Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina: A FoodSupplement

Meeta Mathur

Contents1 Introduction to Spirulina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1 Historical Background and Rediscovery as Food and Animal Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 Taxonomic Position and Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.1 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.2 Vitamins and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.3 Carbohydrates and Essential Fatty Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.4 Photosynthetic Pigments or Phytonutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Spirulina a Therapeutic and Nutraceutical Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.1 Used Against Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.2 Used Against Diabetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93.3 Used Against AIDS and as Antiviral Drug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.4 Used Against Allergic Rhinitis and Asthma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.5 Used Against Hypertension and Hyperlipidemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.6 Used Against Heart Strokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.7 Used Against Anemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.8 Used Against Eye Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.9 Used as Immunity Booster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.10 Used as Antioxidant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.11 Used as Radioprotective Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123.12 Used as Trace Metal Supplement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Spirulina a Food Supplement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134.1 Spirulina Value as Super Food and Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134.2 Use as Supplement in Humanitarian Emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134.3 Food Safety Aspects Related to Human Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

5 Spirulina Industry and Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145.1 Culturing Spirulina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145.2 Extraction of Bioactive Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165.3 Spirulina and Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

M. Mathur (*)Department of Botany, Mithibai College, University of Mumbai, Mumbai, Indiae-mail: meet.mat2000@gmail.com

# Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018J.-M. Mérillon, K. G. Ramawat (eds.), Bioactive Molecules in Food, Reference Series inPhytochemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54528-8_97-1

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5.4 Recent Developments and Future Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

AbstractSpirulina is a nature’s gift as super food to mankind. It is a photosyntheticfilamentous microalga which has emerged as a potent food supplement becauseof its rich micro- and macronutrient contents. The body of Spirulina is smoothand with weak cell wall that makes it easily digestible. It is a valuable source ofproteins, vitamins, minerals, β-carotene, fatty acids, etc. which makes it perfect asfood and fodder. NASA has stated that the nutritional value of 1000 kg of fruitsand vegetables equals to 1 kg of Spirulina. In 1992 WHO has declared Spirulinaas “Best food for future” to redress malnutrition especially in children. Apart frombeing a food supplement, Spirulina has gained considerable popularity andparamount importance due to the presence of certain pigments and secondarymetabolites. It shows pharmacognosic properties like immuno-protective, anti-cancer, antidiabetic, antiviral, anti-obesity, etc. it is the most nutritionally con-centrated compact whole food known which owe a potential to drastically lowerthe chances of developing cancer, heart disease, or stroke or of contracting a life-threatening virus such as HIV and prevent eyes from cataract formation. Manyanimal studies in vivo and in vitro and human trials have proved Spirulina to becommercialized and sold for therapeutic purposes. It appears to have a consider-able potential for developing a key crop in coastal and alkaline regions wheretraditional agriculture struggles. Thus, looking at its global nutritional signifi-cance, more should be done in culture isolation, purification, and quality controlof Spirulina and its products.

KeywordsSpirulina platensis · IIMSAM · C-phycocyanin · β-carotene · Nutraceutical ·Hepetoprotective · Anticancer · Mass cultivation · Biofertilizer · Nephrotoxicity

AbbreviationsAIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndromeC-PC C-phycocyaninEFA essential fatty acidGLA gamma linolenic acidHIV human immunodeficiency virusIIMSAM intergovernmental institution for the use of micro-algae Spirulina

against malnutritionNASA National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNPU net protein utilizationPER protein efficiency ratioPUFA polyunsaturated fatty acidsWHO World Health Organization

2 M. Mathur

1 Introduction to Spirulina

1.1 Historical Background and Rediscovery as Foodand Animal Feed

In sixteenth century a German algae scientist Dr. Darwin discovered the existence ofspiral-shaped algae and called it Spirulina. Later Dr. Christopher Hills rediscoveredthese spiral blue-green algae in Lake Chad, Africa, and popularized it as a foodsupplement. He was called “The father of Spirulina.” According to him, Spirulinacontains billions of years of successful evolutionary wisdom coded in its DNA [1].

In Africa, Spirulina has served as sole of nutrition in certain communities in thetimes of famine, and the entire population has existed eating only Spirulina for over amonth [2]. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) usedSpirulina predominantly as a food supplement for astronauts on space missions.NASA has stated that the nutritional value of 1000 kg of fruits and vegetables equalsto 1 kg of Spirulina [3]. The United Nations World Health Organization (WHO) hasaccepted Spirulina as an interesting food for multiple reasons and can be adminis-tered to even children without any risk. WHO also confirmed it is effective in cancerprevention, hay fever, herpes, HIV, high cholesterol, liver protection, weightloss, etc.

