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225

Biodiversity

7.1 Native vegetation 2267.2 Native fauna and flora 2377.3 Reserves and conservation 2487.4 Invasive species 2627.5 Fire 2747.6 Fisheries 281 References 288

7

Biodiversity

226 NSW State of the Environment 2009

7.1 Native vegetation

Until now, land clearing has been the major threat to the extent and

condition of native vegetation in New South Wales, but over the

past six years the overall area of woody vegetation has remained

stable. New native vegetation legislation commenced operation in

2005, providing better control of broadscale clearing and improving

vegetation management. Net positive gains in overall vegetation

extent and condition are expected as current programs mature.

Sixty-one per cent of NSW is covered by structurally intact native vegetation, with a further 8% that is structurally modified native vegetation. The extent of some vegetation classes, particularly woodlands and grasslands, has been substantially depleted since settlement, due mainly to land clearing, while others remain substantially intact.

Clearing of native vegetation has been greatest in areas to the west of the Central Division, mainly for agriculture, and in coastal regions, primarily for urban development.

Levels of clearing of woody vegetation have fluctuated over the past two decades, but have stabilised in the last three years at around 20,000 hectares per year. Although monitoring of revegetation is inherently more complex than clearing, over the past six years clearing of woody vegetation has roughly been in balance with various forms of regrowth and regeneration. Since the Native Vegetation Act 2003 came into full effect in late 2005, approved clearing has fallen markedly to less than 4000 ha per year.

Vegetation condition largely reflects the dominant land use and is being addressed through better land management practices. However, pressures on condition are likely to remain for the foreseeable future due to the lag effects of fragmentation following clearing, coupled with increasing pressures from invasive species and climate change.

Improved management of native vegetation under the new Act has been implemented through property vegetation plans. Substantially greater effort is now directed to on-ground works to enhance native vegetation extent and condition, through activities such as restoration, revegetation and weed control. These are coordinated by catchment management authorities and carried out by landowners, land managers, and local and community groups.

227

NSW indicators

Indicator and status Trend Information availability

Vegetation extent No change ✓✓✓

Vegetation condition Unknown ✓

Pressures on vegetation Unknown ✓

Clearing rate for woody vegetation No change ✓✓✓

Notes: Terms and symbols used above are defined in About SoE 2009 at the front of the report.

7.1


IntroductionNSW has a great variety of native vegetation types,

with outstanding examples of rainforests, deserts,

alpine habitats, wetlands, grasslands, eucalypt forests

and woodlands.

Native vegetation extent and condition is an

indicator of ecosystem health and the overall status

of ecosystem diversity (Saunders et al. 1998). Native

vegetation provides essential habitat for plant and

animal species, and is an integral component of

healthy, functioning ecosystems.

Vegetation mapping which incorporates information

about species composition provides a coarse,

practical indicator of the location and status of

ecosystems. More generalised mapping based only

on vegetation structure and growth form provides a

useful overview for reporting on vegetation extent

at the statewide level, but is less descriptive of

ecosystems. The description that follows is largely

based on generalised mapping of vegetation as more

detailed mapping is not available consistently on a

statewide basis.

Status and trends

Vegetation extent

Map 7.1 shows the extent of native vegetation in

a range of classes, representing various states (or

levels) of modification to natural vegetation. The

map is a compilation of existing mapping of intact

native vegetation (Keith & Simpson 2006) and

land-cover classifications derived from a variety of

remote sensing applications, which describe only the

dominant structural form of vegetation communities

across all vegetation states (DECC 2008a). While the

monitoring of woody vegetation by remote sensing

techniques has improved significantly over time,

similar techniques have only recently been applied to

the monitoring of non-woody vegetation

(see Pressures).

Four categories are described in the compilation of

vegetation extent:

native – intact: native vegetation in which the

structure has not been substantially altered

native – derived: vegetation that is predominantly

native but is no longer structurally intact as it has

been substantially altered and is missing important

structural components from its natural state

native/non-native mosaic: vegetation that cannot

be classified as native or non-native using current

remote sensing technologies

non-native/other vegetation types: non-native

vegetation (crops, plantations, pasture) or other

non-vegetative land-cover types.

Extent of intact native vegetation

Vegetation that is structurally intact covers 61% of

NSW. This is the extent of native vegetation that

retains its full complement of structural layers and

where native vegetation communities can still be

meaningfully identified and described (Keith &

Simpson 2006; Keith & Simpson 2008). However, intact

vegetation is not necessarily indicative of it being in

good condition, as most of it is subject to a variety

of land uses other than conservation, and these land

uses have differing impacts on vegetation condition.

The current extent of intact native vegetation in

NSW reflects differing rates of clearing across various

vegetation types. Generally, flat productive lands have

been favoured for development, with particularly

high rates of clearing in native grasslands, grassy

woodlands, and some types of wetlands and eucalypt

forests. Conversely, the extent of some other forms

of native vegetation on lands less attractive for

development, such as arid shrublands and the alpine

complex, has experienced little change.

Biodiversity


The status of a range of intact native vegetation types

is summarised briefly below (Keith 2004):

Native grasslands have been extensively cleared or

modified and only small fragments remain outside

the semi-arid zone, although some grazing lands

retain important remnants.

Grassy woodlands are also substantially depleted

with less than 10% of some classes still remaining.

Rainforests have been substantially reduced,

particularly littoral rainforests and those on coastal

lowlands. Other rainforests are less depleted,

although there have been changes in structure and

species composition in areas with a history of timber

harvesting.

Wet and dry sclerophyll forests have been less

cleared because of constraints imposed by steep

terrain and less fertile soils, although levels of

depletion are still substantial in some classes.

Semi-arid woodlands have undergone low to

moderate levels of clearing (10–60%), although it has

increased in recent decades.

Heathlands, arid shrublands and the alpine

complex are all largely intact as they are generally

less suitable for development purposes.

Extent of modified native vegetation

A further 8% of vegetation is described as ‘derived’.

This is essentially native vegetation that has been

structurally modified, but where more than 50% of

the ground cover is native species. Although it has

been disturbed, this vegetation still makes some

contribution to the overall stock of native habitat

values in NSW (DECC 2008a).

Map 7.1: Native vegetation extent

Native – intact (61%)Native – derived (8%)Native/non-native mosaic (20%)Non-native/other (11%)

Vegetation extent class

0 100 200

Kilometres

Source: DECCW data 2009

229

The native/non-native mosaic vegetation class covers

20% of NSW and contains a mixture of native and

non-native elements which cannot be discriminated,

so this class could be also described as indeterminate

(DECC 2008a). The majority of this land is non-woody

grassland that is devoted to grazing, and the inability

to categorise it reflects the newness of monitoring

of non-woody vegetation. With a longer monitoring

history it is expected that much of this category

will be redistributed to other classes and a better

understanding of non-woody vegetation in NSW

will develop. The native/non-native mosaic class also

contributes to the overall extent of habitat values,

similarly to the derived category. Given the history of

clearing in NSW, the contribution is likely to be small

in area, but important in regions where little native

vegetation now remains.

Vegetation condition

The condition of native vegetation ranges from

pristine to total replacement. Between these two

extremes, native vegetation may be modified to

varying degrees by land management practices and

unplanned threats and disturbances, such as weed

invasion and fire. The impacts of disturbance include

changes to the structure, function and species

composition of vegetation, reduced regeneration,

and diminished habitat values and integrity. Decline

in vegetation condition is generally less visible than

clearing and occurs over a longer time frame. It is

therefore more difficult to detect and assess.

Information about vegetation condition in NSW is

only available at a very coarse level at present. Map

7.2 shows vegetation condition in broad terms as

reflected by six structural modification classes based

on a compilation of vegetation mapping and land-

use and land tenure records. These classes

7.1


Map 7.2: Native vegetation condition classification

Residual (9%)Modified (52%)Transformed (7%)Indeterminate (19%)Replaced/managed (12%)Removed (1%)


0 100 200

Kilometres


Biodiversity


correspond to the modification states of the draft

National Vegetation Condition Classification system

(VAST) (Thackway & Lesslie 2006; Thackway & Lesslie

2008). Essentially this map represents a broad

generalisation of land-use mapping, reflecting the

transformational change in, or modification to,

vegetation structure at the landscape level, enabling

the land to be used for different purposes.

The various structural condition classes are:

residual – native vegetation structure, composition

and regenerative capacity remain intact, with no

significant land-use disturbance

modified – the structure, composition and

regenerative capacity are intact, with some land-

use disturbance

transformed – the structure, composition and

regenerative capacity are significantly altered by

land use

indeterminate – vegetation cannot be easily

classified as either transformed or replaced

replaced/managed – native vegetation has been

replaced by non-native vegetation

removed – native vegetation has been removed

to leave non-vegetated land cover.

These classes broadly align with the vegetation

extent classes in Map 7.1. Only 9% of native

vegetation is described as residual, and it essentially

represents the structurally intact vegetation in the

terrestrial reserve system in NSW. A further 52%

is described as modified to some extent due to

land-use disturbance, but is still structurally intact.

Together, these two vegetation condition classes

roughly correspond to the intact vegetation extent

class in Map 7.1. There is similar strong alignment

between the remaining condition and the other

extent classes (Dillon et al. in prep.).

This broad assessment of vegetation condition,

based on available statewide information, provides

only an indicative approach to condition and has

some significant limitations. It does not consider

the influence of active management practices, nor

take into account recent changes in tenure or land

management. For example, in the Pilliga region of

north-western NSW, cypress forest that has recently

been proclaimed as reserve is classified as being in

better condition than that in adjoining state forest,

despite 150 years of common management. At any

particular site, vegetation condition may differ from

its described status, but at the landscape level

different combinations of vegetation cover, land use

and land tenure will be associated with their mapped

condition (Dillon et al. in prep.).

