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The bilingual edge: Myths and misconceptions about child second language learning

Alison MackeyGeorgetown University

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Condensed version of a talk given at TESOL 2008(New York City, 4/3/08)

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Recognized benefits of knowing more than one language (well)

Cognitive advantagesEnhanced creativity and flexibilityExpanded literacy skills, metalinguistic awarenessGreater cognitive control (e.g., ability to ignore distracting information)

Social advantagesDeeper cross-cultural understandingMore positive attitudes, fewer negative stereotypesAdaptability, appreciation of diversityCompetitiveness on the job market

Personal advantagesEnhanced self-esteem and identityFamily connectionsPride in heritage, participation in cultural traditions

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A few questions about the process

Can my child learn a second language from TV?Will my child be a late talker if she’s exposed to two languages simultaneously?What if my child starts mixing languages?

* Not always easy to figure out answers! Why?

* Shared commonsense ideas and popular wisdom are often wrong.

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Common areas of myths & misconceptions

Types of interlocutors needed Starting earlyIndividual differencesError correctionNumber of languagesLanguage mixingEdutainmentBilingual education

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Child SLA/bilingualism research

Longitudinal studies: Holistic, detailed, contextualized pictures of interactions among a variety of factors: linguistic, social, cultural, cognitive, personality, environmental, etc.(Achiba, 2003; De Houwer, 1990; Fogle, in press; Han & Kwon, in press; Hoffman, 1985; Iwasaki, in press; Maneva, 2004; Mitchell & Lee, in press; Lanza, 1997; Pearson et al., 1997; Philp, 2007; Toohey, 2000; Wong Fillmore, 1976)

Classroom research: Effects of instruction, children’s linguistic experimentation, peer relationships (Day, 2002; Cenoz, 2003; Lightbown et al., 2002; Lyster & Ranta, 1997; Sanz, 2000; Spada & Lightbown, 1993; White et al., 1991)

Experimental research: Communicative tasks, interaction, feedback, output modifications(Mackey & Oliver, 2002; Mackey et al., 2003; Oliver, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2002; Oliver & Mackey, 2003)

Syntheses, overviews, and theory: (Bialystok, 2001, 2004; De Groot & Kroll, 1997; De Houwer, 1995, 2006; Foster-Cohen, 1999; GarcíaMayo & García Lecumberri, 2003; Genesee, 2000; Grosjean, 2004; McLaughlin, 1984, 1985; Meisel, 2000, 2004; Muñoz, 2007; Paradis, 2007; Wei, 2000; Wode, 1981)

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What is bilingualism?

A matter of quality and degreePassive – active (receptive – productive)Reading – writing – listening – speaking Functional ability – complete mastery

Some theoretical distinctionsSimultaneous vs. sequential (and earlier vs. later)Folk vs. eliteAdditive vs. subtractiveBalanced vs. dominant

(Genesee et al., 1978; Grosjean, 1998; Baetens Beardsmore, 1986; Fishman et al., 1966; Lambert, 1975; McLaughlin, 1984; Romaine, 1995; Schwartz, 2004; Unsworth, 2005)

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Social factors in childhood bilingualism(Pearson, 2007)

Approximately 25% of children in bilingual environments do not become bilingual (De Houwer, 2003; Pearson et al., 1997)

Longitudinal research has identified several important factors:

Quality and quantity of input (a self-reinforcing cycle)

Language status and attitudes (natural and powerful attraction for majority language)

Access to literacy (extension of input, consolidation of language skills, enhancement of language’s perceived value)

Family language (parental beliefs, attitudes toward maintenance, patterns of language use)

Community support (cohesive group of heritage speakers, government intervention, education)

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Age-related factors

Stages of childhoodEarly childhood (2-5 years)Middle childhood (6-11 years) Early adolescence (12-14 years)Later?