A worldwide Spirulina campaign “Intergovernmental Institution for the Use ofMicro-Algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition” (IIMSAM) was started in the UnitedNations by Sarah Obama for improvement of public health. IIMSAM works topromote the use of Spirulina as a humanitarian instrument in fighting against severemalnutrition worldwide. IIMSAM also maintains communication channels withentities around the world. Spirulina is also said to be highly nutritious potentialfeed resource for agriculturally important animal species, by improving growth,fertility, and nutritional product quality, and it is emerging as a cost-effectivemeans of improving animal productivity for a sustainable and viable food securityfuture [4].

1.2 Taxonomic Position and Characters

Spirulina is a 300 million years old Cyanophycean spiral-shaped filamentous micro-algae (Oscillatoriaceae family) found naturally in alkaline, mineral-rich, pollutionfree waters with high pH. It thrives well in alkaline lakes where it is difficult orimpossible for other microorganisms to survive [5]. Its name comes from a Latinword meaning tiny spiral.

It is microscopic but may attain a size of 0.5 mm in length, which makes someindividuals visible to naked eyes. The helical shape of the filaments is characteristicof the genus and is maintained always. This helical shape of the filament andpresence of gas-filled vacuoles in the cells result in floating mats. Spirulina has aprokaryotic organization, pluri-stratified cell wall, photosynthetic lamellar system,ribosomes and fibrils of DNA region, and numerous inclusions (Fig. 1).

Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina: A Food Supplement 3

Its main photosynthetic pigment is C-phycocyanin (C-PC). It is also rich inchlorophyll, carotenoids, and phycocyanin. Spirulina is an obligate photoautotroph,i.E., it cannot grow in the dark. It reduces carbon dioxide in the light and assimilatesmainly nitrates. The main assimilation product is glycogen. It grows well in tem-perature ranging from 37 �C to 40 �C. Also the resistance of Spirulina towardultraviolet radiations is high than any other algae [6]. The body surface of Spirulinais smooth and without covering so it is easily digestible by simple enzymaticsystems. There are several species of Spirulina, but the most widely used speciesas food supplement are S. platensis and S. maxima [7] (Fig. 2).

2 Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina

By the past many decades, Spirulina has been of enormous interest by nutritionalresearchers because of its high micro- and macronutrient contents. Its concentratednutrition makes it ideal for people of all ages and lifestyles. Spirulina is an incrediblenatural source of nutrients which has been used since ancient times. Its nutritionalcomposition has been monitored and analyzed since 1970.

It has been an excellent source of proteins, vitamins, fatty acids, minerals,photosynthetic pigments, and many secondary metabolites [8]. Its composition isdiscussed below (Fig. 3).

Fig. 1 Floating mats of Spirulina

4 M. Mathur

Fig. 2 Spirulina platensis*

Minerals7%

Carbohydrates20%

Moisture3%

Fats5%

Protiens65%

Fig. 3 Composition of biomolecules in Spirulina

Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina: A Food Supplement 5

2.1 Proteins

Proteins are building blocks of life; they are essential for living a healthy life. Thebody uses proteins to build and repair muscles and other tissues. Proteins are brokendown to amino acids which are necessary components in enzymes and hormones.Proteins are crucial component of every single cell in human body and that is whyare vital to be included in one’s diet.

Spirulina contains usually high amount of protein between 55 and 70% by dryweight [9]. Spirulina consists of essential amino acids mainly leucine, valine,isoleucine, tryptophan, methionine, phenylalanine, theanine, and lysine [10]. Aspar-tate and glutamate are the two nonessential amino acids present in Spirulina(Table 1). Unlike other plant-derived proteins, Spirulina is a perfect protein as itcontains all the essential amino acids. Its status as a plant-based source of completeprotein makes it an ideal dietary supplement choice for vegetarians.

Spirulina cells do not have cellulose walls but relatively fragile envelope ofmurein which is one of its kinds in plant kingdom. This explains the very highdigestibility of its proteins [11]. The net protein utilization (NPU) is calculated byknowing the percentage of nitrogen retained when source of proteins under studyingthe only limiting nutritional factor. The NPU value of Spirulina is estimated between55 and 92% more in comparison to casein [12]. While, the weight gained by theindividual divided by the weight of protein ingested is called protein efficiency ratio(PER). The PER values for Spirulina was found out to be double than casein [13].

2.2 Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins are organic compounds having diverse biochemical functions. These areessential nutrients that an organism needs in smaller amounts as it cannot make themby itself.

Spirulina contains vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (nicotinamide), B6

(pyridoxine), B9 (folic acid), B12 (cyanocobalamin), vitamin C, vitamin D andvitamin E (tocopherol), and most important provitamin a (β-carotene) (Table 2).