A program of data collection based on site surveys

of different combinations of land cover, land use and

land tenure is being developed to supplement the

broad framework for vegetation condition described.

Whereas the broad condition framework describes

the transformational change to vegetation that

facilitates land-use change, the site survey data will

better reflect the ongoing changes to condition that

are produced by land management practices, given

the dominant land use.

Pressures

Vegetation extent and condition

Land clearing

Native vegetation has been extensively cleared

in NSW for settlement, industry and agriculture.

Clearing is generally irreversible due to subsequent

uses of the land. It displaces the majority of native

biota and leads to ongoing habitat degradation and

deterioration in vegetation condition through the

effects of fragmentation. Clearing is, therefore, widely

accepted to be the main driver of vegetation change

and decline.

However, not all clearing is by the direct removal of

vegetation. Much of the native grassland in NSW has

been cleared or modified by pasture improvement

through the application of fertilisers, ploughing and

sowing of introduced grasses and clovers. Some

freshwater wetlands and arid shrublands have in

effect also been cleared by prolonged overgrazing.

Clearing of native vegetation, with the associated

destruction of habitat, has been identified as the

process representing the greatest single threat to

biodiversity in NSW (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006).

It has been listed as a key threatening process under

both the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995

and the Commonwealth Environment Protection and

Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

Clearing of woody vegetation

The annualised record of change in woody

vegetation identifies changes in the structure of

woody vegetation and describes losses in extent

as a result of agriculture, forestry and infrastructure

development. It also reports on canopy changes due

to the effects of bushfires.

231

The woody change record provides an indication of

the rate of clearing of woody vegetation and, for this

report, is taken to apply to changes in vegetation

structure due to agriculture and infrastructure

development only. Forestry has not been included

in the clearing estimate, as it is expected to be

sustainable, with the majority of logged forest

regenerated as regrowth forest over the term of a

production cycle. This estimate of clearing represents

the extent of transformational land-use change that

is likely to result in permanent changes to natural

habitat values and is consistent with the basis for

describing vegetation condition, as above.

The woody vegetation change record is produced

by analysing Landsat remote sensing data with

techniques based on the Statewide Land and

Tree Survey (SLATS) methodology, developed in

Queensland (DNRW 2007). This methodology

detects woody vegetation that is over 2 metres

high with more than 20% canopy cover, defined in

NSW as ‘Detectable Native Forest’ (DECC 2009) and

commonly referred to as woody vegetation. This

presently covers about 38% of the state.

The record of woody vegetation change has been

extended back over the past 20 years, from 2008

to 1988, yielding consistent data over a long time

frame and providing some historical perspective for

the most recent clearing data. Since 2006, clearing

of woody vegetation has stabilised at around 20,000

hectares per annum (DECCW 2009a). However, the

long-term record appears to fluctuate cyclically

between a maximum of just above 30,000 ha and

a minimum of just below 15,000 ha, prior to the

flattening trend since 2006 (see Figure 7.1).

Most of the recent clearing has been in the

wheat–sheep belt, where activity continues along

the eastern fringe of the semi-arid zone (DLWC

2002; DECCW 2009a; Keith et al. 2009). A spike in

activity recorded in the north-east of the state

during 2006–07 has declined again during 2007–08

(DECCW 2009a).

A coarser analysis of the remote sensing data since

2003 also reveals that despite the ongoing levels

of clearing, the overall extent of woody vegetation

recorded has not changed significantly during this

time. The monitoring of revegetation is inherently

more complex than the monitoring of clearing, and

further work is needed to fully understand these

results, but it appears that the overall level of clearing

over this period has been in balance with the overall

extent of revegetation and restoration.

7.1


Figure 7.1: Annual woody vegetation clearing rates, 1988–08

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

1988

–90

1990

–92

1992

–94

1994

–96

1996

–98

1998

–00

2000

–02

2002

–04

2004

–06

2006

–07

2007

–08

Analysis period

Clea

ring

rate

(ha/

y)

Crop, pasture, thinning Infrastructure


Notes: Annual rate of clearing is derived from change detected over a two-year period (for example, 1988–90 represents two years

from around the end of 1988 to around the end of 1990) – except for 2006–07 and 2007–08, which were assessed annually

(and thus essentially comprise most of 2007 and 2008).

There is some variability in the actual length of the two-yearly intervals, depending on the availability of remote sensing

data suitable for analysis due to seasonal factors.

Biodiversity


Clearing of non-woody vegetation

In effect, the estimates of clearing of woody

vegetation describe changes to open and closed

forests and woodlands. They exclude large areas of

open woodlands and arid shrublands, characteristic

of western NSW, where densities of trees and shrubs

are below the threshold of reliable detectability of

the SLATS methodology. Collectively, along with all

grasslands, these formations are commonly referred

to as ‘non-woody vegetation’.

The area of the state covered by non-woody

vegetation is roughly equivalent to, or greater than,

the area of woody vegetation, but the clearing rate

for non-woody vegetation remains unknown. As

the processes and dynamics are quite different, it is

not possible to generalise from clearing of woody

vegetation to clearing of non-woody vegetation.

The overall rate of clearing for NSW is therefore

also unknown, other than that it is somewhere in

excess of the known 20,000 ha per annum of woody

vegetation clearing.


Table 7.1 summarises the main pressures on

vegetation condition, together with estimates of the

gross changes to the level of pressures experienced

in NSW over the past decade. Assessment of the

pressures is based on whether they apply generally

to the individual vegetation classes defined by Keith

2004, and the figures represent the total number of

classes affected (to a maximum of 99 classes).

The figures are not, however, indicative of the

intensity or the significance of each pressure, or

necessarily the areas that are affected. For instance,

land clearing, which is the most severe pressure,

affects only 61 vegetation classes, whereas

climate change, soil degradation, fire regimes

and invasive species affect more classes

(99, 86, 84, 74, respectively).

Table 7.1 demonstrates that the majority of

pressures are ongoing with little sign of abatement.

Some pressures are intensifying, particularly those

associated with climate change, while a relatively

small number are abating. As there are relatively few

instances where pressures are easing and significantly

more where they are intensifying, the expectation

is that the condition of most vegetation classes

will continue to decline. The impacts of individual

pressures are summarised below.

Clearing has already been discussed, although the

effects of habitat fragmentation continue to have

an impact on vegetation condition long after the

initial clearing.

Climate change is pervasive and affects all classes of

vegetation in NSW. However, some vegetation classes

– notably alpine vegetation, wetlands and rainforests

– are likely to be especially sensitive. In alpine

habitats, for example, there has been a significant

reduction in snow cover over the past decade, and

this will affect both the area and suitability of habitat

for a range of specialist alpine species.

While most arid shrublands and grasslands are not

subject to extensive clearing, they are affected by

overgrazing. Total grazing pressure has increased,

leading to a reduction in perennial plant cover and

an increase in erosion in sensitive landscapes. Further

effects of overgrazing include lack of regeneration,

habitat simplification and an overabundance of

species which are less palatable to grazing stock.

Other significant and pervasive pressures affecting

vegetation condition are discussed as separate

issues in this report. These include invasive species

(Biodiversity 7.4), fire (Biodiversity 7.5) and soil

degradation (Land 5.1).

ResponsesTarget 1 under Priority E4 of State Plan 2006: A new

direction for NSW (NSW Government 2006) is ‘By 2015

there is an increase in native vegetation extent and

an improvement in native vegetation condition’. The

Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Strategy is

being implemented to monitor progress towards all

E4 targets. A review of State Plan 2006 commenced in

August 2009 and this may adjust some of the plan’s

priorities and targets.

Native Vegetation Act and property

vegetation plans

The Native Vegetation Act 2003 (NV Act) was passed

with the stated intention of ending broadscale land

clearing in NSW and came into effect in December

2005. The provisions of the NV Act are largely

implemented through a framework of voluntary

agreements called property vegetation plans (PVPs)

which are negotiated between individual landholders

and catchment management authorities (CMAs).

233

7.1


Table 7.1: Changes to pressures on native vegetation since 1999

Pressure

Number of affected vegetation classes

CommentIntensifying No change Abating

Land clearing

and resultant

fragmentation

9 49 2 This is the most severe* pressure, affecting about

60% of classes.

Abatement is due to introduction of the NV Act

and increases in reservation of significant areas of

some classes.

Intensification is due to coastal and urban

development and expansion of plantations

and cropping.

Climate change 99 0 0 This is the most pervasive threat which continues to

intensify with an increasing impact across all classes.

Alpine, coastal, rainforest, wetland and arid classes

are the most sensitive.

Invasive species

(weeds, feral animals

and pathogens)

20 75 0 This is the second most pervasive threat affecting

90% of all classes, an increase from 75% in 2006.**

This threat has intensified due to invasion and

establishment of weeds and diseases in new areas.

Altered fire regimes 4 79 1 This is a continuing threat to more than 80% of

classes, including fragmented landscapes where fire

exclusion limits regeneration.

Alpine and subalpine classes experienced increased

pressures due to extensive fires.

Overgrazing 24 34 3 Overgrazing affects around 66% of vegetation

classes.

Increased pressures to overgraze have come from

the drought, especially in the south of the state.

Degradation of soils 60 26 0 Erosion has continued or intensified where there

are lagged effects from reductions in perennial

plant cover.

Salinisation has intensified in lowlands due to

lagged effects from less deep-rooted vegetation in

recharge zones.

