better practice in music education

Marie McCarthy, PhDUniversity of MarylandRegina Carlow, MMMontgomery County Public SchoolsKathleen Gabriele, MEdAnne Arundel County Public SchoolsMargo Hall, MSFrederick County Public SchoolsJudy Moore, MMPrince George’s County Public SchoolsRobert Woody, PhDUniversity of Maryland

James L. Tucker, Jr. Series Editor

B E T T E R P R A C T I C E I N A R T S E D U C A T I O N

V O L U M E I I

MUSICE D U C A T I O N

B E T T E Rp r a c t i c e i n

BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING THROUGH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Music duocover.b 6/17/08 12:10 PM

BETTER PRACTICE IN MUSIC EDUCATION

Better Practice in Arts Education, Volume IIBuilding Effective Teaching Through Educational Research


Copyright © 2003 by the Maryland State Department of Education. All rights reserved. Published in 2007.

Maryland State Department of Education200 West Baltimore StreetBaltimore, MD 21201-2595Telephone: (410) 767-0352 or (410) 767-0100Fax: (410) 333-1146TTY/TDD: 410-333-6442Web site: http://www.marylandpublicschools.org

Regina Carlow, MMMontgomery County Public SchoolsKathleen Gabriele, MEdAnne Arundel County Public SchoolsMargo Hall, MSFrederick County Public SchoolsJudy Moore, MMPrince George’s County Public SchoolsRobert Woody, PhDUniversity of Maryland


Marie McCarthy, PhDUniversity of Maryland

B E T T E R P R A C T I C E I N A R T S E D U C A T I O N

V O L U M E I I

MUSICE D U C A T I O N

B E T T E Rp r a c t i c e i n

M A R Y L A N D S T A T E D E P A R T M E N T O F E D U C A T I O N

BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING THROUGH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

B E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O Nii

Maryland State Board of Education

Edward L. Root, President

Dunbar Brooks, Vice President

Nancy S. Grasmick, Secretary/Treasurer

Lelia T. AllenJ. Henry ButtaBeverly A. CooperCalvin D. DisneyCharlene M. DukesRichard L. GoodallKarabelle PizzigatiMaria C. Torres-QueralDavid F. Tufaro Brian W. Frazee, Student Member

Maryland State Department of Education

Nancy S. Grasmick, State Superintendent of Schools

Ronald A. Peiffer, Deputy State SuperintendentOffice of Academic Policy

A. Skipp Sanders, Deputy State SuperintendentOffice of Administration

JoAnne L. Carter, Deputy State SuperintendentOffice of Instruction and Academic Acceleration

Colleen Seremet, Assistant State SuperintendentDivision of Instruction

Dixie Stack, Director of CurriculumDivision of Instruction

James L. Tucker, Jr., Coordinator of Fine ArtsDivision of Instruction

State of Maryland

Martin O’Malley, Governor

The Maryland State Department of Education does not dis-criminate on the basis of race, color, sex, age, national origin,religion, disability, or sexual orientation in matters affectingemployment or in providing access to programs. Forinquiries related to departmental policies, contact the EquityAssurance and Compliance Office.

iiiB E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O N

F O R E W O R D

The State of Maryland is gaining increased recognition nationally for its educationreform initiatives and its commitment to high standards of accountability in educa-tion. It further recognizes the need for high quality arts education as an essential partof our children’s education. In 1989, after a decade of requiring experiences indance, music, theatre, and the visual arts for all students in grades K-8, Marylandbecame one of the first states to require that students earn a credit in the fine arts toreceive the Maryland High School Diploma. Maryland’s reform initiatives have tra-ditionally focused on envisioning what students should know and be able to do, pro-viding resources and enhancing instructional practice, and documenting studentlearning. This particular project focuses on informing instructional practice.

In 1995, the Maryland State Board of Education adopted a goal that 100 percent ofMaryland’s students will participate in fine arts programs that enable them to meetthe content and achievement standards established by State standards for the arts. By1997, K-12 standards for dance, music, theatre, and visual arts education, developedby a 38 member task force, were approved by the State Board. The following yearProject BETTER was initiated to develop a resource tool that would inform instruc-tional practice in each of the art forms.

The concept for Project BETTER – Building Effective Teaching Through EducationalResearch – was created by the Division of Instruction of the Maryland StateDepartment of Education (MSDE) during the late 1980s as part of its mission to pro-mote effective instruction. The development of the four volume publication for thecurrent project was guided by the same three major objectives: 1) to identify currentresearch on effective instruction, 2) to synthesize this research in the form of non-the-oretical summaries, and 3) to deliver this information directly to practitioners.

The information in this publication is designed as a resource to assist teachers inexpanding and refining their repertoire of teaching strategies and to guide instruc-tional planning and decision-making that supports student achievement of Statestandards in the arts. It is not intended to prescribe a particular style of teaching orone “best” method. This resource provides a guide to teachers as they consider theircurriculum objectives, the nature and needs of their students, their personal style ofteaching, and their available instructional resources. The application of this knowl-edge will result in more effective teaching and more powerful learning.

B E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O Niv

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The first edition of BETTER Practice in Music Education was written by Anita

Haushild-Cooper for the Maryland State Department of Education and published in

1991. The present edition was commissioned in 1998 with the goal of supporting the

Maryland Essential Learner Outcomes in Music. A team of music educators at the

University of Maryland, College Park—Regina Carlow, Kathleen Gabriele, Margo Hall,

Judy Moore, and Robert Woody—prepared the text, and Marie McCarthy coordinated

their efforts. This considerably restructured edition includes research studies that address

the Essential Learner Outcomes. In cases of repeated topics, the authors revised and

updated each entry to reflect research findings published since the first edition was com-

piled. For example, the topic of problem solving now falls in the context of developing

critical thinking skills; the expanded definition of minority students includes research on

ethnicity and ESOL students; and visual aids and manipulative materials are presented as

multisensory elements.

In the intervening period between the publication of the first edition and the present one,

we have witnessed significant developments in music education research. Of central impor-

tance is the publication of the Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning (1992),

followed by the New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning (2002), both of

which synthesize research findings pertaining to a comprehensive range of music education

topics. New research journals in music education provide additional forums for publishing

findings; for example, the Philosophy of Music Education Review, the Quarterly Journal ofMusic Teaching and Learning, and Research Studies in Music Education. The MENC:

National Association for Music Education publication Update fulfills a unique function in

applying research findings to classroom practice.

In general, research methodology expanded to embrace various forms of qualitative

research, exploring best practices in music education in innovative ways and also

encouraging teachers to carry out practitioner research in their own classrooms. Even

in light of all the positive developments in music education research in the past decade,

the gap between research and practice presents an ongoing challenge. Sources such as

vB E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O N

Introduction

B E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O Nvi

I N T R O D U C T I O N

BETTER Practice in Music Education seek to bridge that gap by identifying the impli-

cations of research findings for classroom instruction.

The vast research literature base we had to draw upon required us to make choices and

narrow the literature search. For example, we chose literature published after 1990. The

25 topics selected for the first edition were consolidated into two broad categories: learn-

ers and the learning environment, and teacher effectiveness. The first of these covers

research findings that offer insight into aspects of instruction such as classroom manage-

ment, use of media, learning styles, and gender issues. The second category focuses on

teacher attitude, knowledge, and competence, in addition to a broad range of instruc-

tional strategies, from modeling to critical thinking, motivational feedback to verbal

instruction.

Our third area is intended to support the learner outcomes described in the Maryland

Essential Learner Outcomes in Music. The Maryland Fine Arts Standards, which are

aligned with the National Standards for Arts Education and were created with the par-

ticipation of over 2,000 Maryland teachers, are a set of documents entitled “Maryland

Essential Learner Outcomes for the Fine Arts” (dance, music, theatre, and visual arts) for

elementary, middle, and high school. They describe what children should know and be

able to do in the arts by fifth grade, eighth grade, and 12th grade. We have chosen to

highlight research on best practice in the four outcome areas in the following ways: We

synthesized research in the area of singing and playing instruments to support Outcome

1 involving students perceiving, performing, and responding to music. Outcome 2 focus-

es on historical, cultural, and social contexts, which we address in terms of best practice

in presenting a broad variety of repertoire and performance practices of diverse music.

Outcome 3 involves creative expression and production. We stress offering an environ-

ment that fosters creativity and improvisation, as well as providing for structured com-

positional activities. We chose to address Outcome 4, concerning aesthetic criticism,

through several current philosophies of music education.

viiB E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O N

We devised the following format for each topic: A central research finding on the topic

appears as a BETTER PRACTICE at the outset. A THEORY section follows, which pro-

vides a context for research on the topic and summarizes findings from studies examined. A

quotation considered useful to the practitioner is included for each topic. The final com-

ponent consists of references and, for selected topics, resources. The authors drew on stud-

ies in music education, education, psychology, and other disciplines related to the topics

under study. For each reference we provide a brief annotation. The majority of studies cited

here are quantitative in style, since that has been the predominant methodology in music

education research until recently.

As mentioned above, given the vast research base in music education, and the state of con-

stantly evolving research, this document must be considered “in progress.” During the

writing of the document, the New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learningwas in preparation and is now published and available to music educators. We encourage

our colleagues to read these entries in the context of their own teaching experience and

to allow BETTER PRACTICE findings to enrich their perspectives on music teaching

and learning, and to stimulate new questions about the music teaching and learning

process.

Marie McCarthy and Regina Carlow

University of Maryland, College Park

October 2003

B E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O Nviii

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Table of Contents

Foreword iii

Introduction v

Learners and the Learning Environment

I. Learning Environment 1

Physical Environment 2

Models for Organizing Instruction 4

Classroom Management 7

Multisensory Media and Materials 8

Technology 10

II. Learner Characteristics 13

Learning Styles 14

Gender Issues 15

Ethnicity 16

Students with Limited English Proficiency 18

At-Risk Students 21

Students with Disabilities 22

Gifted and Talented Students 24

Teacher Effectiveness

I. Teacher Attitude, Knowledge, and Competence 27

Teacher Attitude 29

The Reflective Teacher 30

Action Research 32

Professional Development 35

Assessment 36

ixB E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O N

II. Teacher Strategies 39

Preassessment of Student Knowledge 40

Articulating Goals 42

Motivational Feedback 43

Critical Thinking: Musical Problem Solving 44

Question-Answer Technique 47

Modeling 48

Teacher Verbal Instruction 50

Repetition and Drill 51

Topics Related to the Essential Learner Outcomes

Outcome I: Perceiving, Performing, and Responding—Aesthetic Education 53

Singing 54

Sight-Singing 56

Playing Instruments: Instrumental Music Classes 58

Playing Instruments: General Music Classes 60

Movement 62

Music Reading 64

Outcome II: Historical, Cultural, and Social Context 67

Historical, Cultural, and Social Context 68

Outcome III: Creative Expression and Production 71

Environments Conducive to Learning 72

Improvisation 73

Composition 74

Outcome IV: Aesthetic Criticism 77

Aesthetic Criticism 78

B E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O N

1B E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O N

Learners and theLearning Environment

I . L E A R N I N G E N V I R O N M E N T

Physical Environment

Models for Organizing Instruction

Classroom Management

Multisensory Media and Materials

Technology

B E T T E R M U S I C E D U C A T I O N2

L E A R N E R S A N D T H E L E A R N I N G E N V I R O N M E N T

T H E O R YThe physical environment of a classroom affects all learners. Bright students willmost likely succeed regardless of the setting, but at-risk students often face thedanger of dropping out. The classroom environment might encourage at-riskstudents to remain in school.

Classroom features affect students in varying ways. Boys and girls responddifferently to classroom decor. Girls prefer more dramatic and diverse classroomfeatures. Students and teachers can tolerate noise in the classroom only to a certainpoint. The constant background of a faulty circulation system or motor, or theexcessive talking of students, for example, can cause stress for students andteachers. The comfort level of some students with the classroom environment canbe seen in higher achievement.

Studies have shown that aggressive student behavioris less likely to occur in classrooms that allow easytraffic flow of students and have materials arrangedconveniently. Disruptive behavior occurs lessfrequently in a neat classroom. Teachers cannotalways control the temperature, the humidity, thelight level, or other environmental factors, but theydo control the classroom arrangement. Someteachers periodically alter teacher-student andstudent-student relationships by moving students todifferent seats.

Dust, mold, new carpeting, or the flickering of fluorescent lights affects somestudents. These conditions may contribute to attention deficit hyperactivitydisorder (ADHD), Tourette’s syndrome, or autism. Research suggests that studentsin classrooms illuminated by full-spectrum fluorescent lighting with ultravioletsupplements have better attendance records and are healthier.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EA positive classroom environment enhances the

efforts of both teachers and students. Heating, air

conditioning, noise level, ventilation, classroom

arrangement, lighting, decor, and traffic pattern all

contribute importantly to the classroom environment.

PhysicalEnvironment


Classroom environment may affect students’

learning attitudes and behavior before it influences

their academic achievement.

(Cheng, 1994, 224)

R E F E R E N C E

Cheng, Y. C. (1994). Classroom environment and student affective performance:An effective profile. Journal of Experimental Education, 62 (3), 221-240.A study of the relationship between student performance and classroom envi-ronment, social climate, and management style of teacher.

Cohen, S., & Trostle, S. L. (1990). Young children’s preferences for school-related physical-environmental setting characteristics. Environment &Behavior, 22 (6), 753-766.Student preferences for size, shape, color, complexity, texture, and lighting in aschool setting, and differences between male and female preferences.

Davies, M. F. (1994). The physical situation. In A.P. Hare & H. Herber et al.(Eds.). Small group research: A handbook (pp. 11-39). Norwood, NJ: AblexPublishing Corp.An investigation of the classroom environment related to the effects of stressfrom noise, temperature, spatial arrangement, and room design.

Fraser, B. J., & Fisher, D. L. (1983). Student achievement as a function of per-son-environment fit: A regression surface analysis. British Journal ofEducational Psychology, 53 (1), 89-99.How some individuals react strongly to the learning environment.

Hathaway, W. E. (1995). Effects of school lighting on physical developmentand school performance. The Journal of Education Research, 88 (4), 228-242.

Student dental records, attendance, growth, and academic achievement werecorrelated to develop possible cause-and-effect relationships.

Hetu, R., Truchon-Gagnon, C., & Bilodeau, S. A. (1990). Problems of noise inschool settings: A review of literature and the results of an exploratory study.Journal of Speech-Language Pathology & Audiology, 14 (3), 31-39.A review of the literature on the effects of noise in school settings.

Rapp, D. J., & Kochanski, K. (1996). Unsuspected environmental causes ofhealth and learning problems. In E. J. Erwin et al. (Eds.), Putting children first:Visions for a brighter future for young children and their families (pp. 109-130). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.Speculation on the problems of allergic reactions to school settings by studentswith known medical problems.

Stewart, S. C., & Evans, W. H. (1997). Setting the stage for success: Assessingthe instructional environment. Preventing School Failure, 41 (2), 53-57.Four major factors that define classroom environment are outlined and discussed.Short vignettes illustrate classroom problems. Management solutions are suggested.

Weinstein, C. S., & Woolfolk, A. E. (1981). Classroom design and impressionformation: A new area for research. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 6(4), 383-386.A study in classroom neatness and flexibility. Students in neat classrooms werejudged to be better behaved.



T H E O R YAlthough music education philosophers and cognition experts disagree on the types of musical knowing,they concur that the process of acquiring musical knowledge is multifaceted, involving performance and intellectual and neuromuscular learning. Different types of learning occur from a variety oforganizational models.

Models for organizing instruction include sequencing for effective instruction, lecture/demonstration,questioning techniques, modeling and gesturing, feedback systems, and verbal imagery. A variety of instruc-tional approaches can help the teacher address different learning styles and types of musical knowledge.

Research shows that the presentation of material is more effective if delivered in the following sequence:teacher presentation of task, student interaction with task, and teacher feedback related to task. Inherentin this approach is teacher clarification of task, student-teacher interaction, and supportive feedback.Strategies for presenting the task include lecture/demonstration, modeling, use of verbal imagery, andgestures, covering both verbal and nonverbal instruction.

To promote student interaction with the task (the second step insequencing instruction), the teacher may use question-and-answertechniques. Questions that set a direction encourage the student todiscover, analyze, classify, personalize, hypothesize, reorder, synthesize,and evaluate. These steps, leading the student to understand the act of

forming aesthetic judgments, are crucial to music education. Understanding, rather than rotememorization, occurs when the classroom environment permits errors or incorrect answers to be used asa learning opportunity. Allowing “wait time” before calling on a student to answer gives other classmembers time to think through the questions before hearing other possible answers. Questions that areirrelevant, unclear, or misleading are unproductive.

Students also interact with the task through modeling, gestures, verbal imagery, and cooperative learning.Music educators make extensive use of modeling strategies when they teach performance skills. Modelingenables students to discriminate between desired and undesired musical effects. It can be a prelude toindependent learning. Gestures can take the place of many words. The teacher can avoid excessiveverbalization by communicating through body movements and effective eye contact. Effective musicteachers make frequent use of verbal imagery to guide student aesthetic thinking during rehearsal orperformance. Students work together to complete assigned tasks. Cooperative learning has been creditedwith improved student relationships and attitudes toward school, strengthened self-esteem, and higheracademic performance.

