when it comes to gender equality.

The Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs Council configuration (EPSCO): its aim is “to in-crease employment levels and improve living and working conditions” within EU for all citizens, and is therefore also a relevant actor in the fight for gender equality in the workplace.

The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE): an autonomous body of the European Union, established to contribute to and strengthen the promotion of gender equality, including gender mainstreaming in all EU policies and the resulting national policies, and the fight against discrimination based on sex, as well as to raise EU citizens’ awareness of gender equality.

Private companies: commercially funded private firms often take pride in offering and promoting equal opportuni-ties.

Women’s Groups: there are also several women’s groups involved in the fight for gender equality, European Wom-en’s Lobby being one of the central ones.

4. Main ConflictsHow do perceptions and stereotypes shape society? When we believe something to be true, we act accordingly. Through informal rules – such as social norms – society directs the actions of its citizens.5

When we expect women to stay at home with their children, to work part-time or not to apply for a promotion, this has a real-life impact on the choices they make6. Furthermore, men are expected to occupy so-called ‘manly’ profes-sions, meaning they are more likely to seek positions of power. Men are expected to possess ‘masculine personality traits’, which sadly can lead to depression and even suicide.7 Women, on the other hand, are more likely to take up jobs where they can work part-time with more flexibility, which negatively impacts their salary and even their professional advancements.

Although globally more women graduate from higher education than men, and girls tend to do better than boys in school8, the gender pay gap has still not closed. The advantage women seem to hold in education is not being trans-ferred to the workplace. The question of why can be answered with how motherhood or other family matters often interrupt a career path, and how women often choose less lucrative work fields such as education and health. Stereotypes and perceptions can shape the way we dress, talk and act. They shape what classes we choose in high school, what we study at university, which chances we take and which we do not. Therefore, a crucial conflict exists between what people individually wish they could do, and what they feel is socially accepted (or even what they are allowed) to do.

5. Legislative BackgroundThe Gender Directive9 has prohibited all forms of gender discrimination concerning accessing and supplying goods and services since December 2004. This directive prohibits both direct and indirect sexual discrimination within the EU.

With the Strategy for equality between women and men 2010-2015, the European Commission has adopted a Women’s Charter in March 2010 and a subsequent action plan in order to make the stated objectives a reality. 5 ”A study on collected narratives on gender perceptions in the 27 EU Member States – Synthesis report” (2013), European Institute for Gender Equality 6 Women today ”account for an average of 20.2% of the members of board of directors in the largest companies, and only 3% become chief executive officer” - Gender Equality persists in Europe , EurActiv 7 According to The Guardian, suicide is the biggest killer of men in Britain between the ages of 29 and 49. This is partly because “stereotypical forms of masculinity […] are killing men”. 8 Yale Global reports on numbers as high as ⅔ of graduates being women in some countries, and The Economist states that boys are 50% more likely than girls to fall short academically. 9 Council Directive 2004/113/EC

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The Lisbon Treaty (article 10, TFEU) specifies that ‘in defining and implementing its policies and activities, the Union shall aim to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation’. All forms of discrimination based on race or ethnic origin, in a number of areas, are prohibited by Directive 2000/43. Additionally, all forms of discrimination in employment and occupation based on religion or convictions, disabilities, age and sexual orientation are prohibited by Directive 2000/78.

The Rights, Equality and Citizenship Programme (2014-2020) is a programme on behalf of and in cooperation with the European Commission which consists of six events10 per year specifically addressing the training needs of different target groups.

6. Key Questions- A series of legislation prohibits gender discrimination in the workplace and other areas, yet it still persists - why? - In what ways are the current gender perceptions and stereotypes harmful for EU citizens?- Where does the responsibility lie in tackling the issues related to these stereotypes?- Is this a social issue, a political issue, or both? - Looking at the measures already taken, what has been done right and what needs to change?- What measures can be taken by the EU in order to reduce the gender pay gap, and can this be done across all Member States?- Is this an issue of lack of transparency? Could measures such as Norway’s skattelistene11 be helpful in achieving gender equality?

7. Links for further research• European Institute for Gender Equality: http://eige.europa.eu;• Report on gender perceptions in the EU: A study on collected narratives on gender perceptions in the 27 EU Mem ber States – Synthesis report” (2013);• Council of Europe report: “Gender Equality Strategy 2014-2017”, (2014);• “Gender segregation in the labour market: Root causes, implications and policy responses in the EU”, (2009), European Commission’s Expert Group on Gender and Employment (EGGE);• A summary of gender equality legislation within the EU: ”Gender Equality Law in the European Union”, WikiGen der;• Infographic on gender equality in Europe: Gender Equality: Themed Week, Debating Europe;• The UN Women Deputy Director discusses gender stereotypes: ”Countering Gender Discrimination and Negative Gender Stereotypes: Effective Policy Responses”, (2011), UN Women;• ”Male Depression Goes Untreated: How Society’s Gender Roles Lead Both Sexes To Ignore The Warning Signs”, (2013), Medical Daily • ”How to avoid gender stereotypes?”: video, TEDxZurich, Eleanor Tabi Haller-Jordan;• ”We Should All Be Feminists”: video, TEDxEuston, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie;• ”Why do we have gender stereotypes”: video, TED-Ed;

10 Three of them are addressed to members of the judiciary (judges, prosecutors, advisors), two to legal practitioners (lawyers in private practice, from trade unions or employers’ associations, NGOs, labour inspectorates or equality bodies) and one to academics (university pro-fessors, law lecturers). 11 Skattelistene – directly translated ’the taxation lists’ – became available online in 2001 in Norway. Through logging in to a portal, citizens can find individuals’ income, wealth and tax payments. Supporters of the system argue that one can use these lists to ensure that people pay the right amount of tax, and that one can see how much one earns compared to colleagues. However, opponents think that criminals can use these lists when determining whom to steal from.