Acidification has intensified where drying wetlands

release acid sulfates.

Changes to water

regimes

2 10 0 In wetland, riparian and floodplain classes, lagged

effects of over-extraction during the 1970s and

1980s continue.

Pressures on other vegetation classes are partially

compensated by reduced drought stress since

2006 and increased environmental flow allocations

since 2000.

Harvesting of native

species for firewood

and timber

1 7 11 Firewood collection has accelerated in woodland

classes, while timber harvesting abated in some wet

and dry sclerophyll forests due to the expansion of

reserves, though this has sometimes been offset by

an increased harvest on private land.


Notes: * Severity refers to the intensity of the pressure and is not necessarily related to the number of classes affected

(for example, the effects of land clearing are more severe, but affect fewer classes than invasive species, which

are more pervasive).

** Trends are assessed over a 10-year window – not the past three years only.

Biodiversity


Other measures being implemented through the

PVP framework are aimed at improving landscape

management, enhancing vegetation condition and

retaining biodiversity values across all tenures. Special

protection is therefore provided for landscape and

vegetation types that have been cleared below 30%

of their original extent. In addition, measures are

being developed to reward farmers for voluntary

conservation activities.

The Government will continue to fund its Native

Vegetation Assistance Package until June 2011. The

package was established to assist landholders who

are financially disadvantaged by laws that prevent

them from clearing native vegetation on their

property. In addition, all CMAs in NSW have access to

public funding so that they can assist landholders to

sustainably manage and restore native vegetation.

Native Vegetation Report Card

Since 2006, the NSW Government has been collecting

native vegetation data from a range of agencies to

produce a Native Vegetation Report Card within the

NSW Annual Report on Native Vegetation (DECCW

2009a). Table 7.2 shows the extent of newly reserved

areas, restored areas, managed areas and cleared

areas, all of which have some impact on the extent

or condition of native vegetation over the three-

year period.

In general, the total area of land being conserved,

restored or undergoing improved management

is substantially greater than the area approved

for clearing. However, it is too early to determine

whether the measures listed in Table 7.2 are

producing changes in vegetation extent or condition

that are detectable by monitoring systems.

Reservation

Figures for new conservation areas (Table 7.2)

represent additions to the public and private reserve

system. A dedicated system of parks and reserves

is the cornerstone of conservation programs

intended to preserve and protect native vegetation

(Biodiversity 7.3). These areas are protected from any

threat of clearing, and their condition and extent

will be managed in perpetuity with conservation

as the primary objective. About 8.4% of all land

in NSW has been incorporated into the reserve

system. Representation of vegetation formations and

classes is a key consideration in planning the future

development of the reserves system (see Table 7.7).

Increasing importance is being placed on

conservation across whole landscapes and a range of

schemes is in place to protect vegetation and habitat

values on private land, complementing the network

of reserves (see Biodiversity 7.3).

Revegetation and restoration

In Table 7.2 new restoration/revegetation of native

vegetation refers to restoration of native vegetation

and includes incentive PVPs and PVP offsets, other

CMA-funded programs and a range of other

initiatives that improve native vegetation condition

or increase its area. Restoration of native vegetation

is undertaken to improve the condition and natural

values of existing vegetation while revegetation will

increase the extent of native vegetation.

When undertaken strategically, revegetation can

play an important role in buffering existing reserves,

providing wildlife corridors and generally reducing

fragmentation of the landscape. There has been a

major and sustained increase in the area reported as

being revegetated since the implementation of the

NV Act and PVP framework in 2005, and the Natural

Resource Management (NRM) program which is

delivered through CMAs.

New management of native vegetation

New management of native vegetation in Table 7.2

incorporates a range of activities that enhance

the condition of vegetation, such as clearing of

invasive native scrub, weed removal and private

native forestry. Under the NV Act and the NRM

program, there is an increasing focus on improving

the management of land to enhance and maximise

environmental outcomes in areas where the

predominant land use is production rather than

conservation. This includes fencing areas that are

sensitive or have high value, weeding, and a range

of measures that address specific ecosystem, habitat

or species needs.

Regulation of clearing of native vegetation

The NV Act is the key legislation regulating the

clearing of native vegetation in NSW. Under the Act,

clearing is no longer permitted unless it improves

or maintains environmental values at the property

scale for each of four criteria: biodiversity, soil health,

water quality and soil salinity. A system of offsets

has been introduced which allows landowners to

clear native vegetation, provided they agree to plant,

improve, or better manage other vegetation on their

own property or elsewhere. The required offsets are

negotiated between landholders and the local CMA

under a PVP.

235

7.1


Table 7.2: Native Vegetation Report Card – actions to protect vegetation in NSW

2006 2007 2008 Total

New conservation areas

Public reserve system: national park estate 52,150 164,780 36,830 253,760

Public reserve system: flora reserves 0 2,730 0 2,730

Private conservation areas: voluntary conservation

agreements

6,800 850 1,560 9,210

Private conservation areas: conservation covenants 5,110 7,400 51,650 64,160

Private conservation areas: wildlife refuges 69,880 290 200 70,370

Private conservation areas: PVPs in perpetuity n/a 1,230 2,070 3,300

Total area (ha) 133,940 177,280 92,310 403,530

Restoration or revegetation of native vegetation

Incentive PVPs 31,590 97,020 98,010 226,620

PVP offsets 3,910 9,480 4,930 18,320

Native plantations 8,290 19,580 32,630 60,500

Revegetation through other incentives (non-PVPs) 135,700 308,960 218,270 662,930

Retained as a condition of approval to clear:

Plantation and Reafforestation Act 1999 and Native

Vegetation Conservation Act 1997

6,410 9,160 9,410 24,980

Wildlife refuges: habitat restored 127,980 3,940 20 131,940

Natural regeneration excluding invasive native scrub 1,500 16,870 4,560 22,930

Total area (ha) 315,380 465,010 367,830 1,148,220

New management of native vegetation

Invasive native scrub PVPs 118,900 803,610 420,260 1,342,770

Thinning to benchmark PVPs 590 340 400 1,330

Public forest estate 390 –14,400 –6,530 –20,540

Private native forestry on state protected land 17,140 12,580 0 29,720

Private native forestry PVPs 0 38,420 108,360 146,780

Improved rangeland management 286,730 119,870 109,080 515,680

Weed removal programs 29,210 402,900 42,550 474,660

Total area (ha) 452,960 1,363,320 674,120 2,490,400

New clearing of native vegetation

Clearing PVPs approved where environmental

outcomes maintained or improved

290 3,490 1,660 5,440

Clearing under Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997 2,520 10 0 2,530

Clearing under Plantation and Reafforestation Act 1999 250 420 400 1,070

Total area (ha) 3,060 3,920 2,060 9,040

Source: DECCW and DII data 2009

Biodiversity


Compliance and enforcement

The Native Vegetation: Compliance and Enforcement

Strategy (DECCW 2009b) has been developed by the

NSW Government to promote compliance with

the NV Act and assist with community understanding

of its provisions and requirements. New remote

sensing technologies are being developed to

overcome limitations in statewide monitoring and

reporting and there have been a number of

successful prosecutions in regard to breaches of

the NV Act through illegal clearing.

Future directionsA review of the NV Act is due to take place in 2009.

This should provide an opportunity to assess the

effectiveness of the legislation and refine and

enhance the delivery of programs and incentives to

improve native vegetation and to regulate clearing.

Substantial effort is now being invested into on-ground

measures to enhance the extent and condition

of native vegetation. These measures should be

managed strategically to maximise ecological benefits

by improving habitat connectivity, reducing the

impacts of fragmentation and creating buffer zones

around high-quality native vegetation remnants.

Maintaining or improving the condition of existing

vegetation is likely to be more productive than trying

to restore land that has been substantially altered.

Nonetheless, revegetation and restoration will assist

in reversing some of the historical effects of clearing.

Significant activity has been stimulated under the

NV Act, but its effectiveness has not been monitored

systematically at fine scales, although coarse-scale

monitoring of overall performance is in place. A

framework to support better collection of information

about on-ground works to improve the status of

native vegetation and better integration of this

information with the outcomes detected by broader

monitoring systems would ensure that short-term

activity translates to more effective outcomes in the

longer term.

Although clearing may be slowed and fragmentation

reduced, pressures on vegetation condition are

still likely to increase in future due to further weed

invasions and new weed incursions, the increasing

effects of climate change and related changes to fire

regimes. These threats are less predictable and more

pervasive in nature, and hence harder to manage and

plan for, than are controls on clearing.

Further development of systems to describe and

monitor vegetation condition systematically across

the landscape will be needed in order to address

the growing threats to vegetation condition more

effectively. This will be a critical requirement to inform

the future management of native vegetation.

A better understanding of the relationship between

vegetation types or communities and the biodiversity

and natural values they supported, particularly how

this relationship varies across different classes of

vegetation condition or extent, will be important in

focusing conservation priorities and assessing the

effectiveness of vegetation management outcomes.

The impacts of climate change are expected to

produce shifts in the distribution of species. However,

the likely impacts on the composition of vegetation

communities and possible changes to their form

and structure are less well understood, particularly in

response to the interaction between altered climate

and fire regimes. More information on the dynamics

of climate change is needed, especially as they apply

to ecosystems rather than individual species.

There is now a unique opportunity to tackle the

issues of vegetation decline and climate change

simultaneously and thus make gains in both areas.

More work is needed to ensure that revegetation,

particularly for carbon sequestration, is undertaken in

such a way that it maximises benefits for biodiversity.