Feedback, the final step, is crucial in the sequential learning model for students to acquire skills andknowledge. Immediate feedback saves time in the learning process, and learning time increases whenstudents are permitted to practice mistakes without teacher intervention. The process of unlearning themistake and relearning the correct response consumes time and leads to frustration. Immediate feedbackpromotes both short-term and long-term learning.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EEffective music teachers make use of a

wide range of instructional models.

Models for Organizing Instruction


R E F E R E N C E S

Cawelti, G. (Ed.) (1995). Handbook of research on improving studentachievement. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service.Research-based guidelines for improving student achievement, with a sectionon teaching in the arts.

Dickey, M. R. (1992). A review of research on modeling in music teaching andlearning. Bulletin of the Council of Research in Music Education, 113, 27-40.Review of the literature on modeling and verbal instruction as used by musicteachers. The positive uses of modeling are summarized.

Kaplan, P. R., & Stauffer, S. L. (1994). Cooperative learning in music. Reston,VA, Music Educators National Conference.Cooperative learning for music teachers. Cooperative learning is defined andexplained. Teaching suggestions for all age levels are supplied. The book con-tains an extensive bibliography supporting cooperative learning.

Sachen, J. B. (1999). Instructing the instructor: Effective questioning tech-niques. Fire Engineering, 152, (3), 130-134.The use of verbal questioning as an effective teaching technique is discussed.Types of questions, use of questions, misuse of questions, and appropriatenessof questions are outlined.

Sang, R. C. (1987). A study of the relationship between instrumental musicteachers’ modeling skills and pupil performance behaviors. Bulletin of theCouncil for Research in Music Education, 91, 155-159.Support for Sang’s assertion that appropriate teacher modeling can produceeffective student performance.

Tait, M. J. (1992). Teaching strategies and styles. In R. Colwell (Ed.),Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 697-709). NewYork: Schirmer Books.Research on verbal and nonverbal strategies and the selection and sequencingof teaching strategies is discussed and compared.

A teacher’s ability to model, and the degree of

use of demonstrations in the instrumental class,

has bearing upon pupil performance levels.

Teachers who apply stronger modeling skills are

more likely to produce students who perform

better than teachers who do not.

(Sang, 1987, 136)

Why is student behavior becoming steadily worse? Schools

always reflect the nature of the society they serve. When

society is humane, gentle, and caring, so are students in the

schools. When society is hostile and uncaring, students behave

in accordance. At present, societies around the world are

showing a progressive decline in humane behavior.

(Charles, 1999, p. 4)



7

T H E O R YSystems of behavior management have changed since the pioneering work on group learning in the 1950s.In the 1970s, discipline was thought of as control. During the 1980s, teachers turned to such other systemsas Assertive Discipline, Positive Discipline, Cooperative Discipline, and Discipline with Dignity. In the1990s, Inner Discipline and a new concept, Beyond Discipline, emerged as successful systems.

In reaction to the evolving role of the teacher and the changing attitudeof the student, discipline has moved from an authoritative stance tocommunity building in the classroom. Beyond Discipline, a conceptdeveloped by Alfie Kohn, is based on trust and caring between teacherand student. Some of the hallmarks of Beyond Discipline includecommunication, conflict resolution, class meetings, empowering studentsby letting them make decisions, and abstaining from bribes, threats, andrewards. The following are suggestions gleaned from the experience ofteachers and from research studies:

� State clearly defined classroom guidelines at the beginning of the year.

� Review and apply the guidelines and expectations consistently.

� Maintain a positive atmosphere.

� Build time for student input and class meetings about conducting the class.

� Structure the environment to increase student learning.

� Engage student attention with a challenging curriculum and effective teacher behavior.

� Individualize instruction when necessary.

� Be prepared to change strategies if necessary.

� Provide feedback about academic and behavioral progress in a constructive, positive manner.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EStudents who develop a sense of

community and caring, and who

participate in decision making, are less

likely to have behavioral problems.


ClassroomManagement

R E F E R E N C E S

Brigham, F. J., Renfro, A. K., & Brigham, M. M. (1997). Linking music curricu-lum to teacher and student behavior. Update: Applications of Research inMusic Education, 15 (2), 24-28.Ways in which classroom management, instruction, and teacher behavior cancombine for the benefit of the student.

Brophy, J. (1988). Educating teachers about managing classrooms and stu-dents. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4 (1), 1-18.Brophy is often quoted about classroom management.

Buck, G. H. (1992). Classroom management and the disruptive child. MusicEducators Journal, 79 (4), 26-42.Why students misbehave, and a new view of discipline including interventionstrategies.

Charles, C. M. (1999). Building classroom discipline. Menlo Park, CA: Longman.Classroom discipline that covers trends in discipline from 1950 to the present.The final chapter describes classrooms in which good behavior is encouraged.The book also provides a how-to for building a personal system of discipline.

Jones, V. F., & Jones, L. S. (1998). Comprehensive classroom management:Creating communities of support and solving problems. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Discipline, classroom organization, meeting academic needs, and strategies forresponding to unproductive student behavior.

Kohn, A. (1996). Beyond discipline: From compliance to community.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Author questions the idea of traditional classroom management with the impli-cation that students need to be managed by teachers. Kohn stresses the needfor teacher and students to work together to build a communal classroom.

Ross, G. G. (1988). Task organization and management in secondary musicclassrooms. British Journal of Music Education, 5 (2), 165-172.Research on classroom management in British music education.

Rozmajkl, M., & Bourne, P. (1996). On classroom management for the musiceducator. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 5 (2), 21-29.Insights into the attitudinal differences among preservice teachers, studentteachers, first-year teachers, and cooperating teachers.



T H E O R YEffective teachers use multisensory modes of learning—aural, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic. Amultisensory approach includes modeling, verbal instruction, media, movement, and tangible materials.In this way, the learning process fully involves the student. Although verbal instruction and modeling arevital to instruction, kinesthetic activities cannot be ignored. Instructional approaches such as Orff,Kodály, Carabo-Cone, Dalcroze, and Suzuki commonly incorporate multiple modes of learning.

Textbooks, scores, literature, media, visual aids, and other tangible materials should be developmentallyappropriate. Teachers should examine them for sequential activities, for evaluation materials, and for thephilosophical background of a textbook series. Research findings indicate that music reading activities donot interfere with the development of aural and performance skills.

The use of tangible materials in the classroom enhancesunderstanding of abstract concepts by simultaneously invokingvisual, kinesthetic, and tactile modes. Tangible materials can beutilized for all school levels and by performing groups, but theymust be age appropriate. For example, drawing circles for notesmay be difficult for young students. Discs, such as papercircles, bingo chips, and coins, provide a solid medium forlearning. The use of tangible materials also makes evaluation of

student progress easier because the percentage of error is linked more directly to conceptualunderstanding and less to physical and verbal immaturity.

Tangible materials include balls, ropes, rhythm/melody cards, electronic equipment, straws, sticks,percussion instruments, or anything that can be safely and easily handled by students while delineatingconcepts in concrete ways. Another point in favor of tangible materials is their motivating power.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who employ a multisensory approach

to music education with age-appropriate,

sequential materials provide a fully engaging

learning experience.

Multisensory Mediaand Materials

R E F E R E N C E S

Dickey, M. R. (1991). A comparison of verbal instruction and nonverbalteacher-student modeling in instrumental ensembles. Journal of Research inMusic Education, 39 (2), 132-142.Modeling strategies and devices such as melodic echoes and rhythmic move-ment encourage both ear-to-hand and kinesthetic response skills for middleschool band students.

Flowers, P. J. (1998). Music vocabulary of first-grade children: Words listedfor instruction and their actual use. Journal of Research in Music Education,46 (1), 5-15.Comparison of vocabulary words in textbooks with general oral vocabulary.Findings indicate that children need to develop an appropriate music vocabu-lary, drawing and expanding on what they already know.

Kendall, M. J. (1988). Two instructional approaches to the development ofaural and instrumental performance skills. Journal of Research in MusicEducation, 36 (4), 205-219.Music reading activities did not interfere with the development of aural andinstrumental performance skills for beginning instrumentalists.

Rudaitis, C. (1997). Literature selection made easy. Teaching Music, 4 (4),33-35.Guidelines for selecting repertoire for skill development and for performance,including suggested resources.

Samples, B. (1992). Using learning modalities to celebrate intelligence.Educational Leadership, 50 (2), 62.A multimodality approach to education. Samples examines and describes learningmodalities, and asserts that education needs to address the student holistically.

Spaeth, J. (1994). Finding quality literature for young children. TeachingMusic, 2 (1), 40-41.Ideas and resources for finding quality music literature for young children.Resource list includes music and activity books and recordings.

Appreciation for the different ways of knowing can provide a

wholeness now missing in schools, where reason alone is honored.

(Samples, 1992, p. 62)




T H E O R YComputer technology is especially promising for music education because it presents and receivesinformation aurally, visually, and kinesthetically (e.g., MIDI controller instruments). Results have varied,but research shows that, generally, technology-assisted instruction can be effective. Teachers can capitalizeon the natural enthusiasm many students have for technology.

Technology can be used effectively in many ways. Computer-assisted instruction with individuals andsmall groups of students has improved tonal memory and aural discrimination skills. Music notation andMIDI sequencing programs have been effective in music composition training and other creativeactivities. Teachers can also use music notation software to produce professional-quality print materialsfor music class, as well as “music-minus-one” MIDI technology to create personalized musicalaccompaniments for performance training.

With hypermedia technologies, including the Internet,students can explore information beyond the imposedstructures of formal learning environments. Teachers mustguide students in developing strategies to use this freedomeffectively. They must help prevent students from moving offtask or from developing a game mentality encouraged by someinstructional software programs. The Internet can improvemusic instruction by giving teachers the ability to add to their

own knowledge base of music, teaching, and any number of education issues. Teachers can also obtainadvice from colleagues via e-mail and online discussion groups.

The manner in which a teacher integrates technology into the classroom greatly influences theeffectiveness of the technology. Common problems include failing to consider previous studentexperiences (i.e., employing skill-inappropriate drills, musically weak exercises, or activities that areunrelated to course objectives) and failing to supplement the technology with adequate humaninteraction. A general rule is to employ only those technologies that readily contribute to accomplishingthe educational task at hand.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EMusic educators who integrate computer

technology appropriately into their teaching

gain an effective tool for increasing student

motivation and learning.

Technology

R E F E R E N C E

Bauer, W. I. (1999). Music educators and the Internet. Contributions to MusicEducation, 26 (2), 51-63.An investigation of how music educators use the Internet to determine how itmight become more useful.

Berz. W. L., & Bowman, J. (1994). Applications of research in music technol-ogy. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.Part of the MENC From Research to the Music Classroom series. Summarizesresearch in instructional technology and music education. Topics include com-puter-assisted instruction, electronic instruments, and hypermedia. Practicalteaching methods and suggestions are also provided.

Birman, B. F., Kirshstein, R. J., Levin, D. A., Matheson, N., & Stephens, M.(1997). The effectiveness of using technology in K-12 education: A prelimi-nary framework and review. Washington, DC: American Institutes forResearch.Descriptions and findings of recent research studies that investigate the role oftechnology in education reform efforts. The authors discuss the current availabil-ity of technology in schools and the potential impact of technology on learning.

Coley, R., Cradler, J., & Engel, P. (1997). Computers and classrooms: The sta-tus of technology in U.S. schools. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Based on a review of educational research in technology. The authors reportthat there are major differences among American schools in terms of access toinstructional technology, and that providing technology training and support toteachers is a critical factor in implementing technology successfully.

Higgins, W. (1992). Technology. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research onmusic teaching and learning (pp. 480-497). New York: Schirmer.Review of research in the area of technology in music instruction. Discussesmore specific types of technology applications. Higgins suggests that additionalresearch is needed to determine the effectiveness of incorporating technologyinto certain areas of music education.

Kulik, J. A. (1994). Meta-analytic studies of findings on computer-basedinstruction. In E. L. Baker & H. F. O’Neil, Jr. (Eds.), Technology assessment ineducation and training (pp. 9-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Findings of over 500 individual research studies spanning more than a decade.Kulik concludes that students tend to prefer classes that utilize computer-basedinstruction and that they learn more in such classes.

Musical and educational technologies are new teaching tools

to be used by teachers in ways to improve instruction.

However, these new tools certainly do not automatically

guarantee success. Technology will be of value only when it is

used appropriately, in conjunction with sound teaching

methods that are rooted in a good philosophical base.

(Berz & Bowman, 1994, p. 62)



Learners and theLearning Environment

I I . L E A R N E R C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S

Learning Styles

Gender Issues

Ethnicity

Students with Limited English Proficiency

At-Risk Students

Students with Disabilities

Gifted and Talented Students



T H E O R YChildren differ in the way they receive, process, and recall information. Some prefer bright light to softlight, to study alone or with others, to work in a highly structured environment, or to be in a more flexiblesituation in which discovery is encouraged. The personality of the child plays an important role ineducation. The differences can be identified through study, casual observation, and learning styleinventories. Teachers can make accommodations as they become aware of the nature of the differences,perhaps by changing student seat assignments or by changing eye contact, facial expression, and voice level.

Many terms and theories about learning styles have emerged recently.Studies have illuminated various ways of learning, thinking, andknowing. Acknowledging differences and complexities challenges teachersto make instructional accommodations that will help a broad range oflearners to succeed.

Research findings indicate that students have more success using acombination of teaching techniques. Once teachers are aware of their own learning styles, they can beginto recognize the learning styles of their students. Attention to learning styles must accommodate at-riskstudents, inclusion students, minority students, and gifted and talented students. It is of utmostimportance to incorporate as many techniques and approaches as necessary to reach every student in themost effective way.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who are committed to student

success demonstrate adaptable and

effective classroom behavior.

LearningStyles

R E F E R E N C E S

Dunn, R. (1999). How do we teach them? Teaching PreK-8, 29 (7), 50-52.Various learning styles and the need for determining learning style preferences.The author developed inventories for that purpose.

Gremli, J. (1996). Tuned into learning styles. Music Educators Journal, 83 (3),24-27. Analytical reasoning (inductive) and global reasoning (deductive) learningstyles, with practical applications to accommodate differences in the choralrehearsal setting.

Hanson, J. R., Silver, H., & Strong, R. (1991). Square pegs: Learning styles ofat-risk students. Music Educators Journal, 78 (3), 30-35.Successful students as thinkers rather than feelers. Stresses that teachers

need to discover their own learning styles and develop an approach that reach-es every learner.

Hendel, C. (1995). Behavioral characteristics and instructional patterns ofselected music teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 43 (3),182-203.Factors for effective music teaching include the ability to rapidly adjustsequencing, pacing, instructional delivery, and use of simple, concise, sequen-tial patterns of instruction.

Moore, B. R. (1990). The relationship between curriculum and learner: Musiccomposition and learning style. Journal of Research in Music Education, 38(1), 24-38.Few studies show the actual effect of specific learning styles on specific tasks.This study indicates that learning styles affect instruction in composition; thestudy, however, does not isolate the individual effects of each learning style.

Every person has a learning style—

it is as individual as a finger print.

(Gremli, 1996, 24)


T H E O R YTeachers can divide the classroom power structure more equally among girls and boys if they preventcalling out and other forms of disrespect. Research has shown that girls are often quieter and lessaggressive than boys, and less confident in tasks that require risk-taking. Boys receive more attentionwhen they exhibit independent behavior rather than follow the rules. The teacher must spend time withthem negotiating the rules and answering their questions. For girls to be successful in activities thatrequire independent thinking, like composition, they need encouragement, female role models, andopportunities to exhibit independence.

Teachers who use a variety of instructional methods canencourage both boys and girls to be successful in music activities.Music teachers are incorporating technology in their compositioninstruction. Boys are more comfortable with technology; in fact,technology might be a roadblock for girls. Other options, like theuse of keyboards, need to be available to girls.

Teachers who divide their attention more equally among boysand girls in mixed chorus help both succeed. Boys demand

much of the attention through their behavior. They also need more help with vocal problems. Teacherswho are sensitive to the thoughts and feelings of girls will provide challenging opportunities for them,like high-quality, auditioned girls’ ensembles.

Music teachers can use many means to address the challenges raised in studies about gender in the musicclass. Findings indicate that teachers should assume that boys and girls can be equally expressive in the artsand should encourage all children to participate in music activities at a young age. It is helpful for teachersto introduce the contributions of both male and female musicians and composers, to have students performmusic by women composers, and to avoid repertoire that perpetuates gender stereotypes.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who divide their attention equally

among students, use more than one

instructional method, and permit no disrespect

help students succeed in the music class.

GenderIssues

R E F E R E N C E S

American Association of University Women (AAUW). (1991). Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America. A nationwide poll to assess self-esteem, educa-tional experiences, interest in math and science, and career aspirations of girlsand boys ages 9-15. Washington, DC: Author. ED34657.

Green, L. (1997). Music, Gender, Education. Cambridge, UK: CambridgeUniversity Press.Gender issues in music and education that should be considered by music educators.

Hanley, B. (1998). Gender in Secondary Music Education in British Columbia. British Journal of Music Education, 15 (1), 51-69.A replication of Green’s study (1993). Hanley found that the impact of gender

beliefs was most evident in composition. She also discusses other genderissues in music education.