(Berk, 2006; Krause et al. 2003, McKay, 2006; Muñoz, 2007)

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Early childhood

Learning to think symbolically (pre-operational)Grouping sequencing causal relationship concepts paralleled in language (and, then, because)

Developing grammarOverextension or underextension“Don’t fall me down daddy” (i.e., don’t drop me)Over-regularization “I goed to the zoo with nana and we seed a baby giraffe”

Developing pragmatics Adjusting to the interlocutor, using language to regulate others’ behavior

Playing with sound-related features of language

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Middle childhood

Highly developed L1, still increasing in vocabulary size and grammatical complexityTurn-taking and topic-maintenance skills, awareness of pragmatics and others’ perspectivesGreater metalinguistic awareness, reflected in use of riddles and punsDeveloping literacy Exposure to a greater range of text typesMore time spent in multiparty settings and with peers (language learning contexts are mostly at home and in school)

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Adolescence

Greater capacity for abstract thought

Increasing metalinguistic awareness

Changes in language play (e.g., being pedantic with literal meanings)

Increasing reliance on peers, more extended social networks

Still quite distinct needs compared to adults (issues of interest, identity, social development)

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Children and adults

Children experience a complex range of relationships, needs, and obligations which change markedly over time as they develop and mature. Their linguistic experiences change accordingly.(Cekaite, in press; Duff, 2005; Fogle, in press; Hawkins, 2005; Mitchell & Lee, in press; Philp & Duchesne, in press; Toohey, 2002; Willett, 1995).

Adult-ChildVertical relationships

Scaffolding, protection, and security in which skills emerge

Child-ChildHorizontal relationships

Contexts for use, practice

(Hartup, 1998; Laursen& Hartup, 2002)

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Challenges and good newsChallenges:

There is no ‘magic bullet’ for ensuring a child of any age is fluent in more than one language.L2 learning is not merely ‘child’s play’ for many young learners; it’s necessary to consider:

Children’s unique social contexts in instructional and home settingsMaturational and cognitive factors (for younger children, older children, and adolescents)

Parents and teachers can’t sit back and expect it to happen on its own… it takes work! (De Houwer, 1998; Okita, 2002; Pearson, 2007)

Good news: Many of the myths about bilingualism (e.g., language delay, mixing, confusion) have not been supported by research.

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Common areas of myths & misconceptions

Types of interlocutors needed Starting earlyIndividual differencesError correctionNumber of languagesLanguage mixingEdutainmentBilingual education

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Myth 1: Only bilinguals can teach children to be bilingual (and bilingual parents always raise bilingual kids).

Monolingualism is considered the norm in the US

English is a high-status, high-prestige language

Even very young children are aware of the status encoded in language

Bilingual parents do not always raise bilingual children.

Raising bilingual children takes planning, effort, and dedication for everyone – even for parents who are bilingual themselves.

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With the right approach, any parent can raise children who know more than one language—even if that parent is monolingual.

Bilingualism is increasingly seen as a desirable asset.Need to make sense of different opportunities and pick and choose wisely among programs, activities, and materials.

Solid foundation for successful language learning or slickly marketed, gimmicky waste of time and money?

Myth 1: Only bilinguals can teach children to be bilingual (and bilingual parents always raise bilingual kids).

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Myth 2: I’m too late! You have to start very early, or you will miss the boat.

5-7 years old is the cut-off for a native-like accent?The Critical Period Hypothesis

Generally accepted: Rate of acquisition and ultimate attainment differ for younger and older learnersLess often discussed: Differences also appear at different stages of development, in different linguistic domains, and according to L1-L2 pairingsDebates: Access to innate learning abilities? Roles of socio-psychological vs. maturational factors?

(Bialystok & Miller, 1999; Birdsong 2005; DeKeyser, 2000; DeKeyser & Larson-Hall, 2005; Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson 2003; Ioup, 2005; Marinova-Todd et al., 2000)

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Myth 2: I’m too late! You have to start very early, or you will miss the boat.

Age clearly plays a role, but consider:Other psychosocial factors

Motivation and anxiety Amount and types of exposureCommunicative needs

Speed of learning vs. ultimate level of successGrammar vs. pronunciation vs. vocabulary

There are some advantages to starting very young, but older children can also make great strides and reach high levels of success in their second language!

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Myth 3: Only native speakers can teach children second languages.

All parents worry about modeling good behavior; some worry that children should be exposed only to native-language models.

In fact, most adult speech is imperfect.

First language acquisition happens flawlessly anyway—provided that children are directly engaged in meaningful communication.

o Backtrackingo Sentence fragmentso Grammatical errors

o False startso Hesitationso Interruptions

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Myth 3: Only native speakers can teach children second languages.

The truly critical factor is rich, dynamic, and meaningful interaction with speakers of the language (and this can come in many different forms).