There is an ongoing need for fine-scale regional

mapping of vegetation communities that is

consistent across the state, including a definitive

description of the vegetation communities of NSW.

This is needed to support adaptive management

within regions, enabling effective comparison

between regions (CMAs), and providing a connection

between regional and statewide monitoring and

reporting for SoE and NRM purposes.

237

7.2 Native fauna and flora

The diversity and richness of native species in New South Wales

continues to remain under threat.

A general pattern of decline in biodiversity over the longer term is evident in changes to the extent and abundance of many native vertebrate species. However, at the same time, many resilient species have maintained their distributions, while a small number of adaptable species have flourished.

In terms of historical declines, birds have been relatively resilient compared with other vertebrate groups. However, over the shorter time frame of the past decade, the distribution of many birds has declined and the prospects for sustainability of many species are at risk. Predictably, the sustainability of most of the threatened species assessed is also at risk.

One additional species has been listed as presumed extinct since 2006. The number of threatened species has increased only slightly, whereas listed populations have increased by 20% and communities by 14%, largely as a result of listing previously unassessed entities.

The main threats to native vertebrate fauna are invasive species, particularly foxes and cats, and habitat loss. The main threats to vegetation communities and native flora are the clearing of native vegetation and incursion of invasive species, particularly exotic weeds and herbivores.

Significant legislative and policy reforms have been introduced over the past five years to enhance the protection of biodiversity, largely focused on improving habitat and addressing threats more broadly to benefit all species.

Practical outcomes are being achieved by directly addressing the main threats through effective conservation in reserves, better regulation of vegetation clearing, strategic control of priority invasive species and better management of land and water resources.

While there are some encouraging examples of population recovery, measures that influence changes in populations and the status of species generally require longer time periods to take effect.

Most species are not currently monitored systematically and a broader program to monitor a representative sample of species is needed for groups other than birds, in order to reliably detect changes in their status and trends.

7.2


Biodiversity


NSW indicators


Terrestrial vertebrate fauna: historical loss of

distribution

Unknown ✓

Distribution of birds: sustainability Deteriorating ✓

Threatened species: historical loss of

distribution

Unknown ✓

Threatened species: sustainability Unknown ✓


IntroductionBiodiversity is the diversity of ecosystems, the species

and populations they support and the genes they

contain. It also encompasses the complex interactions

between living organisms and the environment

which provide the basis for a range of ecosystem

services and maintain the health and productivity of

our landscapes. NSW has a rich biodiversity, much of

which is recognised as internationally significant.

However, it is seldom possible to monitor or report

on biodiversity across its breadth (Saunders et al.

1998). This theme is largely constrained to addressing

native animal and plant species, particularly terrestrial

vertebrates and those species of native plants listed

under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995

(TSC Act), due to the sparsity of data for other groups.

While information on some individual species of

native plants, invertebrates and microorganisms

may exist, broad statewide information providing

systematic coverage of groups as a whole is limited

to native vertebrate fauna and threatened species.

Even for these groups the data is seldom collected

systematically and there are significant gaps in

overall coverage.

Comprehensive information on changes to the extent

and abundance of vertebrates and some threatened

plants has recently been compiled. Analysis of this

data has enabled reporting of some changes and

patterns in the status of species and some limited

assessments of the future sustainability of species.

Status and trendsNSW has experienced declines and extinctions in

a broad suite of native plants and animals since

settlement (Dickman et al. 1993; Smith et al. 1994;

Campbell 1999). Mammals have experienced the

most significant declines with 26 of 138 species

(19%) now extinct. In addition, 35 species of plants,

12 species or subspecies of birds, and one species

each of reptiles, fish and invertebrates are also now

listed as presumed extinct under threatened species

legislation. Since SoE 2006, one additional species,

the green sawfish (Pristis zijsron), has been listed as

presumed extinct.

Native fauna

Historical declines

There were an estimated 897 species of native

terrestrial vertebrates in NSW at the time of

settlement. Changes in distribution since settlement

(specifically losses) were estimated from species

records for all terrestrial vertebrate species with

adequate and reliable data (Figure 7.2).

To develop an understanding of the changing state of

species diversity in NSW, current records (since 1995)

of species distribution were compared with historical

records of distribution (Mahon et al. in prep.). The

assessment used all available data of sufficient

quality from a range of sources. As no systematic

monitoring was undertaken to generate this data, the

coverage contains many gaps and may not be fully

representative of missing species.

Changes in distribution over the past 230 years could

be estimated with a reasonable level of confidence

for about half of all terrestrial vertebrate species.

Estimating distributional change for the remaining

species is problematic because there is little or

no historical data or because the available data

is unreliable. Species such as microbats are often

difficult to detect or have undergone recent changes

in taxonomy.

239

Approximately 4% of all native terrestrial vertebrate

species in NSW are presumed to be extinct, while a

further 7% of species (13% of those assessable) have

lost at least half their former distribution. Mammals

have fared poorly (Morton 1990; Dickman et al.

1993), with nearly one-fifth of all species presumed

extinct and a further 10% of species (18% of those

assessable) having lost at least half their distribution.

The introduction of cats and foxes played a large

role in early declines and extinctions of mammals

(Dickman 1996a; Dickman 1996b; Smith & Quin 1996).

All other taxonomic groups have suffered significant

declines although no extinctions of amphibians have

been recorded (Smith et al 1994; Campbell 1999).

However, of all the vertebrate groups, birds have

proven to be the most resilient.

Some species classified as showing no significant

decline may have expanded in range since

settlement, but the nature of the data prevents

reliable assessment of range expansions.

Nevertheless, range expansions of native fauna

may have negative impacts on other native species

and therefore would be unlikely to indicate an

improvement in overall outcomes for biodiversity.

Sustainability of native fauna

The sustainability of native species refers to the

likelihood of species persistence over future decades

and has been assessed for terrestrial vertebrates using

modified International Union for the Conservation

of Nature (IUCN) Red-List criteria (IUCN 2001; IUCN

2008; Figure 7.3). In particular, estimates of total

population size and distribution, trends in population

7.2


Figure 7.2: Historical decline in the distribution of native terrestrial vertebrates

Presumed extinct

Severe decline

Moderate decline

No significant decline

No data

Mammals Reptiles

BirdsAmphibians

10%

7%

28%

55%

2%

4%7%

40%

47%

19%

44%

20%

10%

<1%

14%

21%

8%

57%

n=83 n=45

n=13 n=22

7%

Source: DECC data 2008

Notes: Severe decline – change in distribution ≥50%

Moderate decline – 25–50% distributional change

No significant decline – change in distribution <25%

Biodiversity


size and distribution, and estimates of extinction

risk from population modelling were used to assess

the sustainability of each species. Species were only

assessed if they are actively monitored at a regional

or state scale and the data was sufficiently reliable.

As a result, relatively few species have been assessed,

but confidence in most of the assessments is good

(Mahon et al. in prep).

Just over a quarter of native terrestrial vertebrate

species are monitored sufficiently in NSW to allow

an assessment of sustainability at the statewide

scale. The relatively large number of assessments of

birds reflects the regular surveys conducted by Birds

Australia for the Atlas of Australian Birds (Barrett et

al. 2003). The limited data available for other groups

is sufficient to reliably describe the status of the

individual species, but is not representative of their

taxonomic groups.

The sustainability assessments show that 64% of all

fauna species that are assessable and 65% of birds

have a moderate or greater risk of extinction (Mahon

et al. in prep.). The data for birds, based on 217

species (48% of all species), reflects clearly detectable

contractions in range over the past 10 years for a

majority of the species assessed.

Prospects for the long-term sustainability of many of

the bird species assessed are considered poor, and

this data is the clearest evidence available that the

decline in species appears to be ongoing. While there

is insufficient data to describe recent trends in other

vertebrate groups, there is little reason to expect

outcomes to be dissimilar, especially as birds were

the most resilient group in terms of historical declines

(see Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.3: Sustainability of native terrestrial vertebrates

Substantial risk

Moderate risk

Low risk

Sustainable

No data

Mammals Reptiles

BirdsAmphibians

96%

2%

6%

11%

13%47%

19%

76%

20%

10%

<1%

14%

21%

8%

100%

n=83 n=45

n=13 n=22

7%

Extinct

Severe risk

2% 2%

8%

8%

1%

3%

1%


241

The assessments of historical decline and the

sustainability of fauna species described above reveal

widespread gaps in the availability of data and limited

capacity to reliably detect changes in the status

of, and particularly the ongoing trends in, species

distribution and abundance. While it would not be

feasible to monitor outcomes for all species, there is a

clear need for broader monitoring of a representative

range of species (not just vertebrate fauna), in order

to reliably report changes in the status and trends of

species diversity.

Native flora

Plant species diversity has declined significantly since

settlement (Burgman et al. 2007), but there is little

suitable data to quantify the rate or magnitude of

decline. The decline is due to a range of pressures

acting alone or in combination, including vegetation

clearing and disturbance, heavy grazing and the

impacts of invasive species.

Even where native vegetation remains, the richness

of plant species may be diminishing. This is due

to the fragmentation of populations in isolated

communities which are unviable over the long term

and are gradually being lost from the landscape. The

simplification of species-level plant diversity has been

recorded in many locations across Australia (Burgman

et al. 2007).

Threatened species

Listed threatened species, populations and

ecological communities

The TSC Act and Fisheries Management Act 1994

(FM Act) provide for the listing of threatened species

(Table 7.3). Individual species, populations and

ecological communities that are assessed as being

at risk of extinction in NSW are listed, based on the

threat categories outlined by the IUCN.