O’Toole, P. (1998). A missing chapter from choral methods books: How choirsneglect girls. Choral Journal, 39 (5), 9-32. Issues concerning the general education of girls, and girls in choral programs.The framework for this article came from the AAUW research cited above.

Rothenberg, D. (1995). Supporting Girls in Early Adolescence. ERIC Digest,#ED386331. Urbana, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and EarlyChildhood Education.Connection between the self-concept of girls in the middle grades and theiracademic achievement. Rothenberg gives suggestions for the classroom teacherto help establish a classroom atmosphere that promotes learning for both boysand girls.

School has a hand in the perpetuation of the gender politics of

music not only through gendered musical practices but also in the

discourse surrounding music, and, most fundamentally, in the very

meaning and experience of music itself. (Green, 1997, p. 229)



T H E O R YThe issue of ethnicity can be divided into two subcategories. First, teachers who respect ethnicityacknowledge that their students represent diverse cultural backgrounds. Yet, many curricula still approachmusic education from a Western music perspective, which may inhibit musical learning for somestudents. Sensitive music teachers seek opportunities to celebrate and honor cultural differences. Acurriculum rich in multicultural education benefits all students as they experience music of differentcultures and come to appreciate cultures different from their own.

Second, a multicultural curriculum includes a broad repertoire of non-Western music. This involves morethan simply singing a few non-Western songs or creating one unit on a particular culture. Less familiar,non-Western music can help students learn because it illustrates and demonstrates musical conceptsalready outlined in the curriculum. The greatest challenge for teachers is to find as many authenticmaterials as possible to allow them to present the culture authentically.

Music teachers can work together with classroom teachers todevelop a culture study including geography, history, dress,food, customs, songs, dances, games, instruments, andlanguage. Music teachers can also develop multicultural lessonsabout celebrations of holidays, animals, harvest, love, heroes,and nature, utilizing folk, work, dance, and devotional songsand lullabies.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who approach music education from a

multicultural perspective expose students to

musical diversity, honor the diverse cultures of

the students, and increase knowledge of other

cultures, all of which may raise academic

success and lower discipline incidents.

Ethnicity

History tells us that musicians and composers are continually pushing out the envelope

of the sonic barrier, using increasingly expanded definitions of what “music” is.

Amidst all the excellent reasons to begin multicultural music education, from

responding to changing demographics to promoting world peace and understanding,

there is an often overlooked musical reason: Through the continual exposure of

children to their planetary musical heritage, we daily widen the scope of how music

can speak. (Goodkin, 1994, p. 43)


R E F E R E N C E S

Campbell, P. S., & Schupman, E. (1992). Cultural consciousness in teachinggeneral music. Music Educators Journal, 78 (9), 30-37.Special focus issue of Music Educators Journal. Includes six articles on multi-cultural musical education, with resources and examples.

Fung, C. V. (1994). Undergraduate non-music majors’ world music preferencesand multicultural attitudes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42 (1), 45-57.Findings suggest that teachers just beginning to incorporate multicultural musicshould start with instrumental music. Also, musical study of China, Indonesia,Japan, Africa, and India may serve as a good introduction to non-Western music.

Gonzo, C. (1993). Multicultural issues in music education. Music EducatorsJournal, 79 (6), 49-52.Theories and four viewpoints of multicultural education. Gonzo concludes withrealistic concerns for the way music educators should proceed.

Goodkin, D. (1994). Diverse approaches to multicultural music. MusicEducators Journal, 81 (1), 39-43. Methods for highlighting both the diversity and the similarities of world music.Goodkin offers practical suggestions for culture study, celebrations, songthemes, instrument types, musical concepts, and goals. A list of recordingresources is also provided.

Klinger, R. (1996). From glockenspiel to mbira: An ethnography of multicultur-al practice in music education. Bulletin of the Council for Research in MusicEducation, 129, 29-36.A true story of a teacher attempting to include the music of Africa in her fifth-grade music classroom.

Shehan, P. (1985). Transfer of preference from taught to untaught pieces ofnon-Western music genres. Journal of Research in Music Education, 33 (3),149-158.Students were taught traditional African, Asian Indian, Japanese, and Hispanicsongs. They demonstrated increased preference for the selections they learned,but preferences did not transfer to untaught, unfamiliar pieces.

Stellaccio, C. K. (1995). Theory to practice: An ethnographic analysis of multi-cultural curriculum and pedagogy in elementary general music. Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, University of Maryland.How one teacher demonstrates a dynamic music curriculum based on a delib-erate application of multicultural principles and pedagogy.

Tucker, J. D. (1992). Circling the globe: Multicultural resources. MusicEducators Journal, 78 (9), 37-40.Suggestions for a hands-on library of world music materials appropriate for ele-mentary through middle school classrooms. Tucker lists suppliers, culture-spe-cific books, and audio recordings.

Volk, T. (1992). World music in the instrumental program. Music EducatorsJournal, 78 (9), 44-45.Programming options for instrumental programs. Volk presents ideas for warm-ups, rehearsal strategies, traditions, and library sources.

Yudkin, J. (1993). Choosing pluralism or particularism. Music EducatorsJournal, 79 (8), 46-49.The philosophical traditions of cultural pluralism and cultural particularism andhow teachers can determine which approach to use for different types of music.



T H E O R YResearch indicates that teachers face the increasing challenge of educating students with minimal Englishskills. Teachers who alter their instructional styles without lowering standards to meet the needs of LEPstudents help these students to achieve as they become competent, literate adults.

Effective teachers expose LEP students to meaningful literacy activities, especially modeling goodlanguage use and encouraging classroom interaction. Studies show that interactive vocabulary instructionleads to gains in vocabulary knowledge, which consequently increases content area learning and mastery.

Teachers who use linguistic adjustments make the content areamore accessible. LEP students can benefit when they have morewait time before answering the teacher’s questions. They becomemore verbal when asked referential questions such as, “How wouldyou . . .?” “How do you . . .?” “What do you think about . . . ?”

Many linguistic adjustments call for the use of peer translators orstudent mentors. Techniques such as breaking difficult ideas intomanageable units (conceptual and linguistic), pausing during speechto allow students to catch up, stressing the main word of a sentence,and using visuals, graphics, rubrics and icons facilitate learning.

Studies also suggest that cooperative learning and collaborative projects increase meaningful interactionsbetween teachers and students and among students.

Students who speak two languages should be encouraged to maintain their skills in both so they canenjoy the benefits of bilingualism. Teachers should validate students’ cultures, using familiarcommunication patterns; thus providing a richer and more effective approach. The following strategiesbenefit LEP students in the music classroom:

� Stress contextual and theme-based vocabulary through word walls, stories, games, and songs, usingonomatopoeia.

� Utilize student mentors, buddies, cultural brokers, and informants.

� Present a variety of styles and cultures in listening and performing repertoires.

� Practice language through singing, conversations, and chants.

� Highlight the content area with visuals, graphics, and rubrics.

� Give students methods of asking for clarification, such as icons and hand signs.

� Build preparation time and rehearsal of teacher instructions into lesson plans.

� Praise students when they make reasoned guesses.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who modify instructional delivery

to accommodate students with limited

English proficiency (LEP) recognize that they

should foster linguistic diversity as an asset

in the classroom. They make the content

area more accessible to LEP students.

Students with LimitedEnglish Proficiency

R E F E R E N C E S

Langdon, H. (1996). English language learning by immigrant Spanish speak-ers: A United States perspective. Topics in Language Disorders, 16 (4), 38-53.

McLaughlin, B. (1995). Fostering second language learning development inyoung children: principles and practices. Washington, DC: National Center forResearch on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. DE-FL-96-02).Eight principles drawn from theory and research on second-language acquisitionand culturally sensitive instruction to guide educators working with linguisticallydiverse students and to help them recognize that bilingualism develops in stages.

Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of education.New York: Longman.The importance of linguistic diversity as a classroom resource and a challengeto educators to acknowledge differences that children bring to school.

Temmant, A., Berhnard, E., & Munoz-Rodriquez, M. (1996). Collaborating withcontent-area teachers: What we need to share. TESOL Journal, 5 (4), 16-20. Ten principles that LEP educators need to address in collaboration with content-area teachers, especially on the secondary level. The authors note that theseprinciples represent real-world concerns that emerged during several interdisci-plinary classroom-based research projects.

Zuniga Hill, C., & Yopp, R. (1996). Practices of exemplary elementary schoolteachers of second language learners. Teacher Education Quarterly, 23 (1),83-97.Effective teaching practices, conditions, and contexts that exemplary teachers ofLEP students use to enhance learning. Common practices include enabling atti-tudes and languages, activating students’ prior knowledge, using current languagearts instructional strategies, and engaging in teacher-reflective practices.

R E S O U R C E S

Graham, C. (1979). Jazz chants for children. New York: Oxford. The use of rhythmic expression of American slang English. Designed to teachthe natural rhythm, stress, and intonation patterns of conversational AmericanEnglish. This text can serve as a springboard for collaboration among classroomteachers, music teachers, and teachers of LEP students.

Paez, D., & McCarty, L. (1997). How to use cultural brokers in educational set-tings. TESOL Journal, 6 (3), 44-45.Findings for using cultural brokers and informants in the classroom. Topicscover why teachers might want a cultural broker, ways to find the right broker,and several examples of effective use of cultural brokers in the classroom.

The languages and dialects that students speak can and should be

made an explicit part of the curriculum if we are to give them the

message that language diversity is valued in our schools. Rather

than viewing linguistic diversity as a deficit, we need to see it as an

asset on which further learning can be built.

(Nieto, 1992, p. 299)




Behavior and conditions that define a child as at-risk are part of a

self-perpetuating cycle of failure across generations, a cycle of failure

that often manifests itself through school dropouts. Participation in

the arts in school can help at-risk youth break this cycle.

(Taylor, Barry, & Walls, 1997, p. vii)

R E F E R E N C E S

Benard, B. (1997). Turning it around for all youth: From risk to resilience(Report No. EDO-UD-97-7). New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 412 309).How educators and schools can foster resiliency in youth. A number of strate-gies based on education research are suggested.

Florida Department of Education. (1990). The role of the fine and performingarts in high school dropout prevention. Tallahassee, FL: Center for MusicResearch, Florida State University.A review of relevant literature on the dropout and at-risk problems, and a reportof interviews with music teachers and students.

McMillan, J. H., Reed, D. R., & Bishop, A. (1992). A qualitative study ofresilient at-risk students: Review of literature. Richmond, VA: MetropolitanEducational Research Consortium.

Detailed characteristics of at-risk students related to social and family back-ground, personal problems, and school difficulties. Among the recommendedprograms for at-risk students is involvement in music and drama activities.

Music and the at-risk student [special issue]. (1991). Music EducatorsJournal, 78 (3).Teachers share strategies for getting at-risk students to engage in music activities.

Taylor, J. A., Barry, N. H., & Walls, K. C. (1997). Music and students at risk:Creative solutions for a national dilemma. Reston, VA: Music EducatorsNational Conference.Research on how the arts help at-risk students. The authors share accounts ofsuccessful intervention approaches by music teachers and offer research-based conclusions.

21

T H E O R YStudents are considered at risk when they exhibit certain characteristics, such as a dysfunctional socialand family background, an attitude of apathy and low personal expectations, and a history of learningdisabilities and school behavioral problems. A school music program can make a difference for some at-risk students. Often, the motivation provided by music classes is the sole reason a student stays in school.

Music classes, like other school classes, present challenges to students who need to develop learning andskills, but the study of music can provide especially rewarding experiences. Music classes often involvehands-on activities, satisfaction in creative achievement, opportunities for personal expression, and anenvironment of high standards and expectations. Teachers who emphasize these qualities of musicinvolvement will serve their at-risk students best.

Additionally, because most music classes rely on teamwork orgroup activities, students can experience much-needed feelings ofbelonging. This sense of community can even approach a familyconcept for some teens. Such a connection with other studentsrepresents a well-established strength of school music activities andis an important objective of at-risk intervention programs.

At-risk students who participate in a music program can find it tobe a positive element in what otherwise would be another

disheartening school day. Music offers students something to look forward to in school. In some cases,at-risk students excel in music classes and the resulting self-confidence spills over into other classes.


B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who take advantage of the

naturally rewarding qualities of music make

their classes a powerful means of motivating

at-risk students to stay in school.

At-RiskStudents



T H E O R YMusic teachers who are prepared to go beyond the one-size-fits-all approach in regard to students withdisabilities consider the individual student learning strengths and deficits. Usually, this informationappears in the student’s Individual Education Program (IEP), which details the student’s current level ofeducational performance, annual goals, short-term instructional objectives, specific services to beprovided, and the extent of participation in the mainstream program. From the IEP, teachers can plan thechanges needed for one or more exceptional learners in a single class. Music teachers can play a role inthe decision-making process for each child by joining the IEP process and guiding the proper placementof exceptional children.

After individual strengths and weaknesses have been determined and thestudent has been placed in the regular music class, effective music teachersmake accommodations that respect different learning styles. They presentmaterial to accommodate auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learners; stresssequencing tasks from concrete physical activities to more abstract verbaland language-oriented responses, and employ simple graphicrepresentations of music concepts before moving to symbolic expressions.Teachers who design lesson plans sensitive to individual needs encourage allstudents to participate in the music class. Effective teachers engage studentsthrough a vast range of classroom strategies, including:

� presenting resources with developmentally appropriate goals for all students

� allocating specific tasks to challenge students according to their respective abilities

� layering an activity with differing targets

� offering several points of entry into the same activity

� addressing and planning for different learning styles.

Effective music educators depend on the same fundamental teaching skills that all good educators use.Successful teachers plan and monitor the physical setting, special equipment, materials, and teachingprocedures of the disabled student, all of which are directed by the Individual Education Program.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers should plan for individual

student needs so they can apply the

necessary intervention strategies for

children who have difficulty with

music learning.

Students WithDisabilities


R E F E R E N C E S

Atterbury, B. A. (1993). Preparing teachers for mainstreaming. The QuarterlyJournal of Music Teaching and Learning, 4 (1), 20-26.A finding for including study of Public Law 94-142 in the undergraduate musiceducation curriculum. A brief history of the law and its key points explains someof the more vague interpretations of the wording. Discussion of pre-interventionstrategies as well as adaptations that can be put to use in the music classroom.

Bernstorf, E. D. & Welsbacher, B. T. (1996). Helping students in the inclusiveclassroom. Music Educators Journal, 82 (5), 21-26.Descriptions of characteristic behaviors common to persons diagnosed with oneor more neurological dysfunctions, to assist the music teacher in an inclusivesetting. Ten neurological dysfunctions are defined followed by examples ofbehaviors. Research-based accommodations are given for each example.

Gfeller, K. (1992). Research regarding students with disabilities. In R. Colwell(Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 615-633).New York: Schirmer.Review of research related to students with disabilities in the music classroom.Specific characteristics and research findings are discussed.

Graham. R. (1991). The music of exceptional children. In R. Colwell (Ed.),Basic Concepts in Music Education II. Niwot, CO: University Press ofColorado.Nine groupings of exceptional children, and a philosophy of music education forthe exceptional child. Graham emphasizes assessment and intervention, andreviews research findings in the area of music education and exceptional stu-dents.

Heine, C., & Heine, C. (1996). In-service training: A major key to successfulintegration of special needs children in music education classes. In B. L. Wilson(Ed.), Models of music therapy interventions in school settings. Silver Spring,MD: National Association for Music Therapy. Models of in-service training suited to specific needs of the music educator.

Schaberg, G. (1988). TIPS: Teaching music to special learners. Reston, VA:Music Educators National Conference.A quick reference guide designed to offer teaching ideas and strategies for usewith the disabled student in the music classroom. The booklet offers a progressevaluation form that could be helpful in recording accurate data.

Within a framework of effective instruction, the

question of how to teach music to exceptional children

should be reinterpreted during the years to come as,

“How can good music instruction be more responsive to

individual differences?”

(Graham, 1991, p. 233)

Gifted and TalentedStudents



T H E O R YThere are three basic ways to alter curriculum to meet students’ needs: offering enrichment activities,providing an accelerated pace, and making available a variety of learning options. Teachers may also needto modify regular class grouping practices.

Music enrichment activities may incorporate research skills. Topics might encompass the history ofinstruments, lives of composers, and historical styles. Students could compose music, participate inchamber music groups, take field trips to attend concerts, use recording studios, interact with instrument

makers, engage in mentorships with musicians, and undertakemultimedia projects.

Providing acceleration for gifted and talented students canmake available extra class time to prepare for more challengingperforming opportunities, like music festivals or other projectsof the student’s choice.

Differentiation offers learning options that can meet varioiuslevels of interest and ability. It can embrace different ways ofexploring content, developing understanding of ideas, and

demonstrating what has been learned. Music students can master another instrument, create amultimedia presentation, or develop a halftime show. Supplementary materials, computer programs,interest centers, tiered activities, independent contracts, and group investigation are other ways todifferentiate.

Grouping students heterogeneously can be counterproductive for high-ability students in certaininstructional contexts. Often, high-ability students do more teaching than learning. Sometimes, giftedstudents should be grouped together during drill and practice sessions and given a more complex task.Heterogeneous groups may work well for critical thinking tasks and open-ended activities.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who modify curricula and grouping

procedures and provide alternative activities

can help meet the special needs of high-ability

students who learn rapidly and need time and

resources to pursue areas of special interest.