Yamamoto’s (2001) “Principle of maximal engagement”

More input in the minority language—combined with familial expectations that it is to be used in the home—amount to a greater likelihood that the child will use the language.

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Myth 4: Children from the same family or classroom will have the same language skills.

There are always some innate differences among siblings

GenderPersonality and sensitivity Aptitude (e.g., working memory)Learning styles

Holistic-itemizersAuditory-visual-kinesthetic-tactile

Multiple intelligencesLinguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic

Two children in the same family (or in the same classroom) can have very different experiences with language learning.

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Multiple intelligences

Linguistic: the ability to use language to describe events, to build trust and rapport, to develop logical arguments and use rhetoric, or to be expressive and metaphoric. Logical-mathematical: the ability to use numbers, to be sensitive to the patterns and logic of mathematics, and to solve problems in design and modeling.

Musical: the ability to understand and develop musical technique, to respond emotionally to music, and to create imaginative and expressive performances and compositions. Spatial: the ability to perceive and represent the visual-spatial world accurately, to interpret and graphically represent visual or spatial ideas.

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Multiple intelligencesBodily-kinesthetic: the ability to use the body and tools to take effective action. Interpersonal: the ability to organize people and communicate clearly what needs to be done, to interpret different kinds of interpersonal clues.

Intrapersonal: the ability to assess one’s own strengths, weaknesses, talents, and interests and use them to set goals. Naturalist: the ability to recognize and classify plants, minerals, and animals, and to recognize cultural artifacts like cars and sneakers.

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Myth 4: Children from the same family or classroom will have the same language skills.

For many different reasons, children reared in the same home or taught in the same classroom can end up with very different language skills.

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Myth 5: It’s important to correct all errors as soon as possible.

Errors are a natural and expected part of language learning. They can be a sign of progress as children move through stages of development.

For young children, most morphosyntactic errors are not due to interference from an earlier-learned language.Similar patterns of development have been found regardless of learners’ first language.(Cazden et al., 1975; Dulay & Burt, 1974; Paradis, 2005)

Correcting every error might erode a child’s confidence in speaking.

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Myth 5: It’s important to correct all errors as soon as possible.

Errors should be treated with care and often ignored, since the value of communication (and the importance of building confidence) is paramount in both first and second language learning.

Learners become proficient when they are given many opportunities to use the target language and make creative mistakes—not because every error is corrected.

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Myth 6: Exposing a child to two languages means she will be a late talker.

There is great variation in the ages at which children begin to speak.

Normal for children to utter their first words as early as 8 months or as late as 16 monthsNatural (but misguided) tendency to blame children’s additional languages if they are later talkers

No scientific evidence showing that hearing 2, 3, or more languages leads to delays or disorders in acquisition

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Myth 6: Exposing a child to two languages means she will be a late talker.

Learning two languages is not a cause of language delay.

Several longitudinal studies have found that bilingual (and even trilingual) children acquire their languages within the same time frame as monolinguals

PLUS: Metalinguistic awareness, sociolinguistic competence

(e.g., De Houwer, 1990; Dewaele, 2000; Genesee, 2000; Hoffman, 1985; Leopold, 1939-1949; Maneva, 2004; Mikes, 1990; Quay, 2001; Ronjat, 1913)

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Myth 7: Mixing languages is a sign of confusion.

Some parents and educators are concerned that children might be confused by the use of two languages and believe the languages should be strictly separated.

But…Children distinguish between their languages early on (Genesee, 2000; Maneva et al., 2002; Meisel, 1989)

Constant decision-making regarding language choice enhances fluid intelligence and metalinguistic awareness (Bialystok, 1991; Clyne, 1987; Hakuta & Diaz, 1985)

Bi- and multi-lingual children are sensitive to unspoken rules about which language(s) should be spoken to whom and when (De Houwer, 1995; Hoffman, 2001; Lanza, 1992; Maneva, 2004)

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Myth 7: Mixing languages is a sign of confusion.

In fact, mixing languages is a normal phase of bilingual development—apparent even at the babbling stage—and is not problematic in the long run.

There are many different ways of organizing language in the home and at school, and strict separation of languages is generally not realistic and not necessary.

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Myth 8: Television and DVDs are great ways to teach languages.

Even small amounts of language exposure can help children keep an ear for a language. But…

To be effective, language exposure must be with a real human beingThe American Pediatric Academy recommends no television at all for children under the age of 2.