Table 1 Protein composition of Spirulina

S.No Amino acids Concentration (g100g�1)

1 Leucine 4.94

2 Isoleucine 3.20

3 Valine 3.51

4 Tryptophan 0.93

5 Theanine 2.97

6 Lysine 3.02

7 Methionine 1.15

8 Phenylalanine 2.78

9 Total 22.5

6 M. Mathur

Spirulina is the only vegetable source of vitamin B12 having two and half times morethan meat. It contains the highest amount of beta-carotene much more than carrots,which is a precursor of vitamin a and is not dose dependent. It is also a very goodsource of vitamin E, similar to wheat germ.

Minerals are inorganic essential nutrients that the body needs to carry out variousfunctions and processes for healthy living. Spirulina is an adequate source of manyminerals like iron, zinc, sodium, potassium, phosphorous, manganese, magnesium,copper, and calcium (Table 3). Very high iron content makes Spirulina economicallyimportant. The calcium, phosphorous, and magnesium occur in quantities compara-ble to those found in milk [14].

2.3 Carbohydrates and Essential Fatty Acids

Around 15–20% of dry weight of Spirulina is carbohydrate. It contains glucose,fructose, sucrose, glycerol, mannitol, and sorbitol. Mesoinositol is a carbohydratewhich is an excellent source of organic phosphorous. Spirulina is eight times richerin mesoinositol than beef and very much more than vegetables. Recent studiesindicate calcium spirulan (Ca-SP) is a novel sulfated polysaccharide found inSpirulina [14] (Table 4).

Seven percent of the total volume of Spirulina is lipids. It has a high amount ofpolyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Vitamin-like substances which cannot be syn-thesized in the human body also called essential fatty acids (EFA) are essential forhealthy living; they include linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids. EFA help toreduce total cholesterol and triglyceride levels (associated with arteriosclerosis andheart disease). Their cell membranes are largely made up of lipids. When presentwith vitamins E and A, they protect the cell membranes against antioxidant and freeradical attacks. Such attacks can alter the absorption of nutrients through the cellmembranes. Since membrane damage may alter antigens, this could cause theimmune system to fail. Spirulina with a special fatty acid called gamma linolenicacid (GLA) has reportedly shown to be an effective immunoprotector. Spirulina is

Table 2 Vitamin composition of Spirulina

S.No. Vitamins Concentration (mg100g�1)

1 Vitamin B1 3.5

2 Vitamin B12 0.32

3 Vitamin K 2.2

4 Carotene 140

5 Riboflavin 4

6 Niacin 14

7 Folic acid 0.01

8 Biotin 0.005

9 Vitamin E 100

10 Total 264.035

Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina: A Food Supplement 7

also nature’s highest available source of GLA. It also contains stearidonic acid(SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonicacid (AA) (Table 5).

2.4 Photosynthetic Pigments or Phytonutrients

Spirulina is of special interest because of its color and presence of variety ofpigments with specific functional properties. It contains mainly chlorophyll a,xanthophylls, beta (β)-carotene (both isomers), echinenone, myxoxanthophyll, zea-xanthin, canthaxanthin, beta cryptoxanthin, oscillaxanthin, phycobiliproteins,3-hydroxyechinenone, c-phycocyanin (C-PC), and allophycocyanin [15] (Table 6).

It has predominance of phycocyanins and beta-carotenes which makes it an idealnutraceutical worldwide. Different strains of Spirulina depicted variable influenceon pigments with changed environmental parameters. Growth and pigment produc-tion was recorded to be most efficient under optimized conditions of light intensity(70 μmol m�2 s�1), temperature (30 �C), CO2 concentration (550 ppm and750 ppm), pH (10.5), and NaCl level (2 g L�1) [16].

Table 3 Minerals composition of Spirulina

S.No. Minerals Concentration (mg100g�1)

1 Iron 100

2 Copper 1.2

3 Calcium 700

4 Zinc 3

5 Sodium 900

6 Potassium 1400

7 Phosphorous 800

8 Manganese 5

9 Magnesium 400

10 Total 4309.2

Table 4 Carbohydrate composition of Spirulina

S.No. Carbohydrate Concentration (mg100g�1)

1 Glucose 54.4

2 Rhamnose 22.3

3 Mannose 9.3

4 Xylose 7

5 Galactose 3

6 Total 96

8 M. Mathur

3 Spirulina a Therapeutic and Nutraceutical Agent

Spirulina has emerged as a wonder drug because of its various medicinal propertiesfor improvement of health in humans [17]. It boosts immunity and increasesresistance power of individual. Spirulina is gaining more attention from medicalscience as “nutraceutical” and as source of potential medicine. Experimental datahave suggested the following medicinal uses:

3.1 Used Against Cancer

Recent research findings show that the antioxidant and immune modulation charac-teristics of Spirulina have a possible mechanism of tumor destruction and hence playa role in cancer prevention especially stomach cancer [18]. It also contains pigmentC-phycocyanin (C-PC) which inhibits liver cancer cells through an apoptotic mech-anism [19]. According to a finding, combination of Spirulina and selenium inhibitedbreast cancer by growth arrest and apoptosis [20]. Spirulina is also chemoprotectiveand induced lesion regression in tobacco chewers with oral leukoplakia [21].