R E F E R E N C E S

Feldhusen, J. F., et al. (1992). Grouping gifted students: Issues and concerns.Gifted Child Quarterly, 36 (2), 63-67.Review of the literature on grouping. Grouping gifted students heterogeneouslyand providing cooperative learning leads to lowered achievement and motiva-tion, and poorer attitudes toward school on the part of gifted students.

Kulik, J. A. (1993). An analysis of the research on ability grouping. NRC/GTNewsletter, 8-9.Summaries of five kinds of ability grouping programs.

McGrail, L. (1998). Modifying regular classroom curriculum for high ability stu-dents. Gifted Child Today, March/April, pp. 36-39.Strategies for modifying curriculum. The author includes lesson modification,assignment modification, and scheduling modification.

Reis, S. M., & Renzulli, J. S. Using curriculum compacting to challenge theabove average. Educational Leadership, 50 (2), 51-57.Program development advice is included in this article on differentiation.

R E S O U R C E S

Berger, S. L. (1991). Differentiating curriculum for gifted students. ERICDigest, #EDO-EC-91-15, E510. ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and GiftedEducation, Reston, VA.

Tomlinson, C. A. (1995). Differentiating instruction for advanced learners inthe mixed-ability middle school classroom. ERIC Digest, ED389141, E536.ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, Reston, VA.

Winebrenner, S., & Berger, S. (1994). Providing curriculum alternatives tomotivate gifted students. ERIC Digest, E524. ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilitiesand Gifted Education, Reston, VA.

Winebrenner, S. (1992). Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom.Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing.

(1990). Music Educators Journal, 76 (7).Special focus issue on gifted and talented students.

Scott, D. (1998). Tiered evaluation in large ensemble settings. MusicEducators Journal, 85 (3), 17- 21, 47.A system that allows students to work at different levels, enabling teachers toassess progress objectively and present students with appropriate challenges.


Before teachers can develop appropriate instructional strategies to meet the needs

of high ability students, they must recognize the value of such efforts. For many

educators, services to gifted and talented students may seem to be elitist. However,

public education is founded on the belief that all students (including high ability

students) have the right to instruction appropriate to their needs. Gifted and

talented students, like all students, should learn something new every day.

(McGrail, 1998, 36)


TeacherEffectiveness

I . T E A C H E R A T T I T U D E , K N O W L E D G E , A N D C O M P E T E N C E

Teacher Attitude

The Reflective Teacher

Action Research

Professional Development

Assessment


Even if one is clear as to the direction and strength of the

attitude, there is still the problem of what exactly constitutes an

attitude. Attitudes are psychological and perceptual. An attitude

is a construct, an abstract concept used to explain and classify

the reasons underlying what people say or what they do.

(Cutietta, 1990, p. 295)

T E A C H E R E F F E C T I V E N E S S

TeacherAttitude


R E F E R E N C E S

Block M., Rizzo, T. L. (1995). Attitudes and attributes of physical educatorsassociated with teaching individuals with severe and profound disabilities.Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20 (1), 87-88. Relationships between attitudes and selected attributes of 150 public schoolphysical educators toward teaching students with severe and profound disabili-ties in regular and in mainstreamed classes.

Cutietta, R. A. (1990). The measurement of attitudes and preferences in musiceducation. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching andlearning (pp. 295-309). New York: Schirmer.Reliability and validity in attitude measurement. Techniques of attitude meas-urement are presented.

Fung, V. (1994). Undergraduate nonmusic majors’ world music preferenceand multicultural attitudes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42 (1),45-57.A study of 50 undergraduate nonmusic majors to determine the relationshipbetween world music preferences and multicultural attitudes. Findings supportthe view that social/cultural attitudes play a role in world music preference.

Tait, M. (1990). Teaching strategies and styles. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbookof research on music teaching and learning (pp. 525-534). New York:Schirmer.

Review of recent research that clarifies procedures contributing to effectiveteaching, including such verbal strategies as teacher talk time, strategy selec-tion and sequencing, and nonverbal strategies.

Teicher, J. (1997). Effect of multicultural music experience of preservice ele-mentary teachers’ attitudes. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45 (3),415-427.The effects of multicultural music lesson planning and implementation on theattitudes of 60 preservice elementary teachers toward teaching from a multicul-tural perspective.

Valli, L. (1997). Learning to teach in cross-cultural settings: The significanceof personal relations. In F. Rios (Ed.), Teacher thinking in cultural contexts (pp.282-307). Albany: State University of New York Press.Ways in which student teachers’ apprehensions and misconceptions about theirinitial teaching experiences begin to change. Usually, change involved teacherattempts to establish personal trusting relations.

Wentzel, K. (1997). Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceivedpedagogical caring. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89 (3), 411-419. An examination of adolescent perceptions of pedagogical caring in relation tomotivation.

T H E O R YAccording to a 1990 survey of 10 independent studies, teachers are effective whenthey are enthusiastic, stimulating, encouraging, warm, task-oriented, andbusinesslike. Later studies noted that teachers perceived as caring influencemotivational outcomes. Research suggests links between teacher behavior andstudent achievement.

Teachers help overcome barriers between themselves and students when theyestablish trusting relationships by sharing personal stories, showing interest instudents’ lives, handling confrontations, and planning multicultural lessons thatshow respect for individual differences.

Attitude measurement studies have dealt with effecting change inteacher attitude in cross-cultural settings, mainstreamed musicclassrooms, and self-contained classes of severely physicallyhandicapped students. Research suggests a positive relationshipbetween teacher attitude and attending in-service trainingsessions that focus on special-needs students.

Teachers who take courses in special education have morefavorable attitudes toward teaching students with disabilities andare perceived as competent in implementing daily class objectives.Effective music teachers create opportunities for students toexperience a variety of music cultures and thus incorporate manylearning styles in their lessons.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who demonstrate fairness when

they interact with students develop

expectations for student behavior that derive

from individual differences. They model a

caring attitude and provide constructive

feedback, creating an atmosphere that

enriches and encourages learning.

The ReflectiveTeacher



T H E O R YStudies suggest that teachers who use autobiographical reflection to examine their philosophy of teachingare able to integrate beliefs about what and how students should learn and how they should be evaluated.Transformative Learning Theory posits that everyone has opinions that spring from experience, values,thoughts, and insights. As transformative learners, educators examine their practices in new ways,question and revise their opinions, and base their actions on new perspectives.

Teachers who participate in focused reflection report a greatersense of efficacy in their work. Three commonly used reflectivepractices are teacher journals, videotaping, and teacher portfolios.Teacher journals can serve to document questions that arise whileworking with the learner. Portfolios and videotapes permit theteacher to trace development over time and to learn from peerdiscussion and each other’s experiences.

Research indicates that the ability to reflect enables the noviceteacher to eventually become expert. Teacher educators who practice

reflective teaching instruct methods classes, observe students as they practice teach, and then revise methodscourses to be more effective. Studies suggest that reflective teachers and teacher educators give equalimportance to the act of teaching and to subsequent thinking about teaching. They guide and expand,question and support, and challenge their students to produce self-reliant, reflective future teachers.

Teachers of reflective thinking strive to improve the process of inquiry of their students. Teachers whobelieve that knowledge is constructed by students and not given by teachers help reframe the concept oflesson planning to its reflective counterpart—lesson analysis. Peer assistance and think-aloud protocolsessions have contributed to developing ideas about effective teaching practices that reflect revised thinking.In these sessions, both teacher and students are paired with mentors or with partners to share changes inthinking related to classroom practice. Strategies for the reflective teacher include the following:

� participating in regular journal writing, using both focused questions and autobiographical entry

� videotaping and analyzing teaching and rehearsal segments

� creating a teaching portfolio of concert programs, model lesson plans, and original arrangements and compositions

� constructing, revising, and analyzing a working philosophy of music education

� participating in peer observation at workshops and through videotapes

� keeping a notebook or separate place in a journal for new ideas or inspirations

� mentoring a preservice or first-year teacher

� developing a relationship with a methods course instructor at a local university

� nurturing partnerships between schools and local universities.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who look to questioning as a

learning tool, and are subsequently

committed to ongoing inquiry in their content

area, enable their students to become better

thinkers and problem solvers.


The study found that videotaped and criterion-referenced evaluations were more meaningful than awritten examination. Self- and peer evaluation during class was viewed as helpful for individuals toimprove their skills. The videotape helped students visualize their performances better and assess theirskills more accurately.

This form of evaluation had the following positive impact on teaching style:

1. The instructor got to know individual students through the midterm conferences.

2. The role of the instructor changed from the only reference for feedback on performance to one ofseveral sources.

3. Use of this methodology provided more accurate and adequate feedback to students and a moredefensible final evaluation.

4. Students became skilled at critiquing their own choreography and performance.

A multifaceted approach to designing and assessing a ballet class has positive implications for teaching andlearning. The results of this study can benefit those considering ways of assessing a variety of dance forms.

R E F E R E N C E S

Apfelstadt, H. (1996). Teacher education: A process of becoming. Journal ofMusic Teacher Education, 6 (1), 4-5.

Atterbury, B. (1994). Developing reflective music educators. Journal of MusicTeacher Education, 4 (1), 6-12.The importance of teacher reflection after instruction has been recognized.Atterbury begins with a brief overview of the origins of reflective and criticalthinking. She notes various methods of reflecting and offers ways for teachersat all levels to provide opportunities for critical and clear self-reflection.

Bailey, K., Curtis, A., & Nunan, D. (1998). Undeniable insights: The collaborativeuse of three professional development practices. TESOL Quarterly, 32 (3), 546-56. Three reflective practices and their use as distancing mechanisms to tracedevelopment and learning over time. Journal writing, videotaping, and portfoliosare discussed, along with partner mentors as an important form of analysis.

Barry, N. H. (1996). Promoting reflective practice in an elementary musicmethods course. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 5 (2), 6-13.Reflective practice and ways effective teachers facilitate reflection. This articleis based on a study of the impressions of 45 undergraduate elementary educa-tion and early childhood education majors, using reflective teaching practices.

Ernst, K. (1998). Take a memo. Teaching Pre-K, 29 (3), 28-29.

The use of faculty memos for analysis of classroom experiences. The premise ofthe study was that faculty memos could be a vehicle for communicating aboutlearning, resulting in more partnerships between teachers and a transforma-tional classroom environment.

Fenwick, T. J., & Parsons, J. (1998). Autobiographical reflection: Using experi-ence to create more authentic evaluation. Adult Learning, 9 (3), 21-23.Autobiographical reflection and its relationship to authentic evaluation. Theauthors ask what educators can learn about themselves, and in turn, howlearners and teachers can work more effectively together to determine whatstudents learn and how they are evaluated.

Gromko, J. E. (1995). Educating the reflective educator. Journal of MusicTeacher Education, 4 (2), 8-13.Student learning transformation from passive recipients to active participants.Gromko compares traditional didactic teaching with reflective thinking and sup-ports teachers who move from the locus of control position that is less rigid andegocentric.

Sokol, A., & Cranton, P. (1998). Transforming not training. Adult Learning, 9(3), 14-16.Transformative learning theory in relation to learners and educators. Theauthors argue that education is not linear; it develops through inquiry and revi-sion of viewpoints.

Successful teachers thoughtfully define problems, spontaneously

generate solutions, and satisfactorily evaluate them. The mark of

success in such a teaching laboratory is not the most perfect

musical product but the most thoughtful musical experience for all

participants. (Gromko, 1995, p. 12)



T H E O R YMany teachers, as they face daily classroom problems, look into the success ofcertain approaches and how they spur student learning. Effective teacherscontinually seek ways to examine and improve their instructional practices,frequently by participating in action research.

How does action research differ from traditional research? In action research,teachers value insights into their own teaching practices. Action research proceedsdifferently from other research designs. It pursues a continuous cycle of reflecting,acting, and thinking as follows:

� identifying a problem that warrants action, and thinking about what would bedifferent if the problem were solved

� stating the problem in terms that imply a goal andprocedure, and thinking about what evidence is needed for asolution

� collecting the evidence, journaling, and reflecting with theuse of questionnaires, interviews, observations, tests, surveys,note taking, student work, and audio- and videotaping

� examining, interpreting, organizing, and categorizingevidence to discover emerging patterns and themes

� asking new questions that arise from the data, takingaction, and repeating the cycle.

Action research projects are not limited to an individual teacher in a singleclassroom setting. Often, projects are more beneficial when teams undertake them.For example, collaborative action research might involve several teachers, possiblyacross several classrooms, or a schoolwide action research project might involve anentire faculty and staff. Teachers might also consider sharing their stories andinsights with colleagues by writing and publishing their research.

Teachers who desire to improve their teaching practices find action research wellworth the time and effort. Action research can build teacher self-esteem andprovide support, help, accountability, stimulation, and motivation.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers seeking to improve their teaching

skills and the educational climate of the

classroom can initiate action research projects.

“Successful teachers create a classroom climate

that makes it possible to deal with problems,

find some solutions and survive”

(Foshay, 1998, p. 110).

ActionResearch


R E F E R E N C E S

Calhoun, E. (1993). Action research: Three approaches. EducationalLeadership, 51 (2), 62-66.Three types of action research—individual, collaborative, and schoolwide.

Corey, S. M. (1953). Action research to improve school practices. New York:Teachers College Press.Often quoted in action research articles.

Foshay, A.W. (1998). Action research in the Nineties. The Educational Forum,62, 108-112.History and philosophy of action research. Author gives a practical step-by-stepapplication for teachers to employ the action research process in the classroom.

Glanz, J. (1999). A primer on action research for the school administrator.Clearing House, 72 (5), 301-305.

Definition of action research and a step-by-step process.

James, L. (1998). Action research. Teaching Music, 5 (5), 42-43, 88.Conducting music activities with third-grade children. James gives detailedplans and activities.

Rutkowski, J. (1996). Conducting research in the music classroom. MusicEducators Journal, 82 (5), 42-44, 62.The need for music teachers at all levels to become involved in action researchand to publish the results.

Stringer, E. T. (1996). Action research: A handbook for practitioners.Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.History, philosophy, and methodologies of action research. Stringer providesresearch tools to aid teachers in action research.

For those of us who wish to challenge our teaching

methodologies and the ways we evaluate student learning,

conducting action research in our classrooms can lead to

improving our professional skills as well as sharing our positive

results as sources of information and inspiration for others.

(Rutkowski, 1996, p. 62)


Is an effective professional development activity one that is rated

positively by participants in terms of satisfaction with the

experience (often called the “happiness quotient”)? Most would

agree that the standard must be much higher. Many educators are

now advocating a direct link between the professional development

experience and an observable impact in the classroom before the

term “effective” can be applied.

(Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1998, p. 2)



R E F E R E N C E

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (1998). High-quality professionaldevelopment: An essential component of successful schools. Portland, OR:Author.Part of the By Request quarterly series that addresses current educational con-cerns and issues. It draws from a large body of research to suggest guidelinesfor making decisions about selecting, designing, and implementing effectiveprofessional development.

Tanner, B., Canady, R. L., & Rettig, R. L. (1995). Scheduling time to maximizestaff development opportunities. Journal of Staff Development, 16 (4), 14-19.Scheduling options for more effective use of teacher time. The authors considerthe effects of block scheduling on professional development for teachers.

United States Department of Education. (1998). Promising practices: Newways to improve teacher quality. Washington, DC: Author.Effective policies and practices in the teaching profession. The importance of provid-ing professional support to teachers during their early years, and ways to improveprofessional development practices, teacher accountability, and incentives.

T H E O R YMusic teachers spend much time preparing and delivering instruction. Because these activities can fullyoccupy teachers, they generally have little time available to reflect on teaching, interact with colleagues,and plan strategies to implement new approaches. While lack of time makes organized professionaldevelopment all the more important, it is also a barrier to maximizing the benefits of professionaldevelopment. Perhaps the first thing that school administrators and teachers must realize aboutprofessional development is that attending a professional development event does not necessarily producethe desired results.

The ultimate proof of a professional development program lies in its influence on student performance.It is not enough for teachers to conceptualize information about teaching; they must implement it

successfully in their classroom practices, as determined by studentachievement. Accordingly, the most effective professional developmentactivities involve the teacher-participants in their own learning andprovide them with supervised “hands-on” experiences in which theycan receive feedback. Teachers must not only hear about a neweducational approach, but they must also learn how to execute it. Ifthey do not actually try it out during their training, they are unlikelyto do so on their own.

Other important traits also characteristize effective professional development. The best activities takeplace in school settings and tie in with other schoolwide programs or improvement efforts. Often,effective professional development allows teachers to select topics and to plan training activities. Perhapsmost important, professional development programs should not consist of one-shot sessions; programsshould be sustained and accompanied by continual support and resources.

When music teachers are allowed to choose their professional development activities, the followingquestions can guide their selection process: Does this activity reflect my musical and educationalobjectives for students? Does it involve applied and interactive teacher participation? Will my district orschool provide ongoing support and other resources required by the approach that this activity promotes?

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EMusic teachers who participate in hands-

on, sustained professional development

can more effectively examine and

improve their own teaching.