Especially for younger children, edutainment devices, while extremely well marketed and popular, cannot substitute for a real person and real interaction.

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Myth 8: Television and DVDs are great ways to teach languages.

Young children don’t learn much language through TV or other edutainment.

However, these can be good, motivational supplements for older children, who can…

Form positive, fun associations with the language

Meaningfully link language and culture

Use subtitles to enhance language learning

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Myth 9: Bilingual education is for non-English speakers.

Some programs focus on teaching ESL so that children can flourish in ‘mainstream’ (English-only) classes.

However, many programs view speaking other languages as a valuable resource!

‘Maintenance’ programs seek to enrich children’s heritage languages.

‘Two-way immersion’programs try to promote bilingualism, biliteracy, and cross-cultural understanding for all.

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Myth 9: Bilingual education is for non-English speakers.

Bilingual education can be beneficial for allchildren.

More than 350 dual-language (two-way) immersion programs in the US provide academically rigorous instruction in 2 languages to native speakers of each language; hundreds in Canada do so.

Results so far are impressive: Both groups of students achieve high levels of competence in both languages and work at or above grade level in other academic areas (e.g., math).

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Myth 10: A very young child should not be exposed to more than two languages.

For many parents, concerns about language confusion, delay, and mixing intensify when a third language is added.

There are millions of real-world examples of children who learn more than two languages with no ill effects.

For each language to develop, rich quality and intensive quantity of input is needed.Longitudinal studies of

trilingualism:Hoffman (1985)Maneva (2004)Mikes (1990)Quay (2001)

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As long as children’s exposure to each language is sufficiently extensive, balanced, and meaningful, it is possible to learn multiple languages.

Myth 10: A very young child should not be exposed to more than two languages.

It helps if the languages are perceived as additional knowledge that can be advantageous in some way.

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Tailoring pedagogy

Matching language teaching strategies with learners’aptitudes, interests, needs, changes in cognitive maturity…

Appropriate levels/types of scaffolding, guidance, feedback, andappeal (or not) to analytic abilitiesAdequate consideration of individual differences

Respecting and encouraging parents’ goals for their children, as well as children’s own developing goalsCreating environments in which children can develop the sorts of self-confidence and positive relationships with peers that enhance opportunities for peer interaction and language learning

(Cameron, 2001; Gibbons, 2006; Moon, 2000; Spada & Lightbown, 2006; Slattery & Willis, 2001)

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How can teachers promote child language learning?

Portray a positive attitude towards all world languages. Integrate the target language into everyday classroom activities, events.Get children interacting with each other in the target language.Integrate language learning with other kinds of learning.

Encourage and support students who have heritage languages when they are playing or interacting with their peers.Plan extracurricular activities like field trips around opportunities to hear and speak the language.Get bilingual parents involved (and talking) in classroom activities.

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Tips & tricks

Don’t use a formal “drill and kill” approach, and don’t limit language work to quiet work—instead, make sure the language is associated with fun and activity! Contextualize the language in activities that are meaningful to children, like songs, stories, and games. Make the language an integral part of play time. Find ways for children to interact with each other using the language actively.

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Tips & tricks

Consider how the classroom is set up:What sorts of posters and pictures are on the walls? Do they promote other cultures and languages?How easy is it for children to access language materials?Are chairs, tables, and floor space set up to promote interaction through language games and other activities?

Reach out to different learning styles with a variety of activities.

Movement, singing, and dancingPainting, drawing, arts and craftsDramatic play / dress-upConcrete objects and toys that children can play with and touch, using the target language

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Remember…The bilingual edge is for everyone!

Language learning can be…an experience that enhances creativity, cognitive functioning, self-esteem, cross-cultural understanding, and future job opportunities,meaningful and connected with real life, integrated into everyday routines and interactions,a way of learning about other people and cultures, andenjoyable for everyone involved!

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Resources for early childhood educators

http://www.thebilingualedge.com/http://biculturalfamily.org/http://www.multilingualmatters.com/http://linguistlist.org/ask-ling/http://www.theteacherscorner.net/

http://www.apples4theteacher.com/foreignlang.htmlhttp://www.csun.edu/~hcedu013/eslindex.htmlhttp://www.sitesforteachers.com/index.htmlhttp://www.ldonline.org/educators/strategies/language