3.2 Used Against Diabetes

The presence of gamma linolenic acid (GLA), high fiber content, and peptides inSpirulina makes it a potent hypoglycemic agent; as a result the blood glucose levelsare lowered [22]. Clinical studies on thousands of diabetes patients around the world

Table 5 Lipid composition of Spirulina

S.No. Lipids Concentration (g100g�1)

1 GLA 1

2 Palmitic 2

3 Arachidic 0.05

4 Oleic 0.017

5 Myristic 0.04

6 Total 3.1

Table 6 Lipid composition of Spirulina

S.No. Phytonutrients Concentration (g100g�1)

1 Cis β-carotene 0.07

2 Trans β-carotene 0.3

3 Chlorophyll a 1

4 C-phycocyanin (C-PC) 12

5 Total 13.37

Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina: A Food Supplement 9

have shown a number of benefits and powerful effects to improve their condition.C-phycocyanin(C-PC) in Spirulina stimulates the body’s insulin function; it alsoimproves insulin resistance of patients and manages their lipid metabolism. Theseeffects of Spirulina supplement in type 2 diabetes showed improvement in fastingblood sugar and lipid profiles [23].

3.3 Used Against AIDS and as Antiviral Drug

Calcium spirulan (Ca-SP) isolated from Spirulina has shown antiviral activitiesagainst different viruses such as (human immunodeficiency virus) HIV-I, herpessimplex virus type-I, and influenza virus. The antiviral activity is suggested to be dueto the effect of chelation of calcium ion to sulfate groups [24]. A recent study on theantiviral activity of Spirulina has resulted in the isolation of cyanovirin-N (CV-N), anovel cynobacterial carbohydrate-binding protein that inhibits HIV-I and otherenveloped viral particles [25].

3.4 Used Against Allergic Rhinitis and Asthma

The pigment present in Spirulina called C-phycocyanin (C-PC) can selectivelyinhibit release of histamine from mast cells and prevent increase in immunoglobulinE (IgE). IgE stimulated the immune system and causes the airways to becomenarrow and makes asthma symptoms worse. Thus reduction in IgE causes consid-erable improvement in allergic rhinitis and asthma. 1gm/day dose of Spirulinaproduced improvement in lung parameters [26].

3.5 Used Against Hypertension and Hyperlipidemia

Spirulina decreases lipoperoxidation products and show hepatoprotective activity.C-phycocyanin pigment present in Spirulina exhibits hypocholesterolemic action[27]. It is also suggested that the gamma linolenic acid (GMA) content also helps inthe mechanism of action [28]. The high potassium and low sodium contents ofSpirulina also have positive effects on blood pressure. It is thus shown that Spirulinareduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure when given by oral route [29]. In astudy, volunteers given 4.5 g/day of Spirulina for 6 weeks lowered blood pressureand total cholesterol LDL and increased HDL [30].

3.6 Used Against Heart Strokes

The gamma linolenic acid (GLA) found in Spirulinaworks with the heart to improvea robust healthy system which helps to prevent heart diseases, cardiac arrest, andstroke. Another compound beta-carotene present in it also guards the cardiac system.

10 M. Mathur

According to a study, the degree of strokes and heart attack reduced to 50% in heartpatients given Spirulina supplement for more than 4 weeks. Spirulina is thereforebeneficial in preventing atherosclerosis and reduced risk for cardiovasculardiseases [31].

3.7 Used Against Anemia

Spirulina contains the pigment phycocyanin which is shown to stimulate the bonemarrow to produce blood cells more effectively. It also modulates the production ofcytokines by human blood mononuclear cells and increases flavonoids andsulfolipids [32]. Spirulina thus enhances red blood cell’s production and function.Its intake has shown a steady increase in average values of mean corpuscularhemoglobin. Older women were benefitted more rapidly from Spirulina supplements[33]. Level of anemia was also decreased in children given Spirulina supplementsfor 12 weeks [34].

3.8 Used Against Eye Diseases

Spirulina contains ten times more beta-carotene than carrots. Beta-carotene getsconverted to vitamin Awhich helps to protect the cornea, which is the outer surfaceof the eye. This is essential for having good vision. If it is not protected, then it maycause blurry vision, eye pain, eye redness, etc. it also protects the retina from clumpdeposits. Thus Spirulina provides the daily dietary dose of beta-carotenes whichprevent blindness and eye diseases [35].