Professional Development

Assessment



T H E O R YWith the implementation of Goals 2000, teachers are now designing curriculum for their ownclassrooms. The National Arts Education Standards of 1994, outlining what students should know andbe able to do by the end of fourth, eighth, and 12th grades, offer guidelines for the states. Each state is inturn responsible for developing outcomes of education, and school districts develop methods ofinstruction and assessment.

A recently developed curriculum philosophy, “design-down curriculum,” allows the teacher to “focusdown” on the student and “deliver up” to student needs. The approach has two components—setting aninstructional goal and designing assessment. The design-down approach begins by identifying a goal ofinstruction, knowledge, or skill that the student will demonstrate as a result of instruction. The teacher

then must define scoring criteria for evaluating the student response.Finally, the teacher must design assessment tasks to be scored by theestablished criteria that are an outcome of instruction. It is critical forthe teacher to allow sufficient opportunity for skill mastery. Design-down curriculum adapts to the diverse population of students becauseit is student centered, the approach is flexible, and assessment can bealigned with instruction.

Assessment can be traditional, nontraditional, or authentic.Traditional assessments include paper-and-pencil tests, standardizedtests, essays, and reports. Nontraditional assessments encompassdemonstrations, performances, projects, interviews, story or text

retelling, writing samples, and portfolios. Authentic assessments reflect the nature of the tested skills andinvolve multiple forms of measurements. An authentic assessment may include traditional andnontraditional assessments, rubrics, and constructed responses.

The goal of assessment is to improve learning. Appropriate, authentic assessment can improve learning in four ways:

� by enabling students to learn from their own experiences through the feedback that assessmentsprovide

� by recognizing the multidimensional nature of learning through traditional and nontraditionalmeasures of assessment

� by establishing a collaboration between student and teacher

� by helping students understand the purpose and need for assessment as an outgrowth of instruction.

Expanded assessment possibilities are developing at a time when diversity in student population, instudent abilities, and in student backgrounds challenges teachers to provide adequate learning for all.With the focus on student achievement as measurable, authentic assessments can help the student andteacher improve teaching and learning.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EThe goal of assessment is to improve

learning. Assessment strategies have

broadened beyond the traditional paper-

and-pencil test. As a result of the

standards movement, teachers are at

the center of assessment development

in the schools.


Assessment of student achievement

plays a vital role in instruction.

The main goal of assessment is to

improve learning.

(Gronlund, 1998, Abstract)

R E F E R E N C E

Bibliography of Assessment Alternatives: Mathematics. January 1998 Edition.Innovative Assessment. East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research onTeacher Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 417 983),Abstract.Discussion of alternative assessments is the subject of this article. Alternativeassessment is defined as any assessment in which the student constructs aresponse rather than choosing from a list.

Callison, D. (1998). Authentic assessment. School Library Media ActivitiesMonthly, 14 (5), 42-43, 50.Types of authentic assessment—interviews, story or text retelling, writing sam-ples, projects, experiments, constructed response items, teacher observation,and portfolios. Assessments are scored with the use of rubrics.

Cope, C. O. (1996). Steps toward effective assessment. Music EducatorsJournal, 83 (1), 39-42.Current thinking on designing assessments for the music classroom.

Gronlund, N. E. (1998). Assessment of Student Achievement, 6th ed. EastLansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED 417 221), Abstract.The importance of assessment as a goal in the improvement of instruction.

Lehman, P. (1999). What kind of learning environment will best facilitateteaching the skills and knowledge called for in the national standards? Paperpresented at Vision 20/20: The Housewright Symposium on Music Education,Tallahassee, Florida, September 23-26, 1999.Assessment in music education for the future. Lehman urges music teachers todevelop authentic assessments.


TeacherEffectiveness

I I . T E A C H E R S T R A T E G I E S

Preassessment of Student Knowledge

Articulating Goals

Motivational Feedback

Critical Thinking: Musical Problem Solving

Question-Answer Technique

Modeling

Teacher Verbal Instruction

Repetition and Drill



T H E O R YTeachers who consider student social and emotional development, as well as musical development, oftenbegin a lesson by presenting a nonmusical preassessment activity, such as telling a story or inviting thestudent to take an imaginary journey. Preassessment activities engage the student and help the teacher whoattempts to gauge the levels of student learning readiness. Research indicates that observing preschool-agestudents during play affords an important preassessment tool. Through this observation, the teacher willlearn not only the student’s level in terms of music but also what the child values about music.

Music aptitude testing is considered to be a valid predictor ofmusical potential. Such evaluations can serve a number offunctions, including predicting what the student can achieveat the time of testing and in the future and indicatingwhether the demonstrated ability results from formal trainingor from innate aptitude. According to Edwin Gordon’s MusicLearning Theory, the best way to account for musicaldifference among children is to adapt musical guidance andinstruction to individual musical strengths and weaknesses. Avalid music aptitude test yields the best profile of each child’smusical potential.

Music Learning Theory also stresses Whole/Part/Wholesequence as a template to organize music content. Using this approach, the synthesis, or Whole stage,introduces or establishes the topic and what students know about it. This technique is useful in ensembleclasses in which students play or listen to the entire piece of music to be learned. The instructor thenmakes comments and takes questions about the nature of the piece before proceeding to the rehearsal ofits sections.

Studies recognize musical intelligence as one of several loosely related multiple intelligences to beconsidered in preassessment activities. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (MI) Theory stresses thatthe ability to perceive, conceptualize, manipulate through some performance medium, and respond toaural pitch and rhythm patterns is present in all music learners at different levels of musical intelligence.Research spotlights four stages of lessons that utilize MI Theory. The first involves awakening theintelligence through exercises and activities that make use of sensory bases, intuition, or metacognition.

Preassessment exercises for the music classroom involve Webbing or word wall games, stories, fantasytrips, singing games, edible props, K W L charts (What I Know, What I Want to Know and What I’veLearned) in individual or cooperative groups, coffee-can theatre games, role playing, personal journalkeeping, riddles, puzzles and brain teasers, music aptitude testing, and the Whole/Part/Whole (synthesis)approach to instruction.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who recognize different levels of

readiness and aptitude, accommodate many

styles of learning, and offer both cooperative

group and individual activities when they grant

students an individualized entry point to music

learning that enhances the learning

environment.

Preassessment of Student Knowledge


R E F E R E N C E S

Boyle, J. D. (1990). Evaluation of music ability, in R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbookof research on music teaching and learning (pp. 247-265). New York:Schirmer.An overview of the various constructs that are often combined under the head-ing of musical ability. Boyle explores Gordon’s theory of musical aptitude indepth. Howard Gardner’s MI theory is also examined.

Campbell, P. S. (1998). Songs in their heads: Music and its meaning in chil-dren’s lives. New York: Oxford.The musical lives of young children, using case studies and vignettes that high-light a diverse population of young music learners.

Christison, M. A. (1996). Teaching and learning languages through multipleintelligences. TESOL Journal, 6 (1), 10-14.Strategies and exercises that stress the importance of preassessment, usingGardner’s theory of MI across content areas. While written for teachers of limited-English-speaking students, the article can be useful for music teachers in light ofits high number of preassessment activities stressing musical intelligence.

Gardner, H. (1983). Musical intelligence. Frames of mind: The theory of multi-ple intelligences (pp. 99-112). New York: Basic Books.

The myriad of choices that composers face as they go through the process ofaddressing and using the musical tones that they hear internally. Gardner looksat the concept of talent and discusses the constant interplay between geneticand non-genetic factors.

Gordon, E. E. (1999). All about audiation and music aptitudes. MusicEducators Journal, 86 (2), 41-44.Gordon’s research, testing instruments and findings for Music Learning theory.He defines audiation and stresses that children should not sing before theyhave learned to listen, likening music learning to language learning.

Kelner, L. B. (1993). The creative classroom: A guide for using creativedrama in the classroom, preK-6. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.More than 50 creative drama activities that can be easily incorporated into pre-assessment activities at all grade levels. Many of the lessons have preset activities.

Turner, M. E. (1999). Child-centered learning and music programs. MusicEducators Journal, 86 (1), 30-51.The importance of early childhood music learning. Turner notes that the roots ofchild-centered learning extend back to Pestalozzi, Rousseau, and Montessori.He notes that the concept is vital to children’s musical growth and stresses thatearly learning experiences are best guided by natural curiosity.

The music children have within them, as well as their thoughts

about music, are starting points for understanding their values,

their knowledge, and their needs.

(Campbell, 1998, p. 5)

ArticulatingGoals


R E F E R E N C E S

Baxter, S., & Stauffer, S. (1988). Music teaching: A review of common prac-tice. In C. Fowler (Ed.), The Crane symposium: Toward an understanding ofthe teaching and learning of music performance (pp. 49-62). Potsdam, NY:Potsdam College of the State University of New York.Methods for delivering and managing instruction, modeling, problem solving,and evaluating student progress make up the focus of this article.

Dickey, M. R. (1992). A review of research on modeling in music teaching andlearning. Bulletin of the Council of Research in Music Education, 113, 27-40.Review of the literature on modeling and verbal instruction as used by musicteachers. The positive uses of modeling are summarized.

Porter, A. C., & Brophy, J. (1988). Synthesis of research on good teaching:Insights from the work of the Institute for Research on Teaching. EducationalLeadership, 45 (May), 74-85.The results of research on teaching conducted in the 1960s and 1970s are out-lined with a summary of effective teaching practices.

Runfola, M., & Ruthkowski, J. (1992). General music curriculum. In R. Colwell(Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 697-709).New York: Schirmer Books.A review of the literature on general music teaching highlights both positive andnegative findings of general music teaching.


T H E O R YThere are two types of goals: behavioral and expressive. A behavioral goal defines specific objectives.Behavioral goals increase understanding of music concepts. Listening to a performance for a particularquality, such as crescendo or decrescendo, presents an example of a behavioral goal. Expressive goals relateto experience from which each individual may draw different conclusions. Outcomes of expressive goals,dealing with individual reactions, are not measurable. Expressive goals lead to higher levels of thinking.Learning to listen to music for its aesthetic qualities offers an example of an expressive goal.

Music teachers use both verbal and nonverbal goal articulationstrategies. Verbal imagery is a highly effective method for helpingstudents understand a desired outcome. By contrast, many effectiveteachers use nonverbal methods of goal articulation. Modeling—teacher demonstration followed by student imitation—is a form ofnonverbal goal articulation. Modeling helps students discriminate

between desired and undesired musical effects like precise attacks as opposed to sloppy articulation.Modeling can be the prelude to independent learning.

Effective teachers relate learning outcomes to the student’s experience and devise strategies for monitoringand improving learning. They use language that suits the age and learning levels of the class. Strategies forimproving learning might include keeping a notebook, reviewing the lesson at home, and developingorganizational ideas. In the choir class, the teacher could help students identify recurring musical ideas tolink learning from one section of a composition to another.

Effective teachers set goals for themselves in teaching. They review the daily lesson outside of class,evaluating both successful and unsuccessful strategies. They may find it necessary to modify the teachingplan. Teachers can develop insights into practice through keeping a reflective journal.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EEffective teachers clearly articulate their

instructional goals to their students.

Teachers promote learning by communicating to

their students just what is expected and why.

(Porter & Brophy, 1988, p. 78)

They (excellent music teachers) reinforced students most frequently

by approving their academic performance—verbal, nonverbal, and

musical—with specific feedback (Hendel, 1995, p. 196).

T H E O R YWhen teachers give students specific positive information about performance and specific ways for themto improve, they promote growth. This type of verbal feedback helps students know what they are doingwell and what changes would benefit them. Some researchers have found that music teachers often tendto be more disapproving than approving. They are inclined to be more specific with disapproval andmore general with approval. Music teachers help students improve their skills if they give specificfeedback when approving their performances, as well as specific feedback when suggesting improvementor correction. Specific approval encourages student attention and positive attitudes.

Recent studies have found additional evidence for the value of approval feedback. Secondary choralstudents gave their perceptions of effective versus ineffective feedback, assigning the highest value toapproval feedback that focused on student improvement and the least value to feedback that compared

their accomplishments with those of other students. A studyinvolving nine elementary music specialists who were judged“excellent” revealed that they used a higher rate of approval feedbackthan disapproval feedback. They also used specific feedback moreoften than general feedback.

Research studies that support specific approval feedback focus onelementary general music classrooms, private instrumental lessons,and secondary band and chorus groups. All types of musicinstruction benefit from positive and specific feedback.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers use many motivational strategies,

such as encouragement, high expectations,

peer modeling, group experiences, and

specific feedback. Specific feedback has

been found to be especially important in

music learning contexts.

MotivationalFeedback

R E F E R E N C E S

Carpenter, R. A. (1988). A descriptive analysis of relationships between verbalbehaviors of teacher-conductors and ratings of selected junior and senior highschool band rehearsals. Update: Applications of Research in MusicEducation, 7, 37-40.Music educators tend to be more specific when giving disapproval and moregeneral when giving approval.

Hendel, C. (1995). Behavioral characteristics and instructional patterns ofselected music teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 43 (3),182-203.The teaching characteristics of nine excellent elementary general music teachers.

Price, H. E. (1989). An effective way to teach and rehearse: Research sup-ports using sequential patterns. Update: Applications of Research in MusicEducation, 8, 42-46.

Sequence of instruction and the use of specific feedback when suggestingimprovement.

Siebenaler, D. J. (1997). Analysis of teacher-student interactions in the pianolessons of adults and children. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45(1), 6-20. The identification and description of characteristics of effective teaching in thepiano studio.

Schmidt, C. P. (1995). Attributions of success, grade level, and gender as fac-tors in choral students’ perceptions of teacher feedback. Journal of Researchin Music Education, 43 (4), 313-329.Teacher use of approval and disapproval and its relationship with student learn-ing outcomes in a secondary choral setting.




T H E O R YStudents are better able to think critically in music when they have a broad base ofmusical knowledge and experience. They can analyze and invent musical works.Teachers can encourage students to build a knowledge base. The skill of criticalthinking can transfer to other subject areas, and the skills and strategies of criticalthinking can become automatic.

Several barriers limit use of critical thinking skills. Musical biases develop withinpeople, hampering their open-minded exploration of music. Groups of people tendto expect a certain amount of conformity and sometimes exert pressure onindividuals to conform. Critical thinking in music requires the courage to takerisks, think for oneself, and choose one’s own musical course of action.

How can teachers encourage critical thinking in music?Teachers can create an environment in which students feelcomfortable exploring new musical material and makingjudgments about their compositions, where they can value andmodel critical thinking. The ultimate goal is to encouragestudents to think for themselves about musical preferences andideas. Students can record their performances and work onsolutions to musical problems. Music teachers can provide

specific and positive feedback, giving advice when asked. Students can discuss theirviews of compositions or style and explain their beliefs. Teachers can introducemusic that is challenging, requiring students to rethink their ideas. They can posequestions to lead students to discover aspects of compositions. They can askquestions that will help students discover relationships among compositions. Theycan have students write journals and share their thoughts with others in smallgroups. Critical thinking through musical problem solving can access higher-orderthinking skills.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EMusic teachers can offer students opportunities

to develop critical thinking ability through

musical problem solving. Musical problem solving

involves musical independence and initiative.

Critical Thinking:Musical Problem Solving


Ultimately, the best advice for music teachers is that they teach for

critical thinking. This means that they must help students explore the

world of musical beliefs and practices by continually exposing them to

new musical experiences and ideas that present some reasonable degree

of challenge to what they already believe. Moreover, teachers must

provide students with ample opportunity to explain, discuss, and

logically justify their musical beliefs. The more critical thinking is

successfully initiated and carried through to its logical conclusion, the

more likely it is to become a habitual and enduring part of the

personality and belief system of the individual.

(Woodford, 1996, pp. 31-32)

R E F E R E N C E S

Balkin, A. (1985). The creative music classroom: Laboratory for creativity inlife. Music Educators Journal, 71 (5), 43-46.Suggestions for initiating critical thinking in the music class.

Graham, D. (1998). Teaching for creativity in music performance. MusicEducators Journal, 84 (5), 24-28.How the director of a performing group can involve performers in the process ofinterpretation by focusing on creative choices.

Kaschub, M. (1997). Exercising the musical imagination. Music EducatorsJournal, 84 (3), 26-32.Ways in which students can develop musical thinking skills by being guided inlistening lessons and by participating in composition exercises that help themimagine sound.

Kenny, W. (1998). Thinking critically in the practice room. Music EducatorsJournal, 85 (1), 21-23.Music educators can increase productive learning by encouraging their studentsto think critically before, during, and after each practice session.

Richardson, C., & Whitaker, N. (1992). Critical thinking and music education.

In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp.546-557). New York: Schirmer.A review of the literature of research on critical thinking in music education.

Watkins, R. (1996). Nonperformance time use in high school choralrehearsals: A follow-up study. Update: Applications of Research in MusicEducation, 14 (2), 4-8.The relationship between the amount of time choral directors spent in nonper-formance activities, the amount of time spent in developing higher-order think-ing skills, and years of teaching experience.

Webster, P. (1990). Creative thinking in music: Introduction. Music EducatorsJournal, 76 (9), 21.

Webster P. (1990). Creativity as creative thinking. Music Educators Journal,76 (9), 22-28.A special focus issue on creative thinking.