7.2


Table 7.3: Number of listed species, populations and ecological communities

Species

Total number

of species in

NSW* Extinct

Critically

endangered Endangered Vulnerable

Endangered

populations

Total listed

species or

communities**

Mammals 138 26 0 17 39 10 82 (59%)

Birds 452 12 1 28 85 6 126 (28%)

Amphibians 83 0 0 15 13 1 28 (34%)

Reptiles 230 1 0 16 25 1 42 (18%)

Plants 4,677 34 15 346 231 24 626 (13%)

Aquatic plants ? 1 0 0 0 0 1

Fish 55

(freshwater)

1 2 7 2 2 12

Sharks and rays ? 1 1 0 1 0 3

Marine mammals 40 0 0 2 5 0 7

Invertebrates ? 1 0 18 1 2 20

Algae ? 0 0 1 0 0 1

Aquatic algae ? 0 1 0 0 0 1

Fungi 36,000 0 0 5 4 0 9

Total ? 77 20 455 406 46 958

Changes since

April 2006

n/a 0 (0%) n/a + 3 (<1%) + 1 (<1%) + 8 (21%) + 4 (<1%)***

Ecological

communities

n/a 2 87 2 n/a 91

+11(14%)

Source: DECC data 2008 and DPI data 2009

Notes: Terrestrial data listed under the TSC Act as at 19 December 2008.

Fisheries data listed under the FM Act as at 23 January 2009.

* From SoE 2006

** Listed species or ecological communities only, excludes listed endangered populations

*** Excludes endangered populations

Biodiversity


At present a total of 957 species (including 77 that

are presumed to be extinct), 46 populations and

91 ecological communities are listed as threatened.

The number of species listings has risen only slightly

since last reported in 2006, but there have been more

substantial increases in the listings of populations

(21%) and communities (14%). These changes primarily

reflect the pattern of new listings for populations and

communities that had not previously been assessed

under the listing criteria of the relevant Acts.

Changes in the numbers of species, populations and

ecological communities listed between reporting

periods may therefore reflect changes in information

rather than actual changes in the status of native

flora and fauna (Keith & Burgman 2004). Many species

are also not listed as vulnerable or endangered even

though their abundance and range may be declining,

as they are not considered to be under threat

at present.

Historical declines in threatened species

Figure 7.4 shows that native species of terrestrial

vertebrates listed as threatened have experienced

greater range contractions than all terrestrial

vertebrate species (Figure 7.2). This is not surprising

since many of these species have been listed because

they have experienced declines in distribution and

abundance, in order that resources can be directed

towards protecting them (see Responses). Only 30%

of threatened invertebrate species have been studied

sufficiently to allow an assessment of trends over the

past 200 years, but the majority of these have also

experienced severe declines (Mahon et al. in prep).

The methods to assess historical decline were

developed specifically for fauna species, as records of

flora species have generally not been collected with

the same level of consistency over the past 200 years.

However, where the data allows, these methods have

also been applied to threatened flora species and

ecological communities. The available data for flora

reveals a similar pattern of decline to the fauna data

described previously (Mahon et al. in prep; Figure 7.4).

As expected, most of the threatened ecological

communities for which data is available have also

experienced substantial declines in range. These

communities are generally defined on an ad hoc

basis when they undergo assessment for listing, so

the data available is likely to selectively describe

communities that are subject to a degree of threat.

Sustainability of threatened species

As for terrestrial vertebrates (Figure 7.3), the

sustainability of threatened flora and fauna in NSW

was also assessed based on modified IUCN Red-List

criteria where suitable monitoring data was available

(IUCN 2001; IUCN 2008). However, there is no widely

accepted method for assessing the sustainability of

ecological communities.

Again, limited data of a suitable nature is available

for assessing the sustainability of threatened species.

Of the species that could be assessed, the majority

(94% of threatened fauna and 82% of threatened

plants) have a moderate or greater risk of extinction,

mainly due to ongoing contractions in range, as

described previously for birds, or to severely restricted

distributions. The prospects for the long-term

sustainability of most NSW threatened species

are generally poor.

Figure 7.4: Historical declines in threatened native animals, plants and ecological communities

Threatened

ecological communities

Threatened

native plants

Threatened

native animals

57%

5%

15%

5%73% 57%

n=31 n=63 n=91

5%

8%

8%

38%

Presumed extinct Severe decline Moderate decline No significant decline No data

2%13%

13%

7%

10%


Notes: Severe decline – change in distribution ≥50%

Moderate decline – 25–50% distributional change

No significant decline – change in distribution <25%

243

PressuresThe decline in vertebrate species is largely due to

the pressures that arise from meeting human needs

including food production, urban expansion and

consumption of natural resources. The loss and

degradation of habitat has been compounded by

the introduction of pests and weeds, diseases, the

impacts of altered fire regimes and pollution that

alone, or in combination, affect individual species

and ecosystems.

The major pressures on species diversity in NSW

include:

clearing, fragmentation and disturbance of native

vegetation (Biodiversity 7.1)

land degradation (Land 5.1)

the introduction of invasive species (particularly

foxes and cats) and weeds (Biodiversity 7.4)

overgrazing by cattle, sheep and invasive

herbivores (Biodiversity 7.1)

changes to fire regimes (Biodiversity 7.5)

changes to water flows (Water 6.1)

the introduction of exotic diseases

overfishing and fishing bycatch (Biodiversity 7.6)

climate change (Climate Change 2.3).

Overall, the processes that have an impact on

threatened species are the same as those threatening

biodiversity more generally.

Listed key threatening processes

The TSC Act and FM Act both list processes that

threaten the sustainability of native plants and

animals, especially threatened species. At present

there are 33 key threatening processes (KTPs) listed

in the schedules of the TSC Act and seven KTPs listed

in the schedules of the FM Act. Four KTPs have been

added to the schedules since 2006.

Table 7.4 provides a summary of the KTPs listed under

the TSC Act, grouped by the type of processes or

threats they describe. Out of 33 KTPs listed, pest and

weed invasions are the subject of 18 (55%). Clearing

of native vegetation is dealt with under a single KTP.

A further seven KTPs involve various forms of habitat

modification. KTPs in NSW were reviewed recently

(Auld & Keith 2009).

Table 7.4: Summary of the key threatening processes listed in NSW

Issue Number of KTPs

Pest animals 13

Habitat alteration 7

Invasive weeds 5

Disease 3

Species harvesting 2

Clearing 1

Climate change 1

Altered fire regimes 1

Total 33

Source: DECC and DPI data 2008

Clearing and disturbance of native vegetation is the

threat affecting the greatest number of threatened

species (87%), followed by the introduction of

invasive species (70%) (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006).

However, introduced pests (particularly predators)

are believed to have caused a greater number of

extinctions than any other type of threat (Dickman

1996a; Dickman 1996b). The clearing of native

vegetation and impacts of introduced species remain

the two most significant threats to biodiversity

in NSW.

Climate change

The distributions of most species and ecological

communities are largely determined by

biogeographical factors, including a range of climate

variables. Climate change is likely to exacerbate the

impacts of other threats on flora and fauna, as species

already under pressure will have lowered resilience

to cope with the impacts of climate change. Climate

change is likely to have the greatest impact on

species with restricted distributions and limited ability

to shift their range (DECCW in prep.). There is already

some evidence that climate change is beginning

to have an impact on biodiversity in NSW (Climate

Change 2.3).

7.2


Biodiversity


Responses

Legislative and policy frameworks

Under priority E4 of State Plan 2006: A new direction

for NSW (NSW Government 2006) the targets are:

Target 2: ‘By 2015 there is an increase in the

number of sustainable populations of a range of

native fauna species’

Target 3: ‘By 2015 there is an increase in the

recovery of threatened species, populations and

ecological communities’.

A review of State Plan 2006 commenced in August

2009 and this may adjust some of the plan’s priorities

and targets.

Legislation

The main legislation affecting conservation of

species in NSW is the TSC Act, which provides a

number of mechanisms for protecting threatened

species, populations, communities and their habitats,

and the FM Act, which provides similar protection for

threatened fish, marine invertebrates and

marine vegetation.

Recent legislative reforms have seen the introduction

of two new listing categories for critically endangered

species and vulnerable ecological communities

(Table 7.3).

Strategic policy framework

Since SoE 2003 there has been a fundamental shift

in focus from the recovery of individual threatened

species, an approach which is largely reactive,

to a more strategic focus on conservation at the

landscape level and the protection of communities

and habitats. Consistent with this new approach,

there is now a greater emphasis on addressing the

threats to biodiversity and the processes and drivers

of biodiversity decline more generally. The objective

is to maximise the benefits for all species and not just

those that have been listed as threatened.

A range of strategies is available to address the

decline in biodiversity and enhance conservation

and recovery. These will be described in a revised

NSW Biodiversity Strategy which is under review,

and include:

securing protection of habitat in perpetuity in

the terrestrial reserves and marine parks systems,

supplemented by a range of conservation

mechanisms on private land (Biodiversity 7.3)

stopping or reducing broadscale clearing of native

vegetation through regulation, approvals and

compliance systems (Biodiversity 7.1)

restoring or rehabilitating vegetation and habitat

and improving land management, delivered mainly

through a variety of property vegetation plans

(PVPs) (Biodiversity 7.1)

improving landscape connectivity through

revegetation, and establishing corridors and

linkages between parks and reserves, including

the Great Eastern Ranges Initiative (Biodiversity 7.1;

Biodiversity 7.3)

identifying species, populations and communities

that are under threat and the KTPs that cause them

to be threatened

reducing the threats to biodiversity through

priorities action statements and threat

abatement plans.