3.9 Used as Immunity Booster

Spirulina helps in building immunity and improving resistance to infections. Severalexperiments have shown that it has a favorable regulatory effect on the immunesystem [36]. It enhances the components of the mucosal and systemic immunesystem as it activates the cells of innate immune system. It also activates macro-phages T and B cells [37]. Spirulina use leads to higher level of natural killer cells,interferon gamma, and more potent production of interleukins – The cytokines oflow molecular weight that are produced by lymphocytes and macrophages and thatfunction especially in regulation of the immune system [38].

3.10 Used as Antioxidant

Antioxidants are substances which neutralize the unstable free radicals generateddue to oxidative stress. This beneficial antioxidant property of Spirulina is because

Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina: A Food Supplement 11

of the presence of tocopherols, phenolic acids, and beta-carotene. This causesprevention of oxidative stress and inflammation and their associative damages [39].

Geriatric patients administered Spirulina for 16 weeks showed a remarkableimprovement in antioxidant potential, as measured by increased levels of antioxi-dants in plasma of the individuals [40].

3.11 Used as Radioprotective Agent

The incredible radioprotective effect of Spirulina is due to its ability to bind to heavymetals and radioisotopes. Numerous studies have found that it protects the bodyagainst and even heals it from damaging harmful radiations. It was confirmed be aresearch in the early nineties that Spirulina effectively decreases the radioactive loadreceived by the body when consuming radiation-contaminated food. After just20 days, children fed 5gm doses of Spirulina every day for 2 weeks showed anaverage 50% reduction in urine radioactivity levels. Spirulina works so well atattenuating the damage caused by radiation that it was actually awarded a Russianpatent in 1995 for improving the immunity of children affected by radiation from theChernobyl disaster. Many exposed children became stricken with chronic radiationsickness and elevated immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels, and they also tested positivefor high allergy sensitivity. On consuming Spirulina for 45 days, the children’s IgElevels and allergic sensitivities were restored back to normal [41]. Later in 2001 astudy showed Spirulina extracts effectively protect against both the damage causedby chemotherapy drugs and gamma radiation exposure. It was thus also prescribed tocancer patient undergoing chemotherapy [42]. Spirulina polysaccharides arebelieved to have a stimulating effect on DNA repair mechanisms which mightexplain the radioprotective effect mentioned several times in relation to Spirulina.Conclusively, Spirulina offers remarkable radioprotective benefits and offers asurefire way to mitigate the damaging effects of harmful radiation in addition to itsmany other health-promoting benefits.

3.12 Used as Trace Metal Supplement

Spirulina also contains selenium which is one of the important trace metals involvedin immune function, reproduction, cardiovascular disease, cancer, viral infectioncontrol, and metal toxicity. Another essential trace element is iodine, whose defi-ciency affects thyroid function, cardiovascular function, and other brain disorders[43]. These trace elements help in preserving bone health since they reduce decal-cification risk. Spirulina is an oxalate-free plant food; thus as with iron it providescalcium with high availability; thus it improves its absorption [44].

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4 Spirulina a Food Supplement

4.1 Spirulina Value as Super Food and Feed

Spirulina is a miracle food that nourishes our body providing most of the proteinsneeded for healthy living; it helps to develop resistance against allergies, reinforcethe immune system, help to control high blood pressure and cholesterol, and protectus from deadly diseases like cancer and AIDS. Spirulina is being developed as “foodof the future” because of the presence of active biomolecules and their beneficialeffects (Table 7).

Spirulina has three benefits – cleansing, restoring, and fortifying. It promotes thebody natural cleansing processes, compensates for deficiencies in the diet, andstimulates metabolism. It boosts resistance and activates body’s natural defensemechanisms. It was then adopted as a super food to overcome malnutrition.

It has gained considerable popularity in the human health food industry, and inmany countries of Asia, it is used as protein supplement and as health food. Spirulinahas also been used as a protein and vitamin-supplemented feed for fish, shrimp, andpoultry. China is using this microalga as a partial substitute of imported forage topromote the growth, immunity, and viability of shrimp. In Japan, research on usingSpirulina as aquaculture feed additives is accomplished [45].

4.2 Use as Supplement in Humanitarian Emergencies

As discussed in the chapter earlier, Spirulina can serve as a supplementary cure formany diseases and to cure malnutrition. The aftermath of malnutrition (lack ofessential vitamins, iron, zinc, essential amino acids, etc.) leads to irreversibledamages such as mental retardation, growth problems, blindness, and fatal infec-tions. Malnutrition plays a role in more than half of children death over the world; itsravages get extended to the million survivors who will be disabled and chronicallyvulnerable to diseases. Malnutrition can only be overcome by allowing extremelypoor populations to cover their essential nutritional needs. Spirulina local productionsystem emerges as a micronutrient complement, responding to overcome malnutri-tion. This paved a way in the development of Spirulina producing industries.