Woodford, P. (1996). Developing critical thinkers in music. Music EducatorsJournal, 83 (1), 27-32. Fostering critical thinking skills in students empowers them to control their ownmusical growth.

Of the several techniques that music educators commonly

use—modeling, demonstrating, lecturing, and drawing

analogies—the technique most likely to engage students’

full attention and lead to the deepest thinking and

sensitivity is high-level questioning in the cognitive and

affective domains.

(Kassner, 1998, p. 33)



Question-AnswerTechnique

T H E O R YQuestion-answer technique requires the involvement of the student. Students engaged through thequestion-answer technique feel particularly attentive in assimilating material, and they feel especiallymotivated when they encounter questions in a game format.

The simplest form of question-answer technique, used during andafter an explanation, requires the student to repeat or interpret whatwas said. This verifies how an explanation has been heard andprocessed mentally, indicating the attentiveness of the listener andthe extent to which he or she can remember verbal details andmaintain sequence. Questions used in conjunction withexplanations repeat the data to help students assimilate theknowledge in a new varietal approach.

The more complex form of question-answer technique requires the teacher to act as guide. Carefulquestioning leads students to answers that demand thought and consideration of prior knowledge in newways. They must search for the answer, rather than repeat one previously given. This form of question-answer technique promotes individual thinking, develops problem-solving skill, and teaches students howto analyze and judge various situations. Cause and effect are easily explored.

Teachers should use wait time of at least three seconds between question and response. Wait time of fiveseconds after the response will give students the opportunity to develop answers more fully. Questionsshould be asked before a student is called upon to answer. Teachers can involve all students better if theycall on students who do not raise their hands. Some teachers employ a system using cards with studentnames on them. They call on the student whose card is on top, then shuffle the card into the pack. Theteacher who can develop the art of skillful questioning can help nurture personal satisfaction in students,which builds self-esteem.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who employ the question-answer

technique promote learning because

students strive to think and find answers

independently.

R E F E R E N C E S

Baxter, S., & Stauffer, S. (1998). Music teaching: A review of common prac-tice. In C. Fowler (Ed.), The Crane symposium: Toward an understanding ofthe teaching and learning of music performance (pp. 49-62). New York:Potsdam College of the State University of New York.Methods of instructional delivery and instructional management, particularly interms of proper planning procedures, implementation of plans, modeling, diagnosisof student performance, and problem solving for both the teacher and the student.

Carson, R. (1956). A sense of wonder. New York: Harper & Row.Joy in discovering all that is new and different in the world through self-moti-vating learning is the focus of this wonderfully enlightening account of how chil-dren teach themselves.

Cziko, G. (1988). Implicit and explicit learning: implications for the applicationsto music teaching. In C. Fowler (Ed.), The Crane symposium: Toward an under-standing of the teaching and learning of music performance (pp. 89-118).New York: Potsdam College of the State University of New York.Attitude affects how much is learned in any one way. A student’s attitude isgreatly affected by the teacher’s attitude and approach.

Edwards, R. (1988). Transfer and performance instruction. In C. Fowler (Ed.),The Crane symposium: Toward an understanding of the teaching and learningof music performance (pp. 199-142). New York: Potsdam College of the StateUniversity of New York.The necessity to make students musical thinkers, not musical robots.

Howard, V. A. (1988). Music as educating imagination. In C. Fowler (Ed.), TheCrane symposium: Toward an understanding of the teaching and learning ofmusic performance (pp. 25-36). New York: Potsdam College of the StateUniversity of New York.The basics of creativity and critical thinking and the need to teach definitive skills.

Kassner, K. (1998). Would better questions enhance music learning? MusicEducators Journal, 84 (4), 29-36.Teachers who ask effective and carefully crafted questions may help studentsimprove their learning performance.

Kassner, K. (1998). Improving your intelligent questioning. Music EducatorsJournal, 84 (5), 33-36.This analysis of questioning and responding techniques serves as a follow-up tothe article in the previous issue by the same author.



R E F E R E N C E S

Dickey, M. R. (1992). A review of research on modeling in music teaching andlearning. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 113, 27-40.In reviewing past research studies, the author describes the prominence ofmodeling-based music instruction and examines elements of its effectiveness.Among his conclusions is the assertion that modeling is a more effective strate-gy than verbal description for teaching musical performance.

Rosenthal, R. K. (1984). The relative effects of guided model, model only,guide only, and practice only treatments on the accuracy of advanced instru-mentalists’ musical performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 32(4), 265-273.College music education students prepared a musical excerpt in one of fourpracticing conditions. Those students whose practicing included the use of arecorded aural model of the piece received superior music performance scores.

Sang, R. C. (1987). A study of the relationship between instrumental musicteachers’ modeling skills and pupil performance behaviors. Bulletin of the

Council for Research in Music Education, 91, 155-159.The relationship between teacher modeling ability and student performanceability. A positive correlation is reported.

Single, N. A. (1991). A summary of research-based principles of effectiveteaching. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 9 (2), 3-10.Guidelines for successfully carrying out specific activities, such as questioning,guided practice, and teacher demonstration. The author suggests that modelingbe accompanied by explanation of principles involved.

Tait, M. (1992). Teaching strategies and styles. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbookof research on music teaching and learning (pp. 525-534). New York:Schirmer.A review of research on various approaches and methods for teaching music.The reviewer concludes that modeling is a popular and effective strategy inmusic education.


T H E O R YModeling and demonstration constitute a widely used teaching tool in instrumental, vocal, and generalmusic. It is an especially useful teaching strategy in music performance training. A teacher might performa musical excerpt to demonstrate a particular musical concept (e.g., legato articulation) or expressiveperformance convention (e.g., “tapering the phrase”). The teacher may then ask students to imitate thestyle or expression of the modeled performance. It is assumed, and generally supported by research, thatyoung music students must have an aural image of a musical concept before they really understand it,and that their imitative performance of quality aural models precedes the development of their ownperformance techniques.

In addition to music performance instruction, modeling is an important component of effective generalmusic education, and it is seen in the rote techniques of the Orff-Schulwerk and the Kodály approaches.

The success of such approaches, as well as the enjoyment theybring to young students, may derive from modeling. Researchsuggests that effective teachers spend more time demonstratingand modeling than less effective teachers. Also, many musicstudents report a preference for instruction that consists ofmore musical content and modeling than verbal explanation.

While some music teachers may contend that aural modeling ismore effective than verbal instruction in teaching music,

research suggests that the two approaches should be used to complement each other. Modeling isespecially effective for teaching musical discriminations to students. For example, young students wouldnot learn to discriminate between musical timbres based solely on a teacher’s verbal descriptions such asdark, brilliant, or thin. One purpose of music education is to teach terminology that describes musicalsound, and only verbal instruction can achieve this. Verbal communication can supply students withnecessary listening cues before hearing a model, and can provide a means for teachers to ensure thatstudents accurately perceive the focal aspects of models.

B E T T E R P R A T I C ETeachers of all grade levels and music subject

areas can use aural modeling and demonstration

to effectively teach musical concepts and

performance techniques.

Modeling


Children are natural imitators regardless of the quality of the model;

therefore, in a sophisticated art form such as music, modeling can

greatly affect the quality of the learning. (Tait, 1992, p. 528)

Teacher VerbalInstruction


Verbal strategies [tend] to be too generalized and teacher initiated

for depth of interaction and communication. The challenge is to use

words that enliven and enrich the musical experience. (Tait, 1992, p. 528)


T H E O R YIt is estimated that at least one-third of student time in music classes is occupied by the teacher’s verbalcommunication. In some classrooms, that amount of time can be well over half. Research generallyindicates that teacher verbal usage does not correlate with increased student learning. In fact, moreexperienced teachers tend to talk less than inexperienced teachers.

In addition to eliminating unnecessary verbalization, experienced music teachers strive to make verbalinstruction more illustrative, clear, and interactive. When teachers use descriptive musical language that is

technical, conceptual, or metaphoric, they must be careful to use onlyterminology that students understand. For example, students would beunable to respond to their teacher’s instruction to make a performance“more legato” or “more flowing” if they could not define the terms.Questioning students can help them interpret verbal information. Usefulstrategies include rhetorical questioning, informal surveying (“Raise yourhand if you think . . . ”), and guided questioning (i.e., presentinginformation to the class through correct answers to focused questions by

the teacher). Feedback to student performers is especially critical to music ensemble directors. Researchhas shown positive feedback, or approval based on appropriate music behavior, to be more effective inpromoting student learning.

Teacher verbal instruction in music classes is most effective when it falls in the teaching cycle consistingof teacher presentation of a task, student response or performance of the task, and specific feedback fromthe teacher. When teachers continually complete these sequential patterns of instruction, their verbalinstruction tends to be more efficient because it is directed toward students’ musical learning, as indicatedby their performance.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EVerbal instruction is most effective in

promoting learning when it is concise,

engaging, illustrative, and directed

toward student musical behavior.

R E F E R E N C E S

Goolsby, T. W. (1996). Time use in instrumental music rehearsals: A compari-son of experienced, novice, and student teachers. Journal of Research inMusic Education, 44 (4), 286-303.Instrumental music rehearsals were videotaped and analyzed according to sev-eral factors of interest. The experienced ensemble directors in the study ledmore diversified rehearsing and talked less in rehearsals.

Goolsby, T. W. (1997). Verbal instruction in instrumental rehearsals: A compar-ison of three career-level and preservice teachers. Journal of Research inMusic Education, 45 (1), 21-40.The researcher videotaped and analyzed the rehearsals of band directors of dif-ferent competency levels (expert, novice, and student teacher). Expert directorstended to use more specific questioning and complete more “sequential pat-terns of instruction.”

Madsen, C. K., & Duke, R. A. (1987). The effect of teacher training on the abili-ty to recognize the need for giving approval for appropriate student behavior.

Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 91, 103-109.Undergraduate music education majors were trained to recognize and rewardappropriate student behavior during music instruction. The authors concludethat positive teacher feedback to appropriate student behavior is most effective.

Price, H. E. (1992). Sequential patterns of music instruction and learning touse them. Journal of Research in Music Education, 40 (1), 14-29.The importance for music teachers of completing sequential patterns of instruc-tion, which include academic task presentation to students, student response,and teacher feedback.

Tait, M. (1992). Teaching strategies and styles. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbookof research on music teaching and learning (pp. 525-534). New York:Schirmer.A review of research on various approaches and methods of teaching music.Tait discusses nonverbal strategies (e.g., aural and physical modeling) and dif-ferentiates among several types of verbal instruction.

Repetition and Drill


T H E O R YSinging, playing musical instruments, creating dance movements, and reading notation require varioustypes of automaticity. It is essential to attain the speed needed to perform and read music with meaningand accuracy. Careful drill offers the means of achieving this automaticity. Tasks must be reduced tosmall components, learned correctly, and repeated until they can be performed quickly and with littlethought. These small parts can combine into larger parts for practice until they become automatic. It isimportant for music teachers to remember that the ability to read notation is a separate task from thephysical manipulation of musical instruments and from singing. Sight-reading is a skill that requires

much drill to become automatic.

Optimum learning takes place when new skills are repeated at least threetimes. Repetition should occur 10 minutes after a skill is learned. The skillshould be repeated again with an intense session of drill within 24 hours. Theskill should then be reviewed and repeated within a week. The building ofmultiple skills in music is most efficient when students practice their skillsdaily, carefully repeating the skills that are not yet automatic.

The mastery of any skill—whether a routine daily task or a

highly refined talent—depends on the ability to perform it

unconsciously with speed and accuracy while consciously

carrying on other brain functions. (Bloom, 1986, p. 70)

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EMusical skill development requires

students to master automaticity—

the ability to perform a task

through repetition and drill without

thinking consciously about it.

R E F E R E N C E S

Bloom, B. (1986). The hands and feet of genius: Automaticity. EducationalLeadership, 43 (5), 68-77.The automatic nature of many tasks involved in learning and functioning in var-ious disciplines.

Buzan, T. (1991). Use both sides of your brain. New York: Penguin.A guide to harnessing brainpower for creative thinking and problem solving.Includes memory and automaticity techniques based on research.

Gilpatrick, E. (1996). A movement approach to teaching beginning recorder.General Music Today, 9 (3), 11-14.Techniques for developing automaticity in recorder playing for beginners.

Peters, G. D., & Miller, R. (1982). Music Teaching and Learning. New York:Longman.The chapter on “The Psychomotor Component” addresses automaticity in musi-cal skills.


Topics Related to the Essential LearnerOutcomes

O U T C O M E I :P E R C E I V I N G , P E R F O R M I N G , A N DR E S P O N D I N G — A E S T H E T I C E D U C A T I O N

Singing

Sight-Singing

Playing Instruments: Instrumental Music Classes

Playing Instruments: General Music Classes

Movement

Music Reading


T O P I C S R E L A T E D T O T H E E S S E N T I A L L E A R N E R O U T C O M E S

T H E O R YSinging is one of the most basic performing skills. Children can be taught to singaccurately. Teachers who encourage singing skill help students participate in andperpetuate their rich musical heritage. Students also develop understanding ofhistory and culture.

Before students can learn to sing in rounds or in harmony, they need to be able tosing in tune, discriminate between pitches, internalize melodies, and keep the beat.Singing offers the most effective means for teachers to evaluate whether studentsare processing tonal information accurately.

Teaching students to sing accurately presents several challenges. Inaccurate singingresults most likely from poor pitch discrimination, inadequate pitchproduction, poor pitch monitoring, or lack of motivation.Intonation problems can be solved with training in unified vowelformation, tension control, proper posture, and breathmanagement.

Children tend to match pitch best from child to child. The nextbest model is female and piano to child, followed by male and piano

to child. The use of male falsetto to help students match pitch continues to bestudied. Success depends on the particular situation. Younger students sing moreaccurately in unison with their peers, rather than individually. Girls tend to singmore accurately than boys.

Participation in singing activities tends to decrease with age, especially for boys.All children entering adolescence experience a vocal change. At this point, vocalranges are the most crucial consideration. Effective teachers select songs withappropriate vocal ranges and make musical accommodations as necessary.

Most teachers of young students present rote teaching of songs. Studies haveshown that immersion is more effective than phrase-by-phrase rote teaching.Teachers who introduce the piece in its entirety before students begin singing fostersuccess because they provide global understanding of the song. Orff and Kodályapproaches are recommended to improve reading skills, even through high school.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who engage students in singing

activities grant them a lifelong skill of

musical expression.

Singing

R E F E R E N C E S

Consortium of National Arts Education Associations. (1994). Dance, music,theatre, visual arts: What every young American should know and be able todo in the arts. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.National standards of competency for dance, music, theater, and visual arts.

Elliott, C. A. (1990). Singing in America. Music Educators Journal, 76 (5), 24-27.History of singing in America and assertion that all schoolchildren need oppor-tunities to participate in group singing activities.

Giles, M. M. (1991). Choral reading built on the basics. Music EducatorsJournal, 77 (6), 26-29.Orff and Kodály techniques in middle and high school chorus classrooms.Classroom exercises and a chart of solfège hand signs are included.

Goetze, M., Cooper, N., & Brown, C. (1990). Recent research on singing in thegeneral music classroom. Bulletin of the Council for Research in MusicEducation, 104, 16-37.Description and categorization of research on singing in the general musicclassroom from 1965 to 1990. The most encouraging finding in the literature isthat children can be taught to sing with improved accuracy.

Green, G. A. (1994). Unison versus individual singing and elementary stu-dents’ vocal pitch accuracy. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42 (2),105-114.Findings that children in grades 1, 2, 3, and 5 sing more accurately in unisonthan individually. Results also indicated that in each of the grades, girls tended

to sing more accurately than boys.

Junda, M. E. (1997). Part singing revisited. Music Educators Journal, 97 (6), 35.Drones, responsorial singing, and ostinatos in the primary grades lead naturallyto polyphonic singing in the upper-elementary grades. Junda recommends thatteachers seek age-appropriate materials and teach sequentially to develop partsinging as stated in the national standards.

Klinger, R., Campbell, P. S., & Goolsby, T. (1998). Approaches to children’ssong acquisition: Immersion and phrase-by-phrase. Journal of Research inMusic Education, 46 (1), 24-34.Two procedures for teaching songs to children—immersion, where the teacherpresents the song in its entirety always from beginning to end, and phrase byphrase, where the teacher fragments the melody and then gradually connectssong phrases. Results showed that children taught through the immersionmethod performed with fewer errors than those taught through the phrase-by-phrase process.

Mizener, C. P. (1993). Attitudes of children toward singing and choir participa-tion and assessed singing skill. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41(3), 233-245. Participation in singing at home in addition to school leads to positive attitudestoward singing and choir participation.

Powell, S. (1991). Choral intonation: More than meets the ear. MusicEducators Journal, 77 (9), 40-43.The factors involved in improving choral intonation. Powell gives several strate-gies and practical examples addressing specific intonation problems.


We should be concerned that we have raised a

generation of young people who are unfamiliar with the

rich song heritage that America has to offer. Our people

have been musically silent for too long now, and that

silence is becoming deafening.

(Elliott, 1990, p. 27)

Sight-Singing



T H E O R YIt is important that students learn to hear music before reading it. The approachesof Orff, Dalcroze, and Kodály focus on experiencing musical concepts that lead tomusic reading and sight-singing. Although these methods predominate at theelementary level, it has been shown that they are valuable for middle school andhigh school students as well.