Threat abatement plans

Threat abatement plans (TAPs) are developed to

manage listed KTPs and aim to:

outline actions to manage the threatening process

explain how the success of these actions will

be measured

identify the authorities that will be responsible for

carrying out those actions

provide a cost estimate and timetable for carrying

out the plan.

There are 10 TAPs in operation in NSW and several

more in preparation. At present most TAPs target

threats from invasive species and disease.

The Predation by the Red Fox TAP was the first to

be completed under the TSC Act (NPWS 2001)

and was recently updated. The plan implements

fundamental changes to strategies for fox control, in

order to enhance the conservation of native fauna. In

particular, the plan identifies priorities for fox control

and sets out a framework for collaborative programs

of control across all tenures. It also describes best-

practice guidelines for fox control and provides for

monitoring programs which measure the response of

threatened species to fox control.

Priorities action statements

The NSW Government has implemented reforms

to streamline the delivery of recovery actions for

threatened species, populations and ecological

communities. Priorities action statements (PASs)

245

provide a strategic approach to the recovery of

threatened species and threat abatement planning

by listing and prioritising all conservation actions.

There is one PAS for entities listed under the TSC Act

and another for entities listed under the FM Act.

The PAS for the TSC Act, which mainly applies to

terrestrial species, identifies 34 broad strategies for

recovery of threatened species and abatement of

KTPs. These are summarised under 11 types in Table

7.5. Each of the strategies has more specific actions

listed under them. The PAS prioritises conservation

actions in terms of the importance of the action, the

likelihood of success and the ease of implementation.

The number of actions which concern monitoring

(768) is particularly high and reflects the NSW

Government’s efforts to address data deficiencies

that are evident in the knowledge of species and

their sustainability.

BioBanking

The Biodiversity Banking and Offsets Scheme

(BioBanking), which commenced in August 2008,

is a market-based scheme designed to reduce the

impacts of development on biodiversity, particularly

threatened species and ecological communities.

BioBanking provides the opportunity for developers

to offset development impacts on biodiversity at

a site by improving its management at other sites,

provided that overall biodiversity values are improved

or maintained. Offset (biobank) sites must have the

same threatened species or ecological communities

as those affected by the development, and sites must

be managed for conservation in perpetuity.

At the same time, BioBanking provides an

opportunity for rural landowners (offset providers or

private conservation stewards) to generate income by

managing land for conservation. Biodiversity credits

can be generated by committing to enhance and

protect biodiversity through a biobanking agreement

and these credits can be sold, generating funds for

the management of the site.

Land Alive gives Aboriginal landowners a chance to

create jobs and business opportunities by managing

land for conservation through BioBanking. Aboriginal

landowners can generate income while enhancing

their role as land stewards with their unique

knowledge of Aboriginal culture.

Planning and biocertification

Recent changes to legislation provide for mechanisms

to better integrate planning needs with biodiversity

conservation objectives on a strategic basis at the

regional level. Regional strategies balance social,

economic and environmental objectives in setting

out a blueprint for future development (see People

and the Environment 1.2).

7.2


Table 7.5: Conservation actions by category assigned to threatened species and ecological communities by the TSC Act priorities action statement

Action category Number of actions Actions commenced

Recovery planning and policy development 342 224

Restoration and translocation 151 103

Community engagement in private land conservation 355 249

Monitoring of populations 768 399

Pest control 192 72

Weed control 262 214

Fire management 249 148

General habitat management 405 235

Habitat protection 114 70

Research 208 114

Other 59 29

Total 3,105 1,857


Notes: Data applies only to listings under the TSC Act.

No data is available on the number of actions completed.

Biodiversity


Regional conservation plans, such as for the Lower

Hunter, will complement the regional strategies by

assessing the likely impacts of future development

in establishing a practical framework to improve

or maintain biodiversity at the landscape level.

Regional conservation plans (one has been finalised

to date) will identify conservation priorities, including

additional reserves and important corridors,

and guide the process of providing biodiversity

certification (biocertification) of environmental

planning instruments (EPIs), such as local

environmental plans. It also provides direction for

investment in biodiversity through market-based

instruments, such as BioBanking, and for other

sources, such as catchment management authorities.

Biocertification of EPIs is a new mechanism for

conserving biodiversity and protecting threatened

entities listed under the TSC Act. Certification enables

the streamlining of development assessments and

approvals by a planning authority. Once an EPI

is certified, site-by-site assessment of threatened

species is not required for any subsequent

developments within the area covered by the EPI.

On-ground programs and

management

The protection of native species and reduction

of threatening processes is directed by the

framework described above and delivered

through the following programs.

Reservation

A dedicated system of parks and reserves is the

cornerstone of conservation efforts to preserve

and protect biodiversity and ecosystems in NSW.

Approximately 8.4% of land and 34% of marine

waters has been incorporated into the reserve

system. Conservation in reserves is supplemented

by a range of conservation measures for other

public and private lands (Biodiversity 7.3).

Protected areas provide refuge for a significant

proportion of threatened species, and approximately

85% of all vertebrate groups are represented within

the reserve system (DEC 2005). The large number of

PAS actions relating to community engagement for

conservation activities on private land (355 in total)

reflects the increasing commitment to, and support

for, conservation on private land.

Regulation of clearing

The clearing of native vegetation and harvesting of

non-plantation native forest timber on rural lands are

regulated under the Native Vegetation Act 2003, and

enhanced systems for enforcement and monitoring

compliance are now in place. Approvals for clearing

of native vegetation have fallen significantly and

clearing of woody vegetation has remained stable

for a number of years. At the same time, measures

to promote revegetation and improve the condition

and management of native vegetation have been

implemented through PVPs. Provision is made for

important corridors and buffers in urban planning

processes (Biodiversity 7.1).

Management and control of invasive species

Eradication of invasive species is seldom feasible.

However, control of high priority invasive species,

such as foxes and bitou bush, is targeted at areas

of high conservation value and is being delivered

through TAPs. Broadscale rabbit control is being

delivered through the release of myxomatosis

and rabbit haemorrhagic disease, while rats, mice

and rabbits have been eradicated from several

NSW islands. However, the intensive control that

is necessary to improve the condition of flora and

fauna is largely limited to some conservation reserves

(Biodiversity 7.4).

Management of native species

The NSW Government oversees a Kangaroo

Management Program that monitors numbers

of the four large kangaroo species to ensure that

populations do not expand at the expense of other

native fauna.

Recovery plans for threatened species

Recovery plans have been used to guide on-ground

management and have resulted in positive outcomes

for a number of threatened species. These programs

require ongoing funding, in some cases for many

years, to maintain the positive outcomes.

Adaptation to climate change

The NSW Government’s response to climate change

impacts on biodiversity includes the NSW Biodiversity

and Climate Change Adaptation Framework (NSW

Government 2007) and the Adaptation Strategy for

Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity (DECC 2007).

The adaptation strategy aims to reduce the impacts

of climate change by building the reserve system

and protecting high quality vegetation remnants,

247

improving connectivity across the landscape to

allow for the movement of species, restoring

habitat in highly fragmented ecosystems to improve

resilience, and taking action to protect individual

priority species.

A Statement of Intent for Anthropogenic Climate

Change, which is currently being prepared in

response to the listing of anthropogenic climate

change as a KTP, will propose actions to deal with

the impacts of climate change on biodiversity in

NSW (Climate Change 2.3).

Other threats

The use of water from rivers, wetlands and

groundwater sources has also been regulated, with

some allocations now being made for environmental

flows (Water 6.1; Water 6.2). Management of fire has

focused largely on reducing risks to people. However,

research on the relationships between fire and the

population dynamics of a range of Australian flora

and fauna is now allowing optimal fire regimes to

be developed to maintain biodiversity and to be

considered in fire management (Biodiversity 7.5).

Future directionsNew reforms and mechanisms to enhance the

conservation of biodiversity have been introduced

since 2003, and this process is ongoing. Reviews of

legislation and of the effectiveness of investments

to conserve threatened species using the PAS are

planned for 2010. Consideration will be given to the

optimal targeting of resources across the landscape

so that large-scale threats are managed through tools

such as regional planning.

In many cases it is still too early to assess the

effectiveness of these new measures in addressing

issues that are pervasive and long-standing.

Significant trends and changes in the status of species

often become clear only over longer time frames, and

it will require sustained commitment to conservation

objectives and perseverance to achieve lasting gains

and the sustainability of many native species.

The strategic approach to conservation at the

landscape level will continue. By addressing the

main threats to biodiversity and the drivers of

biodiversity decline, outcomes and benefits will be

maximised for all species. However, species-specific

recovery actions may still be developed in cases

where specific habitat requirements are identified or

where the only populations remaining are in highly

disturbed habitats.

Regional programs that deliver on-ground actions to

address strategic conservation objectives or diminish

the impacts of threatening processes are likely to

achieve the most effective outcomes in maintaining

the diversity of native species.

Climate change is expected to place further stress on

already fragmented ecosystems and will lead to shifts

in the distribution of native species, resulting in both

losses and gains at the regional level. Measures to

improve connectivity across landscapes and build the

health and resilience of natural systems will enhance

the capacity of species and ecosystems to cope with

disturbance and adapt to changes in climate.

The information that presently supports the listing

of threatened species is not collected systematically

and this may lead to imbalances in the listings.

The provisions of the Monitoring, Evaluation and

Reporting Strategy should allow for monitoring that is

more representative and targets specific information

gaps. This will provide a more effective basis for

establishing the status of species in the future and

ensure that those species in real need of protection

are identified.