A study on 28 children suffering from manifest protein-energy diseases wascarried out from January to November 1989 in Zaire [46]. The parameters measured

Table 7 Beneficial effects of major bioactive molecules in Spirulina

Bioactive compounds in Spirulina Functions in human body

β-Carotene, GLA Protection and maintenance

Chlorophyll, lutein Cleansing (removal of free radicals)

C-phycocyanin (C-PC), proteins Repair

Zeaxanthin Antioxidant damage repair

Arginine Hormonal balance

Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina: A Food Supplement 13

during this study show the generally positive effects of spirulina on patients’nutritional status, regardless of the inevitable hazards associated with studies in thefield. Researchers in China analyzed the impact of a daily portion of 1.5 grams ofSpirulina on the health status of the children and found it to be very beneficial [47].

4.3 Food Safety Aspects Related to Human Consumption

Before being adopted as super food and nutraceutical, it is very important to clarifythe specific species of Spirulina used for human consumption is safe. It is known thatmany of the existing blue-green algae species are known to produce toxin (micro-cystins, in particular MCYST-LR). It is particularly important in countries where nosuch regulation exists on this type of products.

The results of recent studies on risk management showed that only products fromSpirulina platensis have so far been cleared for consumption (United States ofAmerica, Australia, Canada), under specific conditions, by public health authorities.In Canada, it was found that no microcystins was detected in blue-green algalproducts containing only Spirulina [48], while a study conducted for the OregonDepartment of Agriculture (ODA) published in 2000 found MCYST-LR in all the15 Spirulina samples (dietary supplements) analyzed [49]. Spirulina has beenrecognized as GRAS (generally recognized as safe) under the “indented conditionsof use” implying that it is “for use as an ingredient in foods, at levels ranging from0.5 to 3.0 grams per serving.” This means in relatively small amounts. Specialprecautionary measures would be necessary on the consumption of spirulina prod-ucts to some segments of the population at risk to include pregnant women, nursingmothers, and people in dialysis and immune-compromised.

5 Spirulina Industry and Products

Edible blue-green algae like Nostoc, Chlorella, and Aphanizomenon species havebeen used for food for thousands of years. Recently Spirulina has gained consider-able popularity in the health food industry and increasingly as a protein and vitaminsupplement to aquaculture diets. Spirulina grows well in alkaline waters, but itsproduction for mass cultivation is to be done in areas with suitable climatic condi-tions. It is difficult to have an ideal growth due to different environmental factors likesolar radiation, rain, wind, temperature fluctuation, etc.

5.1 Culturing Spirulina

Spirulina cultivation takes place either by natural production, laboratory cultivationsmall-scale commercial production, and commercial and mass cultivation.

14 M. Mathur

5.1.1 Natural ProductionCommercial production systems set for natural production of Spirulina are shallowponds mixed by a paddle wheel. However, there are still some examples of Spirulinabeing harvested commercially from naturally occurring populations. In 1967 Mexicohas the largest single plant for the production of Spirulina biomass at 2200 m at18 �C. After filtration, the algal biomass is spray-dried after homogenization andpasteurization. The first pilot plant which produced 150 tons of dry Spirulinabiomass per year started production in 1973; its production capacity was thereafterraised to 300 tons of medium-grade product per year from 12.0 hectares of naturalponds. The toxicological tests were performed before marketing the product [50].Another seminatural lake in Myanmar has been reported to be used as a productionsite for Spirulina. During the blooming season in the summer, when Spirulina formsthick mats on the lake, people in boats collect it. Spirulina is harvested on parallel-inclined filters, washed with fresh water, dewatered, and pressed again. This paste isextruded and dried in the sun on transparent plastic sheets. Dried chips are taken to apharmaceutical factory, pasteurized, pressed into tablets, and marketed.

5.1.2 Laboratory CultivationFor laboratory cultivation of Spirulina, the factors that should be taken care areluminosity (photoperiod 12/12, 4 luxes), temperature (30 �C), inoculation size,stirring speed, dissolved solids (10–60 g/liter), pH (8.5–10.5), water quality, andmacro- and micronutrient presence (C, N, P, K, S, Mg, Na, Cl, Ca and Fe, Zn, Cu, Ni,Co, Se) [51].

Luminosity: In a culture of Spirulina platensis grown in a flat-plate photobioreactor, cell concentration and productivity of biomass were obtained at thehighest light intensity. It was concluded that the higher the light intensity, the higheroptimal culture density, highest algal concentrations, and productivity of biomasswill be obtained. But too high a rate of mixing resulted in cell damage and reducedoutput rate [52].