Sight-singing is usually considered an appropriate skill for middle and high schoolchoruses. Elementary students, however, need to begin honing ear training, sight-singing, and notational skills. First-grade students have the most difficulty inreading notation, possibly because they are still learning the left-to-rightorientation of reading. From the second grade on, students are capable of learning

to read and sight-sing appropriate melodies.

At the middle school level, research has shown that students are moresuccessful when taught and tested with melodies isolated from theharmonic context. Adding vocal harmony to sight-singing examplesincreases difficulty. Higher pitches are the easiest to hear and matchin the early stages of ear training. Later, lower pitches can be added.The most difficult pitch to hear in a chord is the middle note inthree-part harmony.

For high school choirs, individual testing has been shown to be an effective meansof improving individual sight-singing performance in a group. One example forimplementation is to send a student to a private room with a tape recorder. Ontape, the student should state his or her name, establish key and tempo, and sight-sing the assigned example. The teacher then evaluates the tape.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who engage students in daily

sight-singing activities encourage musical

literacy, musical independence, and

self-esteem.


R E F E R E N C E S

Demorest, S. M. (1998). Sight-singing in the secondary choral ensemble: Areview of the research. Bulletin for the Council of Research in MusicEducation, 137, 1-15.Research on sight-singing at the secondary level, 1940-1996. Studies aredivided into two categories—descriptive and predictive studies—focusing oninstructional time, methods, materials, and achievement.

Demorest, S. M. (1998). Improving sight-singing performance in the choralensemble: The effect of individual testing. Journal of Research in MusicEducation, 46 (2), 182-192.The efficiency of individual testing for sight-singing skills. Findings indicatedthat students who were continually tested individually showed more improve-ment than the students receiving sight-singing instruction alone.

Lucas, K.V. (1994). Contextual condition and sight-singing achievement ofmiddle school choral students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42(3), 203-216.Middle school choral students, with sight-singing examples of melody alone.Students had increased difficulty sight-singing in vocal harmony.

Moore, R. S. (1994). Effects of age, sex and melodic/harmonic patterns onvocal pitch-matching skills of talented 8- to 11-year-olds. Journal of Researchin Music Education, 42 (1), 5-13.Given harmonic patterns, students were able to match the upper pitch easily, thelowest pitch with a little difficulty, and the middle pitch with greatest difficulty.

Persellin, D. C. (1992). Responses to rhythm patterns when presented to chil-dren through auditory, visual, and kinesthetic modalities. Journal of Researchin Music Education, 40 (4), 306-315.Rhythm patterns for first-, third-, and fifth-grade students through variouscombinations of modalities. Third- and fifth-grade students taught through acombination of modalities demonstrated success. For first-grade students, thevisual method was not as successful as aural and kinesthetic methods.

Phillips, K. H. (1996). Teaching singers to sight-read. Teaching Music, 3 (6),32-33. Strategies for incorporating sight-singing in the rehearsal. It also provides asample activity for teaching rhythm.

Rutkowski, J. (1996). The effectiveness of individual/small group singing activ-ities on kindergartners’ use of singing voice and developmental music aptitude.Journal of Research in Music Education, 44 (4), 353-368.Songs, activities, and games presented to individuals or small groups of kinder-gartners throughout an entire year have a positive effect on the development ofthe singing voice.

Yarbrough, C., Green, G., Benson, W., & Bowers, J. (1991). Inaccurate singers:An exploratory study of variables affecting pitch-matching. Bulletin for theCouncil of Research in Music Education, 107, 23-34.No significant difference between echo responses using solfège, hand signs,and a neutral syllable; more correct responses to a female model; and morecorrect responses for eighth graders than kindergartners, but not eighth gradersand students at other grade levels.

Just as learning to speak preceded learning to

read, so aural skills need to precede visual learning

in sight-singing instruction.

(Phillips, 1996, p. 32)

Playing Instruments: Instrumental Music Classes



T H E O R YInstruction in instrumental music is most effective when it applies soundeducational principles. Foremost, instrumental music teachers must affordstudents ample opportunity to respond to musical instruction (i.e., play theirinstruments), and feedback must follow performance. A band director’sinstruction to the trumpet section to “articulate more staccato” should immediatelylead to performance, which should bring feedback about the quality of the staccatoarticulation. By emphasizing student performance and immediate feedback, moreexperienced music teachers give only a few items of instruction at one time andspend less time talking during rehearsal. Teachers enhance learning in largeensemble classes when they listen to individuals or small groups of students andgive specific performance feedback accordingly.

Variety also figures critically in quality instruction.Experienced instrumental music teachers seek a varied selectionby choosing music material of different styles or by including afun piece that is more immediately accessible and enjoyable.Experienced teachers also tend to spend more class time onperformance activities other than preparing concert music;such exercises include warm-ups, scale practice, rhythm andintonation exercises, and sight-reading. Teachers who direct

nonperformance activities further promote comprehensive musicianship. Listeningto recordings of instrumental music is a valuable approach. Music learning can besupplemented with singing, composition, and learning the societal role of musicand its relation to other art forms. Research suggests that variety in musicensemble classes can add to student learning and motivation with no appreciableloss in performance quality.

Effective instrumental music teachers spend class time training and encouragingstudents to engage in individual practice at home. Music researchers offerconvincing evidence that formal individual practice is the most importantcontributor to music performance achievement. Practice is most effective forstudents when they have specific goals and when they carefully monitor their ownprogress during practice sessions. These factors distinguish productive drill inpractice from mindless repetition. Such practice strategies do not come naturallyto young musicians, but music educators can bolster them in several ways.Teachers can identify practice goals for students by giving specific “homeworkassignments.” They can also involve parents in supervising home practice; parentsneed not be musicians themselves to provide valuable structure and direction totheir children’s practice. Because practice is not an inherently gratifying activity,instrumental music classes should provide incentives, perhaps playing tests, gradedpractice logs, or other achievement rewards.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EInstrumental music education is most effective

when teachers direct a variety of in-class music

learning exercises and instruct students to

practice outside of class.


R E F E R E N C E S

Austin, J. R. (1998). Comprehensive musicianship research: Implications foraddressing the national standards in music ensemble classes. Update:Applications of Research in Music Education, 17 (1), 25-32.Research that supports the inclusion of comprehensive musicianship educationin music ensemble classes. The research generally suggests that with thisapproach, student learning improves with no appreciable loss to overall ensem-ble performance quality.

Blocher, L., Greenwood, R., & Shellahamer, B. (1997). Teaching behaviors ofmiddle and high school band directors in the rehearsal setting. Journal ofResearch in Music Education, 45 (3), 457-469.Rehearsal time spent in conceptual music teaching. The researchers suggestthat band directors should go beyond equipping students with the specific skillsneeded for the next performance and assist them in understanding more gener-alized musical concepts.

Goolsby, T. W. (1996). Time use in instrumental music rehearsals: A compari-son of experienced, novice, and student teachers. Journal of Research inMusic Education, 44 (4), 286-303.Videotaped rehearsals analyzed according to several factors of interest. Theexperienced ensemble directors in the study led more diversified rehearsing andtalked less in rehearsals.

Price, H. E. (1983). The effect of conductor academic task presentation, con-ductor reinforcement, and ensemble practice on performers’ musical achieve-ment, attentiveness, and attitude. Journal of Research in Music Education, 31(4), 245-257.Appropriate approving or disapproving feedback as they affect ensemble per-formance. The attitude of the college students in the ensemble was also high-est with the presence of this complete “teaching unit” (teacher instruction—student response—teacher feedback).

Sloboda, J. A., Davidson, J. W., Howe, M. J. A., & Moore, D. G. (1996). The roleof practice in the development of performing musicians. British Journal ofPsychology, 87 (2), 287-309.Interviews of instrumental music students, ages 8 to 18, and daily practicediaries. The researchers also examined students’ records of achievement onmusic performance tests. Results indicated a strong relationship betweencumulated practice time and music performance achievement.

Weerts, R. (1992). Research on the teaching of instrumental music. In R.Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 577-583). New York: Schirmer.Review of research literature on eight topics, including consideration of dropoutsfrom instrumental music instruction, strategies for improving sight-singing, andinstrumental music class sizes (private vs. group instruction).

Experienced teachers tend to get on task quickly, spend

more time in warm-up, balance the rehearsal time between

two musical selections followed by a third “fun” piece or

sight-reading, [and] use more nonverbal modeling.

(Goolsby, 1996, p. 300)

Playing Instruments:General Music Classes



T H E O R YEffective general music education involves students in varied music activities. In addition to singing,movement, listening, and composition, students should play instruments in general music classes.Traditional instrumental exercises include playing nonpitched percussion instruments, recorders, andmelody bells. Diatonic tonebar instruments, popularized by the Orff-Schulwerk approach, affordvaluable performance experiences.

Musical instrument performances lend themselves to teaching certain musical concepts. For example,rhythmic concepts of beat, ostinato, and subdivision can be effectively illustrated and experienced with

hand drums, wood blocks, and other nonpitched percussioninstruments. Similarly, concepts related to pitch, melody, andharmony can be taught through student performance onrecorders and tonebar instruments. Keyboard percussioninstruments (e.g., melody bells and xylophones) are particularlyillustrative because of the physical layout of available tones.The visual element assists in teaching highness and lowness ofpitch, and melodic steps and leaps.

In addition to purely musical outcomes, playing instruments can contribute to perceptual motor andpsychomotor development. Perceptual motor development (gross muscle movement) is perhaps mostimportant for very young or physically challenged students. These skills develop through simplepercussion strokes and other movements common in general music classes. Psychomotor development(cognitively involved skilled movement) occurs with virtually all instrumental music experiences.

Research also suggests that playing musical instruments has a positive influence on the attitudes ofgeneral music students. Among the variety of music learning activities typically included in classes,students often report instrumental performance as one of their favorites. In addition to improvingattitudes toward music and music classes, playing musical instruments helps students develop self-confidence in musical ability. Attitudes improve when general music classes—especially at the secondarylevel—cover alternate instrumental components such as instruction in guitar or electronic keyboard andpopular music styles.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EGeneral music learning activities should include

playing musical instruments, which contributes

to conceptual learning, skill development, and

attitude development.


Structured movement experiences help increase

understanding of musical concepts. For example, the

most effective way for a student to learn beat is by

feeling the beat through locomotor or non-locomotor

movement [e.g., playing instruments].

(Cutietta, Hamann, & Walker, 1995, p. 45)

R E F E R E N C E S

Cutietta, R., Hamann, D. L., & Walker, L. M. (1995). Spin-offs: The extra-musi-cal advantages of a musical education. Elkhart, IN: United Musical Instruments.Reviews of research literature from 1970 to 1992, indicating the positive extra-musical benefits of school music participation. Included are discussions of therelationship of music to language achievement, social skills, and psychomotordevelopment.

Hendel, C. (1995). Behavioral characteristics and instructional patterns of selectedmusic teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 43 (3), 182-203.Nine exceptional elementary music teachers examined quantitatively and quali-tatively. Results showed that the classes of these teachers involved a consid-erable variety of student activities, including playing instruments.

Johnson, Y. P. (1994). Preferred general music classroom activities among low-income, urban-minority middle school students (Doctoral dissertation, OhioState University, 1994). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55, A1500.

Questionnaire responded to by more than 600 minority students and tapedinterviews. Results indicated that students preferred creative activities andplaying instruments in general music classes.

Wang, C. C., & Sogin, D. W. (1997). Self-reported versus observed classroomactivities in elementary general music. Journal of Research in MusicEducation, 45 (3), 444-456.Videotaping and analysis of lessons of elementary general music teachers todetermine time spent on various student activities; teachers were also surveyedabout their instructional practices. Results present playing instruments as oneof the principal activities in the classroom.

Wig, J., & Boyle, J. (1982). The effect of keyboard learning experiences on mid-dle school general music students’ music achievement and attitudes. Journalof Research in Music Education, 30 (3), 163-172.Comparison of the effects of a keyboard learning approach and traditional gen-eral music lessons on several outcomes of interest, including music achieve-ment and attitude toward music.



There are many ways to demand students’ attention, but—

and I cannot stress this too much—the teacher who uses the

least amount of talking and the greatest amount of physical

movement and music making (by both the teacher and

students) greatly increases the students’ level of attention.

(Caldwell, 1993, p. 27)

Movement


R E F E R E N C E S

Caldwell, T. (1993). A Dalcroze perspective on skills for learning. MusicEducators Journal, 79 (7), 27-28, 66.Principles of Dalcroze eurhythmics and the challenges and learning problemsfacing contemporary music educators.

McCoy, C. W. (1989). The effects of movement as a rehearsal technique onperformance and attitude of high school choral ensemble members.Contributions to Music Education, 16, 7-18.Movement as a rehearsal technique for high school choirs has a positive impacton tempo, balance/blend, and attitude.

Mead, V. H. (1996). More than mere movement. Music Educators Journal, 82(4), 38-41.Historical introduction to the work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. Mead presents ashort biography and a description of Dalcroze’s development of eurhythmics.

Metz, E. (1989). Movement as a musical response among preschool children.Journal of Research in Music Education, 37 (1), 48-60.Observation of a movement activity in a preschool music class. She providesan insightful description of the conditions, interactions, and outcomes arisingfrom the observation.

Phillips, K. (1985). The effects of group breath-control training on the singingability of elementary students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 33 (3),179-191.Physical-conditioning exercises as part of the breath management training forstudents in grades 2, 3, and 4. Results showed improvement in breathing tech-nique, vocal range, vocal intensity, and pitch accuracy.

Phillips, E., & Aitchison, R. E. (1997). Effects of psychomotor instruction onelementary general music students’ singing performance. Journal of Researchin Music Education, 45 (2), 185-196.Psychomotor instruction group demonstrates improved breath support, breathcontrol, range, and pitch accuracy.

T H E O R YTeachers who use physical activities in the classroom help students experience abstract concepts inmeaningful, concrete ways. Through movement, students can learn to perform, create, and respond tomusic as they internalize concepts and skills. Movement requires full participation, capturing theattention and efforts of the student. Movement is a tool for expression that helps students with weakverbal skills. It also nurtures emotions and attitudes that have no language counterpart.

Students can respond to music with various movement activities—improvised movement, singing gamesand traditional dances, moving appropriately to beat, tempo and other rhythmic characteristics,demonstrating repetition and contrast, conducting in various meters, and interpreting different styles ofmusic. Research findings indicate that movement exercises increase understanding of rhythm andexpression for all ages and performing groups.

Younger children are more successful with large motorcoordination. Fine motor skills may be developed with fingerplays to prepare for playing instruments. Younger students cangrasp abstract concepts like high and low with their bodies, or acomplex jazz rhythm performed with body percussion, or tempothat they feel while walking to the beat as they sing.

Middle school, high school, and adult students can also benefit from movement techniques. Large-scalemovements help relax muscles for tone production, can delineate the line of musical phrases, andgraphically illustrate musical structure and sound quality. Movement in a choral setting can help energizethe sound and increase breath control. Small movements develop muscular independence andcoordination for instrumental study.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who present movement activities

encourage students to holistically engage in

the learning experience.

MusicReading



T H E O R YThe many parallels between music reading and language reading include auditory, visuallydiscriminatory, mentally associative, and eye-motor coordination skills. The acts of reading music andwords both involve scanning the page from left to right followed by a return sweep of the eyes. Theprocess continues from the top to the bottom of the page. The goal of language reading is literacy, butliteracy in music reading is not so clearly defined.

Eye movements play a part in music reading. Less skilled readers spend more time looking at notes oflonger duration. More skilled readers take in groups of notes (patterns) and are more likely to look aheadin the musical score. This habit, called “chunking,” explains how trained readers can process informationmore quickly.

Using multiple methods of presentation increases musicreading skill. Computer-assisted instruction, coupled withteacher explanation and auditory presentations, and thencombined with visual presentations, helps students learn morequickly and with greater retention of patterns. Mnemonicdevices create another way to link together known andunknown material. Composing, performing, and listening leadto improved music reading.

Rhythm is more difficult to grasp in the visual form than melody. Rhythmic factors are more likely tolimit the rate and accuracy of reading than melodic factors. Study results show that training can improvethe kinesthetic response to rhythm.

Some students have difficulty learning to read music. Alternative forms of notation may help studentswho struggle with learning to read music the traditional way. In many of today’s classrooms, guitarplayers use tablature, a notation scheme especially suited to the six-stringed instrument. A variety ofmusical representations in computer sequencing and notation software packages do not requireknowledge of traditional music notation.

Some general findings from research suggest the following guidelines for developing music reading skills:Use more than one mode of presentation; couple the visual rhythmic pattern with the sound; devisesimplified systems to represent rhythms to help students internalize patterns; dedicate time to the task;and design instruction for a specific classroom, taking student interest into account. The rhythmiclearning systems of Dalcroze, Kodály, and Gordon provide valuable approaches for organizinginstruction.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EAs students become more skilled in music

reading, they take in groups of notes

(patterns) and are more likely to look ahead

in the musical score.


R E F E R E N C E S

Bartholomew, D. (1981). Reading for meaning: Parallels in music and lan-guage. Contributions to Music Education, 9, 71-76.Philosophical study of the term “musical literacy,” the meaning of readingmusic, and the intrinsic benefits of reading music.