Greater research effort will provide a better

understanding of conservation and species dynamics,

and their interaction with threatening processes

and disturbances. This will assist in optimising

conservation outcomes within different land uses and

across the whole landscape.

More information is also needed about the factors

contributing to the resilience or success of some

native species and processes, such as expansions

in range or increases in population, in contrast to

the contractions or declines of many other native

species. Such processes are less commonly studied

than threats but are likely to significantly influence

future outcomes for biodiversity, and should be

considered against a broader perspective of the

global homogenisation of biodiversity through the

mass movement of species.

7.2


Biodiversity


7.3 Reserves and conservation

There has been an increase of 3.5% in the overall area of the reserve

system, with significant additions in under-represented areas.

At January 2009, the New South Wales terrestrial reserve system covered 6.7 million hectares or 8.4% of the state. Since 2006, the reserve system has grown by 236,346 ha, an increase of 3.5%.

The representativeness of the protected area system is improving, but some subregions and vegetation classes are still under-represented, particularly in the central and western regions.

In regions where remnant vegetation is scarce, opportunities for further additions to the formal reserve network are limited and measures to promote conservation are being actively pursued, both in reserves and on other tenures.

Conservation on private and other public land plays an important role in providing greater connectivity across whole landscapes. It complements the public reserve system by expanding the range of natural values that are protected and provides buffers and corridors to enhance the network of reserves.

The system of marine protected areas now covers 345,000 ha or 34% of NSW waters. Only two NSW marine bioregions – the Hawkesbury Shelf and Twofold Shelf – do not have marine parks but a number of aquatic reserves have been established in the former while only about 10% of the Twofold Shelf lies within NSW waters.

Zoning plans are used to deliver effective multiple-use management of marine parks. New zoning plans have been implemented for the Batemans and Port Stephens–Great Lakes marine parks, and existing plans for the Solitary Islands and Jervis Bay marine parks are being reviewed for the first time.

NSW indicators


Areas of terrestrial reserve system Improving ✓✓✓

Area of marine protected areas system Improving ✓✓✓


249

IntroductionAddressing the decline of biodiversity is one of the

greatest environmental challenges facing NSW.

Conservation in both private and public reserves

is an important part of the strategy to address

this challenge.

Protected areas are the cornerstone of conservation

efforts in NSW. A substantial network of protected

areas, which provides a foundation for biodiversity

conservation, has been established across the state.

The public reserve system performs three main

functions:

protecting the full range of habitats and

ecosystems, plant and animal species, and

significant geological features and landforms

protecting areas of significant cultural heritage

providing opportunities for recreation and

education.

However, more than 90% of land in NSW lies outside

public reserves and, in order to provide effective

conservation across the whole landscape and protect

the full complement of natural values, conservation

measures are increasingly being directed beyond the

boundaries of the reserve system.

In the marine environment a system of multiple-use

zoning plans provides protection and conservation

of marine and coastal ecosystems and habitats, while

allowing for a wide range of beneficial uses.

Status and trends

Terrestrial reserve system

Extent

At 13 February 2009 the area of the NSW reserve

system protected under the National Parks and

Wildlife Act 1974 (NPW Act) and Brigalow and

Nandewar Community Conservation Area Act 2005

(BNCCA Act) had grown to 789 parks, a total of

6,713,577 hectares, representing approximately 8.38%

of NSW (Table 7.6).

Since 2006, the area protected under both these Acts

has increased by 236,558 ha (3.5% of the state’s area).

Significant additions to the reserve system during this

period include Yanga National Park (65,080 ha), Upper

Nepean State Conservation Area (25,237 ha) and the

Worimi reserves (1879 ha). This does not include the

major purchase of ‘Toorale’, a property of 90,000 ha

that, once gazetted, will form a major extension to

Gundabooka National Park in north-western NSW,

a critically under-represented ecosystem in the

reserve system.

Map 7.3 shows the location of reserves in the NSW

national parks estate and reserves managed by

Forests NSW, as well as the marine parks and

aquatic reserves.

Table 7.6 describes the main types of parks

represented within the terrestrial reserve system and

the additions during the latest period of reporting.

There have been significant additions to most types

of parks and these have largely focused on addressing

gaps and enhancing the representation of poorly

conserved ecosystems and natural values.

Progress towards a comprehensive, adequate

and representative reserve system

The NSW Government is committed to the

objectives of building a comprehensive, adequate

and representative (CAR) system of reserves and

has adopted national targets for the reservation

of ecosystems set out in Directions for the National

Reserve System (NRS) (NRMMC 2005). The targets

are based on bioregions defined in the Interim

Bioregionalisation of Australia (IBRA) (Thackway

& Cresswell 1995).

Comprehensiveness is the need to conserve

samples of each element of biodiversity in protected

areas. The coarse-level national target is for at least

80% of the number of extant regional ecosystems

to be included in the NRS in each IBRA bioregion by

2015 (NRMMC 2005).

Representativeness is an extension of

comprehensiveness whereby the full variability of

biodiversity is protected. The coarse-level national

target is that examples of at least 80% of extant

regional ecosystems should be included in the NRS in

each IBRA subbioregion by 2020 (NRMMC 2005).

Adequacy is the long-term capacity or resilience

of protected areas to sustain the biodiversity within

their boundaries. It is dependent on the design of

reserves (size, shape, configuration and location in

the landscape), adjacent land uses and management

regimes. There are, as yet, no specific targets for the

adequacy of the NRS.

7.3


Biodiversity


Table 7.6: Extent and types of terrestrial protected areas and changes since 2006

Type of

protected area Description

Number of areas

and size in ha*

Change since

January 2006*

NSW national parks estate

National parks Large areas encompassing a range of ecosystem types,

allowing for recreation that is compatible with the

natural features of the parks

185 (5,017,361) 12 new national parks

(increase of 106,895 ha)

Nature reserves Areas of unique interest for biodiversity, generally

smaller than national parks

396 (887,866) 6 new nature reserves


Aboriginal areas Places of significance to Aboriginal people or sites

containing relics of Aboriginal culture

14 (11,717) 2 new areas

(increase of 13 ha)

Historic sites Areas of national importance, including buildings,

objects, monuments and landscapes

15 (3,066) No change**

State

conservation

areas

Areas it has been agreed are able to be managed for

conservation, provide opportunities for sustainable

visitor use and permit mining interests

110 (447,811) 15 new areas


Regional parks Conserved areas in a natural or modified landscape

which provide opportunities for recreation

14 (7,289) 3 new parks


Karst

conservation

reserves

Areas of limestone or dolomite characterised by

landforms, such as caves and their decorative features,

produced by solution, abrasion or collapse or by

underground drainage

4 (4,565) No new reserves, but

an increase of 156 ha

to existing reserves

Community

conservation

areas: Zone 1

As for national parks 27 (124,996) No increase

Community

conservation

areas: Zone 2

As for Aboriginal areas 5 (21,618) No increase

Community

conservation

areas: Zone 3

As for state conservation areas 19 (187,288) No increase

Total 789

(6,713,577)

8.38% of NSW

236,558 ha

Wilderness declarations

Wilderness areas Remote and undisturbed areas of sufficient size to

enable long-term preservation of their natural systems

and biological diversity, currently gazetted over existing

national parks and nature reserves

49 contiguous

areas

(2,057, 759)

2 new wilderness areas

and additions to 3

existing areas (increase

of 138,902 ha)

Wild rivers Waterways in near-pristine condition in terms of animal

and plant life and water flow, and free of unnatural

rates of siltation or bank erosion, currently gazetted

over existing national parks and nature reserves

7*** 2***

Reserved areas in state forests

State forest

dedicated

reserve

Dedicated reserve (Special protection): Managed to

maximise protection of very high natural and cultural

conservation values and not available for timber

harvesting (Zones FMZ1 and PMP1.3).

25,636 ha

(1.29% of total

native forest

estate)

Increase of 542 ha

5 additional flora

reserves set apart

(2,262.5 ha), with some

reserves transferred to

national parks

251

7.3


Table 7.6: Extent and types of terrestrial protected areas and changes since 2006 (continued)

Type of

protected area Description

Number of areas

and size in ha*

Change since

January 2006*

Reserved areas in state forests (continued)

State forest

informal

reserve: Special

management

Informal reserve (Special management): Specific

management and protection of natural and cultural

conservation values where it is not possible or practical

to include them in Zone 1. Not available for timber

harvesting (Zones FMZ2 and PMP1.2).

169,658 ha

(8.52% of total

forest estate)

Reduction of 57,428 ha

Transfer of tenure

to national parks as

part of the Western

Regional Assessment

State forest

informal

reserve: Harvest

exclusion

Informal reserve (Harvest exclusion): Management for

conservation of identified values and/or ecosystems

and their natural processes. Areas where harvesting

is excluded but other management and production

activities not permitted in Zones 1 or 2 may be

appropriate, such as grazing or mineral exploration

(Zone FMZ3a).

283,340 ha

(14.23% of total

forest estate)

Decline of 35,907 ha

Transfer of tenure

to national parks as

part of the Western

Regional Assessment

Source: DECC and DPI data 2009

Notes: * As at 13 February 2009

** A 1-ha increase in the area of historic heritage has been recorded, probably due to improvement in mapping accuracy

*** Number of rivers and their associated tributaries

Map 7.3: National parks and forests reserves, marine parks and aquatic reserves in NSW

Biodiversity


Map 7.4 shows the proportion of land in public

reserves in each of the 18 bioregions of NSW.