Nutritional media: Spirulina can be cultured on different media with inorganicand decomposed organic nutrients. Different types of Spirulina were cultured toevaluate growth and biochemistry under similar controlled conditions [53]. Out ofthe three species cultured, viz., Spirulina platensis, S. laxissima, and S. lonar,S. platensis showed highest growth rate, biomass, and pigment concentration.Thus S. platensis reached highest growth in shortest doubling time and could bethe strain for large-scale cultivation. The most favorable growth rates of S. platensisoccurred in the presence of 2.57 g/liter KNO3 with growth rate of 0.3 –0.4/day.

Spirulina can also be cultured in different agro-industrial wastes such as sugarmill waste effluent, poultry industry waste, fertilizer factory waste, and urban wasteand organic matter. The growth parameters of Spirulina platensis were higher thanother cultures on the supernatant of 2.0 and 6.0 g/liter digested poultry waste whichmight be due to appropriate nutrient content and other environment parameters [54].Growth performance of Spirulina platensis was also studied in three differentconcentrations of banana leaf ash added with 0.4 g/liter jackfruit seed powder and0.2 g/liter with urea in the laboratory which showed positive results [55].

Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina: A Food Supplement 15

5.1.3 Small-Scale ProductionThe small-scale production of Spirulina has emerged as a potential income-generating activity for village collectives. Spirulina produced could be used forlocal consumption by the poor farmers or for animal or aquatic feeds. Spirulinacultivation may be carried out in unlined ditches through which flow is low (e.g.,10 cm/s). Stirring may be provided by a simple device driven by wind energy orharnessed to humans. Harvesting may be readily performed using some suitablecloth, and the biomass dehydrates in the sun. The quality of the Spirulina productextracted by this process would not be as high as what is attained in “clean cultures,”but product could serve well as animal feed. From early eighties, Bangladesh isproducing Spirulina through a pilot project using paddle wheel under transparentshade in the campus of BCSIR (Bangladesh Council of Scientific and IndustrialResearch). In India, the Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre in Chennai hasdeveloped the technology, and this has been successfully propagated on a largescale in the rural areas of Pudukkottai District of Tamil Nadu [56].

5.1.4 Mass CultivationThe main commercial large-scale culture of Spirulina started in the early 1960s inJapan at Lake Texcoco, Mexico. Spirulina is produced in at least 22 countries:Benin, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Chad, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Cuba,Ecuador, France, India, Madagascar, Mexico, Myanmar, Peru, Israel, Spain,Thailand, Togo, United States of America, and Vietnam. The total industrial pro-duction of Spirulina was about 3000 tons in 2004 [57]. Mass cultivation of Spirulinais usually carried out in shallow ponds, equipped with paddle wheels to mix theculture. Two types of open raceway ponds are typically used: the first is lined byconcrete and is therefore expensive; the second is a shallow earthen tunnel lined withpolyvinyl chloride (PVC) or some other durable plastic material. The surface ofcommercial raceways varies from 0.1 to 0.5 hectares, and culture depth is usuallymaintained at 15–18 cm. The paddle wheel, large (with a diameter up to 2.0 m and aspeed of 10 rpm) or small (with a diameter of 0.7 m and a speed two to three timesfaster than 2.0 m diameter paddle wheel), is the most common stirring device [58].The first successful culture of Spirulina maxima using untreated seawater in labora-tory condition was reported in Italy in 1984 by Materassi et al. (1984). The culturetechnique developed in the laboratory has been successfully applied to outdoor massculture of S. maxima. The United States of America has a number of the largestintensive farms in the world, mainly based in Hawaii and California (Fig. 4).

5.2 Extraction of Bioactive Molecules

Spirulina platensis is harvested directly from the cultivation area and is dried directlyby using oven at temperature 40 �C for 10 h to get final water content below 10%. Itis then extracted by using soxhletation (for dried Spirulina) and refluxion combinedwith sonication (for fresh Spirulina) and analyzed for the nutritional and bioactive

16 M. Mathur

compound of proximate analysis, flavonoid, phenolic, and antioxidant activity.100 mL extract is added with ethanol with ratio of 2:1 and is used for furtheranalysis [59].

5.3 Spirulina and Agriculture

Used as biofertilizer: In 1981 the FAO documented the possibilities of blue-greenalgae replacing chemical fertilizers and rebuilding the structure of depleted soils(FAO, 1981). Spirulina is used by rice farmers as this natural nitrogen source is onlyone-third the cost of chemical fertilizer, and it increases annual rice yield in India byan average of 22 percent. The use of Spirulina-based biofertilizers is impeded by thelow cost, ready availability, and preferred use of inorganic fertilizers. Studies haveproved Spirulina used in combination with other fertilizers also gave good yield oftomato [60]. Spirulina contains 10 percent N w/w (high percentage), and othermacro- and micronutrients which are slowly released under normal soil conditions,and increases fertility.

Used as a protein supplement in poultry and livestock feeds: Spirulina can beused as an excellent feed for poultry. It has been studied and proved by researchersthat the redness of muscles of broiler chickens reaches maximum when fed with 40 gSpirulina kg-1 diet [61].