Boyle, J. D. (1970). The effect of prescribed rhythmical movements on theability to read music at sight. Journal of Research in Music Education, 18 (4),307-318.An experiment to improve rhythm sight-singing. Students in the experimentalgroup received specific instruction and practice in rhythmic playing and reading.Results indicate that the experimental group scored significantly better than thecontrol group.

Deal, J. J. (1985). Computer-assisted instruction in pitch and rhythm errordetection. Journal of Research in Music Education, 33 (3), 159-166.Computer-Assisted Program in Error Detection (CA-PED) as an effective methodfor developing that skill in college music education majors through a compari-son with an effective error detection program, the Program in Error Detection(PED). Results indicated significant gains in error detection in both groups.

Gaare, M. (1997). Alternatives to traditional notation. Music EducatorsJournal, 83 (5), 17-23.Historical review of notation. Several alternative systems of notation are outlined.

Goolsby, T. W. (1988). The parameters of eye movement in vocal music read-ing. [CD-ROM]. Abstract from: ProQuest File: Dissertation Abstracts Item8721641.Six parameters of the eye movements of graduate music students measuredwith SRI Eyetracker. The less skilled music readers spent more time looking atnotes of long duration than more skilled music readers who moved quickly fromlong notes to the next pattern of music.

Hahn, L. (1987). Music reading and language reading: Correlations inprocesses and instruction. Bulletin of the Council for Research in MusicEducation, 93, 41-48.Two beginning public school elementary string classes. A significant differencein favor of the experimental group on the music reading and sight-singing taskssupports the researcher’s hypothesis that reading instruction that focuses onwhole-to-part strategies can facilitate music reading skill.

Hodges, D. A. 1992). The acquisition of music reading skills. In R. Colwell(Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 466-471).New York, NY: Schirmer Books.Basic research on music reading, applied research on music reading, and com-mentary on music reading research.

Persellin, D. C. (1992). Response to rhythm patterns when presented to chil-dren through auditory, visual, and kinesthetic modalities. Journal of Researchin Music Education, 40 (4), 306-315.The effect of three rhythm presentation modalities on the recall of rhythm pat-terns of first-, third-, and fifth-grade children. Children were tested using visu-al, auditory, and kinesthetic input. Findings suggest that using multiple learningmodalities in teaching style can result in more effective music learning.

Shehan, P. K. (1987). Effects of rote versus note presentations on rhythm learn-ing and retention. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35 (2), 117-126.The effects of aural and visual approaches to rhythm reading and short-termretention. Second- and sixth-grade students were presented with rhythm pat-terns in four modes. Results indicated that the simultaneous use of auditory andvisual channels facilitated learning and retention of rhythms at both grade levels.

Experienced music readers read ahead of the point of

performance in units or chunks. This “previewing” allows

the eye to fixate on structurally important features, such

as chords… and skip over less important details.

(Hodges, 1992, p. 466)



O U T C O M E I I : H I S T O R I C A L , C U L T U R A L , A N DS O C I A L C O N T E X T

Historical, Cultural, andSocial Context



T H E O R YPresenting repertoire arising from numerous cultural groups can teach studentswho the music-makers are, where they live, how they dress, and what they thinkabout the music they perform. Studies suggest that selecting repertoire withconsideration for direct analogies to the lives of students can lead students to makevalue judgments about the music and can help them understand the role thatmusic plays in their lives.

Effective teachers select repertoire and teaching materials thatallow students to perceive how the music relates to their lifeexperiences, drawing repertoire from the various culturalgroups within the school community. Cultural brokers orinformants can introduce and reinforce knowledge about themusic and culture. They use audio and video recreations ofmusic and performances of native artists to enhanceunderstanding and to illustrate the deep connections betweenmusic and its social and cultural contexts.

Drawing comparisons between art forms across cultures is an important aspect ofmusic teaching. Research indicates that analysis of music traditions for their sharedelements with other traditions should proceed cautiously and recognize that musicconsists of features that appear in cross-cultural contexts. For example, studentscan be made aware that aspects of aural learning, imitation, and improvisation playa role in a number of world music cultures.

Teachers who stress historical perspective in the development of a particularconcept, event, or instrument help students blend previous knowledge withinformed cultural inquiry. Pointing out that Gregorian chant bears a relationshipto Middle Eastern cantillation can be a starting point for musical learning. Inanother example, Fowler (1993) notes that Marian Anderson’s 1939 Easter Sundayconcert at the Lincoln Memorial is an example of how music reflects its time andcircumstance.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who stress cultural-contextual

information that offers comprehensive,

integrated, and interdisciplinary experience help

students understand that the meaning of music

and the other arts is culturally relative.


R E F E R E N C E S

Blacking, J. (1995). Music, culture and experience. In R. Brown (Ed.), Musicculture and experience: Selected papers of John Blacking (pp. 223-242).Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. The importance of understanding music as a human capability and its potentialas an intellectual and affective force in human communication, society, andculture. Blacking proposes that educators could use music to enhance generaleducation and to help build peaceful, prosperous societies.

Fowler, C. (1994). Redefining the mission of music education: Teaching thevalue of music. In M. McCarthy (Ed.), Winds of change: A colloquium onmusic education with Charles Fowler and David J. Elliott (pp. 4-20). New York:American Council for the Arts.Three realities that Fowler perceives as obstacles that compromise Americanmusic education. Elliott proposes a value-centered music education thatenhances the prospects of music in society and education.

Huang, H. (1997). Music appreciation class: Broadening perspectives. MusicEducators Journal, 84 (2), 29-33. Ways to integrate non-Western elements into standard music appreciation sur-vey courses. Huang notes that exploring cross-relationships between Westernand non-Western music forms is an effort to become sensitive to the richnessand complexity of history.

Shehan Campbell, P. (1991). Lessons from the world: A cross-cultural guideto music teaching and learning. New York, NY: Schirmer.Music teaching and learning reflecting a cross-cultural awareness throughstudy, observation, and research. Emphasis of the text extends to the aural and

creative components of music teaching and learning as part of a shared humanphenomenon.

Shehan Campbell, P. (1992). The world of music through American eyes: A casefor multiethnic consciousness in teaching the world’s music traditions. In H. Lees(Ed.), Proceedings of the 20th world conference of the International Society forMusic Education (pp. 32-42). International Society for Music Education.American society, its schools and musical traditions favored by newerAmericans of various ethnic and cultural traditions. Campbell raises somechallenges educators face in considering these traditions and poses possiblesolutions that musicians and educators may adopt in teaching the world’smusical traditions.

Shehan Campbell, P. (1995). Music, education and society in a multiculturalsociety. In M. McCarthy (Ed.), Cross currents: Setting an agenda for musiceducation in community culture. (pp. 4-33). College Park, MD: University ofMaryland.The backlash of the multiculturalism movement. Campbell notes that themaintenance of the disciplinary core of music is central to the mission of musiceducators. She suggests that political correctness interferes with our efforts asmusicians and teachers.

Stellaccio, C. K. (1996). Multicultural music education and the problem ofcontext. Maryland Music Educator, 43 (2), 26-27. Ways of building context in the multicultural music education curriculum. Shenotes that context building requires matching the content of the curriculum tothe life experiences of the students.

One of the great attributes of all music and all the arts is

that they characterize their age, distinguishing our

relationship to time by showing us as we were yesterday

and as we are today.

(Fowler, 1993, p.17)



O U T C O M E I I I : C R E A T I V E E X P R E S S I O N A N D P R O D U C T I O N

Environments Conducive to Learning

Improvisation

Composition

Environments Conduciveto Learning



R E F E R E N C E S

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience.New York: Harper Collins.Thirty years of research contribute to the author’s “flow” theory.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discoveryand invention. New York: Harper Perennial. Flow theory explains the creative process and shows how creativity enrichespeople.

Goleman, D., Kaufman, P., & Ray, M. (Eds.). (1992). The creative spirit. NewYork: Penguin.Ways teachers can encourage and discourage creativity.

Rohwer, D. (1997). The challenge of teaching and assessing creative activities.Update, 15 (2), 8-12.

Webster, P., & Hickey, M. (1995). Challenging children to think creatively.General Music Today, 8 (3), 4-10.A detailed model of the creative process.

T H E O R YTeachers know that critical thinking is important for students to develop and refinetheir skills, and that encouragement provides a positive experience. Certainassessment practices block creativity. The goal of assessment should beimprovement, rather than criticism. Students need to be part of the assessmentprocess. Students can learn to devise multiple solutions, choose and refine ideas,and develop reflective skills. Checklists and rating scales can be useful. Oral orwritten peer and teacher responses also play a role. Portfolios, in the form ofrecordings, can show progress. Performance of the creative product may be themost valuable approach to assessment.

In an environment that is conducive to creativity, teachersavoid excessive surveillance, extrinsic reward systems,competition in which only one student can win, too muchteacher control, restriction of choice in activities, pressure ofteacher expectations, and time limits

A positive, reinforcing, and accepting climate is a basic ingredient

necessary for nurturing creative behavior.

(Webster & Hickey, 1995, p. 7)

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who provide positive and supportive

environments help students feel sufficiently

secure to create and share their musical ideas.

Improvisation


R E F E R E N C E S

Campbell, P. S. (1991). Unveiling the mysteries of musical spontaneity. MusicEducators Journal, 78 (4), 21-24.Discussion of the importance of teaching improvisation. An introduction to thefocus of this issue of the MEJ on improvisation.

Farber, A. (1991). Speaking the musical language. Music Educators Journal,78 (4), 30-34.Dalcroze specialist offers ideas on teaching performing musicians to be impro-visers.

Flohr, J. (1979). Musical improvisation behavior of young children.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.Behaviors of young children while engaged in improvisation.

Flohr, J. (1985). Young children’s improvisations: Emerging creative thought.Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 10, 79-85.Musical characteristics of the improvisations of young children.

Goldstaub, P. (1996). Opening the door to classroom improvisation. MusicEducators Journal, 82 (5), 45-51.Student experiments with sound, rhythm, language, visual stimuli, and form canlay the groundwork for creative improvisation.

Kratus, J. (1991). Growing with improvisation. Music Educators Journal, 78(4), 35-40.The phenomenon of improvisation and suggestions for a learning sequence.

Kratus, J. (1990). Structuring the music curriculum for creative learning.Music Educators Journal, 76 (9), 33-37.A systematic approach for organizing students’ creative learning in music.

T H E O R YStudents can approach improvisational activities by relaxing, listening, and thinking. They explore theinstrument silently, visually—touching and looking at it. They can begin to explore the sounds of theinstrument. Children put the sounds together into patterns as they continue to explore. The patternscan be tonal as well as rhythmic. Students develop a vocabulary of patterns by imitating the teacher andeach other, and by experimenting. They begin to organize the patterns.

In the next step of development, students apply the melodic orrhythmic organizational structure. They might play or singtheir patterns with a steady beat or in a certain meter. Theirmelodic patterns can be in a major or minor tonality. Asstudents master the ability to perform these patternsautomatically, they do not have to think much about thefingering or about manipulating the instrument. They performthe patterns smoothly, and patterns flow from one to the nextwith melodic and rhythmic variation.

Playing automatically allows the students to concentrate on larger structures. Students can apply thepatterns to various forms such as ABA, rondo, and theme and variations. At this level of development,students enjoy sharing their improvisations with others. Teachers can encourage students to think ofstyle. Teacher modeling and the use of recordings can introduce students to various improvisationalstyles. Advanced students may invent their own styles.

Improvisation is not simply an intuitive musical behavior, nor is it only an

activity reserved for the most proficient musicians. It is both, and

improvisation can and should be a meaningful part of every student’s music

education, from preschool through adulthood. (Kratus, 1991, p. 40)

B E T T E R P R A C T I C ETeachers who cover improvisation in their

instruction help students sharpen skills

according to their developmental level of

musical knowledge and ability.

Composition



R E F E R E N C E S

Henry, W. (1996). Creative processes in children’s musical compositions: Areview of the literature. Update: Application of Research in Music Education,15 (1), 10-15.A guide for teachers to help them understand the creative process in order toset instructional and behavioral objectives.

Wiggins, J. (1999). Teacher control and creativity. Music Educators Journal,85 (5), 30-35, 44.Compositional experiences to foster creative processes and augment teachers’assessment efforts.

Wiggins, J. (1995). Building structural understanding: Sam’s story. TheQuarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning, 6 (3), 57-75.

One student’s performing, creating, and listening experiences in a fifth-gradegeneral music classroom over a period of five months.

Wiggins, J. (1994). Children’s strategies for solving compositional problemswith peers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42 (3), 232-252.Strategies that seemed to follow a pattern of moving from whole to part andback to whole, used by children who were successful in completing classassignments. There were very few instances of random exploration.

Wiggins, J. (1992). The nature of children’s musical learning in the context of amusic classroom. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois atUrbana-Champaign.Identification of important trends influential in the cognitive processing of twochildren during performing, creating, and listening experiences.

T H E O R YIn music composition activities, effective teachers guide students in using themusical knowledge they bring to the classroom. Teachers can design compositionassignments with minimal restrictions, focusing on musical, rather than extramusical, aspects of the task. Students can develop ideas for their compositionsfrom basic musical elements such as style, texture, and expressiveness. It is best toprovide broad parameters. The teacher may specify a form such as AB or ABAB, ametric design like a drum part that moves in fives, a textural structure like a roundor a melody with accompaniment, or a series of chords to which the student singsor plays a melody. Conversely, giving students a rhythm or melodic pattern fromwhich to work may hamper their natural creativity.

Another impediment to creativity is notation. When faced with the requirementto notate, children simplify their musical ideas, making it easier to notate them.Children who practice and refine their compositions will remember them withoutwriting them down. They can record their compositions to store them.

Teachers should respond to student compositions in a manner thatvalidates the students’ work. Depending on the strengths orweaknesses of the compositions, teachers can modify the curriculumand spur the musical independence of their students.

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EComposition requires planning beyond

improvisation and spontaneity. It involves

developing the ability to replicate a

performance. Teachers need to plan and

carry out compositional exercises that

nurture student originality.


Students need opportunities to make music on their

own—without unnecessary teacher controls. If we offer

our students such opportunities, we will see them soar

in ways none may have thought possible.

(Wiggins, 1999, p. 35)



O U T C O M E I V : A E S T H E T I C C R I T I C I S M

Aesthetic Criticism

AestheticCriticism



R E F E R E N C E S

Gonzo, C. (1992). Toward a rational critical process. In R. Colwell (Ed.),Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 697-709). NewYork: Schirmer Books.The nature of criticism and its applications.

Greene, M. (1991). Arts are more than entertainment. Harvard EducationalReview, 61 (1), 27-39.The necessity for aesthetic education in the schools.

Jorgensen, E. R. (1997). In search of music education. Urbana, IL: Universityof Illinois Press.“What is music education?” and “What ought it to be?” Jorgensen’s inclusive

treatment of music education philosophy goes beyond European classical musicto include the feminist and cross-cultural perspectives. Jorgensen includessuggestions for what should be included in this worldview.

Maryland State Department of Education. (1997). Music: Essential learneroutcomes. Baltimore, MD: Author.

Reimer, B. (1989). A philosophy of music education (2d ed.). EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.A better practice for the development of a philosophy of music education.

Sibbald, M. J. Aesthetic criticism in the music classroom. Music EducatorsJournal, 80 (2), 30-33.

T H E O R YAestheticians ask questions such as: What is a work of art? How does one relate to a work of art? Are thereuniversal aesthetic criteria? Maxine Greene asks, ”What is it about the ‘Ode to Joy’ that makes me feel as ifI am coming in touch with some transcendent reality” (Greene, 1991, p. 29)? Meaning is not in the workof art but in the viewer’s perception of it. Aesthetic criticism involves three considerations: the createdobject (work of art), its inner structure, and the meaning derived from engagement with the work.

Some philosophers of music education believe that it is responsiblefor teaching young people to make aesthetic judgments. TheMaryland Essential Learner Outcomes offer a framework for theclassroom teacher to guide aesthetic learning with the stated outcome:“The student will demonstrate the ability to make aestheticjudgments.” The outcome lists two expectations of aestheticeducation: The student will evaluate selected musical compositionsusing established criteria, and the student will formulate, apply, andcommunicate criteria for evaluating his or her performances and thoseof others.

Students who develop skills for evaluating music compositions are able to make and defend judgmentsabout works of music. They understand the elements of music sufficiently to speak about harmony,timbre, texture, form, rhythm, and melody knowledgeably. Drawing from an appropriate example as amodel, students acquire the ability to compare and contrast other compositions. Criteria for evaluationemerge in the process. Students formulate and revise standards to judge their own performances andthose of others. Teachers can assist them in forming models for critiquing by providing recordings ofexemplary solo and group performances.

We want to enable all sorts of young people to realize that they have the right to

achieve works of art as meaningful against their own lived lives. Because the world

that the arts illumine is a shared world . . . because the realities to which they give

rise emerge through acts of communication, the encounters being sought are never

wholly autonomous or private. (Greene, 1991, p. 38)

B E T T E R P R A C T I C EAesthetic criticism involves judging,

evaluating, and responding to a work of

art or music. As a subjective reaction,

aesthetic education can be said to educate

and refine one’s human responses.

better practice in music education

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