Used as a natural colorant: Spirulina is rich in pigments; two of its pigments,viz., phycocyanin (blue) and chlorophyll (green), are combined with another group

Laboratorycultivation Grown on culture media

with desired nutrients,agitation & luminosity

Transfer & Propagationin small ditches

Small ScaleProduction

CommercialCultivation

I,II & III Tier propagation

Runway ponds with agitators

Collection WashingDrying &QualityInspection

Product

Spirulina (selected strain)

Fig. 4 Cultivation of Spirulina

Bioactive Molecules of Spirulina: A Food Supplement 17

of pigments known as carotenoids (red, orange, and yellow) and used as foodcolorant. This phycocyanin extracted from Spirulina was first marketed in 1980and was mainly used as a food colorant, as an edible dye in ice creams, and as anatural dye in the cosmetics industry. However, as the pigment is light sensitive,special care must be taken in protecting it from bleaching [62].

5.4 Recent Developments and Future Outlook

With the increasing demand of Spirulina as super food, transgenic manipulation isadopted to improve its quality in different countries of the world mainly China[63]. But, s gene transfer system has not been established. Though conjugation hasbeen widely used for gene manipulation in microalgae, very little lead was obtainedin Spirulina. Electroporation was the method used transferring foreign genes inS. platensis. At present, Spirulina production is restricted to either countries with ahigh demand (i.e., the United States of America and China) or to a few countries thathave specifically focused on small-scale production to supplement human diets or tointegrate animal and fish production.

Spirulina has always been in the limelight as a nutraceutical, especially from thelast few years. Recent studies have shown its development as a “super food forwomen,” and it is used worldwide to improve women health. As discussed earlier, ithas a novel compound GLAwhich reduces inflammation and eases the premenstrualsyndrome (PMS). Studies done very recently have proved Spirulina diet when givento lactating mothers can protect against neuroinflammation and decreased antioxi-dant defense in the brain, possibly via decreased activation of p38 and high levels ofthe antioxidant miRNA-146a [64]. Nephrotoxicity is another disease which can bedefeated by consuming Spirulina with camel milk [65].

6 Conclusions and Recommendations

Preventive healthcare says “let your food be your medicine.” Spirulina truly comesin such category of food supplement. As discussed in the chapter, it has a range ofbioactive molecules with extremely high amount of digestible protein, nine essentialamino acids, high levels of β-carotene, vitamin B12, iron and trace minerals, rareessential fatty acid γ-linolenic acid (GLA), and pigments like C-phycocyanin (C-PC)and phycobilin which makes it extremely desirable. In addition, it has no obviousnegative cultural and religious issues associated with its consumption.

Spirulina also has considerable potential in industry, especially as small-scalecrop in alkaline areas where other crops fail to grow. Its production occupies only asmall environmental footprint, with considerable efficiency in terms of energyconsumption. Its production can be done at different scales, from pot cultures tocommercial bioreactors or natural large reservoirs. It also has potential for amal-gamation with rural organic waste treatment process to ameliorate both environmen-tal condition energy transfer efficiency in ecosystems.

18 M. Mathur

With the developing need to move toward natural products, agriculture is alsogetting modernized, and the use of chemical fertilizers is minimized. As discussedearlier Spirulina is an excellent biofertilizer; recent studies have shown Spirulinaincreases rice growth and seed yield productivity [66]. This makes us to realize weneed to pave a way toward new industries dealing with quality products. Thus,optimization of bioactive molecules of Spirulina can be a future prospect of researchwhich may provide a direct link from laboratory to mass cultivation of this superfood. One such study was conducted recently where the biomass and phycocyanincontent of Spirulina platensis was enhanced [67].

But, despite of knowing the benefits of Spirulina, it has not received seriousconsideration it deserves to be a potential key crop in alkaline areas where traditionalagriculture struggles. An examination of the literature and research on Spirulina alsosuggests that interest in its development has dwindled over recent years. Much of thework was conducted over the 1980s and 1990s with relatively little over the lastdecade. Most modern articles available on the internet appear to highlight it asrelatively little internationally recognized scientific material.

It is now the allegiance of both national governments and intergovernmentalorganization to re-evaluate the potential of Spirulina to fulfill both their own foodsecurity needs and a tool for their overseas development and emergency responseefforts. International organizations working against famine victims and malnutritionshould develop improved technical and economic solutions to Spirulina productionas well as prepare tested production packages for rapid use in emergency situationswhere a sustainable supply of high protein and high vitamin food is required. Anurgent need is there to develop clear guidelines on food safety aspects of Spirulina sothat human health risk can be managed and all products in the market pass thetoxicology test. And, the reputation loss which Spirulina is facing due to mixedcheap marketed products is prevented.

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