The National Land and Water Resources Audit

recommended 15% as an appropriate target for

the reserve system in each bioregion of Australia

(CoA 2002).

The bioregions of eastern NSW are generally well

reserved compared with bioregions in the central

and far west of the state which are generally

under-represented. Of the 18 bioregions in NSW,

11 still have less than 50% representation of their

regional ecosystems within the reserves system

(comprehensiveness). At a finer scale, 79 of the 129

subregions in NSW still have less than 50 of their

regional ecosystems represented within the NRS

(representativeness). Despite the reasonably high

levels of comprehensiveness and representativeness

of ecosystems in the eastern and alpine bioregions

(Table 7.7), the adequacy of the reserves in these

bioregions could still be improved (DECC 2008b).

The reservation goals adopted in the NSW National

Parks Establishment Plan 2008 are based on the

principle that existing and future opportunities for

building a full CAR system will vary greatly across

the state (DECC 2008b). It recognises that in regions

where little native vegetation remains the prospects

of establishing a formal public reserve system are

limited and long-term reservation goals are

adjusted accordingly.

In regions where over 70% of native vegetation

remains relatively intact, the objective of building a

full CAR system remains achievable. In areas with less

than 70% of native vegetation, realistic long-term

reservation goals are adjusted, depending on the

proportion of native vegetation remaining. However,

in areas where less than 30% of native vegetation

remains intact, a full CAR reserve system is no

longer achievable.

Map 7.4: Reservation of bioregions in NSW

253

7.3


Table 7.7: Progress towards long-term reservation objectives

NSW section of

the bioregion

Area

(ha)

Area in

managed

reserves*

(ha)

Reserves

(% of

bioregion)

Remaining

native

vegetation

cover (% of

bioregion)

Progress

towards

comprehensive-

ness**

(%)

Progress

towards

representative-

ness***

(%)

Regions where over 70% of native vegetation remains relatively intact

Mulga Lands 6,583,051 233,778 3.6 100 63 41

Channel Country 2,337,430 218,662 9.4 100 46 31

Simpson-Strzelecki

Dunefields

1,069,056 118,921 11 100 44 44

Broken Hill

Complex

3,791,288 75,441 2.0 100 33 25

Australian Alps 460,146 376,367 82 96 100 100

Murray–Darling

Depression

7,922,590 441,901 5.6 93 51 44

South-east Corner 1,160,786 495,967 43 82 100 98

Riverina 7,018,240 123,154 1.8 72 55 27

Regions where 30–70% of native vegetation remains relatively intact

Cobar Peneplain 7,369,824 177,238 2.4 69 40 37

NSW North Coast 3,990,185 974,171 24 66 99 85

Sydney Basin 3,800,249 1,446,049 38 66 947 77

Darling Riverine

Plains

9,397,488 158,110 1.7 65 36 30

South-east

Queensland

1,658,869 225,047 14 53 100 71

South-eastern

Highlands

4,715,273 696,716 15 42 94 63

New England

Tableland

2,856,696 260,254 9.1 42 80 53

Brigalow Belt South 5,629,736 465,747 8.3 42 55 36

Nandewar 2,070,751 76,042 3.7 34 53 55

Regions where less than 30% of native vegetation remains relatively intact

South-western

Slopes

8,192,519 157,197 1.9 16 33 24

Source: Adapted from DECC 2008b

Notes: * Area in formal reserves managed by DECCW

** Comprehensiveness target, measured against NRS target: examples of at least 80% of the number of extant regional

ecosystems in each bioregion will be represented by 2015

*** Representativeness target, measured against NRS target: examples of at least 80% of the number of extant regional

ecosystems in each subbioregion will be represented by 2020

Biodiversity


Private land conservation

More than 90% of the land in NSW is outside public

conservation reserves and many of the reserves in

the protected area network are relatively small and

isolated, rather than the large, continuous areas

needed to optimally maintain diversity. In order

to maintain healthy ecosystems across the whole

landscape, it is necessary to look beyond the borders

of the protected area network.

In regions which have been highly cleared, all

remaining native vegetation is of significant

conservation value so the role of conservation on

private lands is critical in helping to arrest the

decline in biodiversity.

Where native vegetation types are substantially

under-represented in the NSW reserve system, the

need for complementary conservation measures on

private land is also high. Some vegetation formations

are now found almost entirely on private land, with

only 1% of grasslands, 3% of grassy woodlands, 3%

of semi-arid woodlands and 4% of arid shrublands

represented in the public reserve system.

Private land conservation schemes

The NSW Government has developed a range of

measures to encourage and support conservation

on private land, including conservation agreements

and wildlife refuges. The variety of schemes available

provides flexibility for property owners wishing

to conserve biodiversity with differing levels of

government assistance available, depending on

the level of commitment preferred (Figure 7.5). In

response to these schemes the level of involvement

of private landholders in biodiversity conservation

has grown substantially over recent years.

Conservation partnerships

The NSW Conservation Partners Program

establishes and supports long-term partnerships

with landholders willing to protect and conserve

biodiversity and heritage values on private land.

Landholders can choose from a range of options

which recognise and formalise their commitment

to conservation on their properties. Government

support is available, matched to the level of

protection provided.

Conservation agreements are voluntary, legally

binding covenants that provide protection of

biodiversity and natural heritage values in perpetuity.

The area under the agreement is registered on

the land title, ensuring that if the land is sold the

agreement and management requirements remain

in place. Rates relief and tax concessions are available

to landholders for land subject to a conservation

agreement. There are currently 245 conservation

agreements covering an area of 23,319 ha.

Figure 7.5: Level of commitment required and level of support provided for different private land conservation programs

Level of protection for biodiversity

Le

ve

l o

f g

ov

ern

me

nt

sup

po

rt

an

d l

an

dh

old

er

com

mit

me

nt

Property Registration

(Land for Wildlife and Conserve Wildlife schemes)

Property visit Management advice Property signage

‘Bush Matters’ newsletter Technical information Local networking Field days

Wildlife Refuges

Brief plan of management

Long-term commitment

Conservation Agreements

Legal agreement with detailed plan of management

Permanent covenant

Rate exemption

$$$ for on-ground work

Source: Adapted from DEC 2005

255

Wildlife refuges are declared to enable landholders

to nominate all or part of a property where land will

be managed to retain wildlife and habitat values. A

property report and management plan are prepared

outlining actions needed to maintain natural values,

while ensuring that other compatible property

management objectives will still be achieved.

A wildlife refuge declaration is free and provides

landholders with the flexibility to change the status

of the refuge if required. There are 647 wildlife refuges

covering all or part of properties, with a total area

of 1,933,000 ha.

Property registration is an arrangement that is

better suited to landholders wishing to conserve

wildlife on private land who prefer not to sign a

formal agreement. Applicants can register all or

part of a property under the Land for Wildlife or

Conserve Wildlife schemes. These schemes provide

information and support to assist landholders in

managing wildlife and habitats, as well as networking

opportunities to share experiences with other

landholders with similar interests. There are 250

private landholders in property registration schemes.

Nature Conservation Trust agreements

The Nature Conservation Trust of NSW (NCT) is

an independent organisation promoting nature

conservation on private land. The NCT operates a

revolving fund scheme that buys properties with

high conservation value, registers in-perpetuity

trust agreements on the title, and then resells them

with the agreement on the title. Private landowners

entering into covenants may access a range of

benefits, including technical advice and assistance

with management costs. The NCT currently owns

and manages about 20,000 ha of land in NSW.

Privately owned conservation reserves

Substantial areas of native vegetation are owned and

managed by non-government organisations, such as

Bush Heritage Australia (BHA – formerly the Australian

Bush Heritage Fund) and the Australian Wildlife

Conservancy (AWC). At February 2008, Bush Heritage

owned and managed 2048 ha in five reserves of high

quality native vegetation, while Australian Wildlife

Conservancy owns and manages 65,000 ha in the

Scotia Sanctuary.

Management to enhance biodiversity on

private land

A property vegetation plan (PVP) is a voluntary but

legally binding agreement between a landholder

and the local catchment management authority

(CMA). While PVPs were introduced to approve

clearing where overall environmental outcomes

are maintained or improved, a range of PVPs are

now available covering various aspects of habitat

improvement, such as revegetation or restoration

of vegetation and better management of land

and habitat.

Conservation on other tenures

Forests NSW conservation zones

Forests NSW uses a land classification system that

sets out management intent across state forests and

identifies areas of forest set aside for conservation

and areas available for timber harvesting and other

activities (SFNSW 1999). Through this zoning system

about 479,000 ha of state forests (24% of the forests

estate) is excluded from harvesting for conservation

reasons. In addition, approximately the same amount

is excluded from harvesting for various silvicultural

reasons. These areas make a significant contribution

to the protected area network across NSW.

Travelling stock routes

Travelling stock routes (TSRs) are located on Crown

land. Approximately 700,000 ha of TSRs in the Eastern

and Central divisions of NSW are currently being

assessed for their natural values. They are largely

situated in environments that are poorly represented

in the formal conservation reserve system. Their

frequent association with agricultural activity places

them in environments that are poorly conserved and

heavily disturbed.

A large proportion of TSRs are in bioregions or

subregions (IBRA) which are less than 5% reserved

and, in some cases, TSRs provide the best, or only,

opportunity for conservation of threatened species

or communities. The linear network of TSRs forms

a fundamental system of landscape corridors,

particularly in the sheep–wheat belt and tablelands.

7.3


Biodiversity


Marine reserve system

Marine protected areas are coastal, estuarine

or ocean areas that are managed to conserve

marine biodiversity. They range from small, highly

protected areas that focus on species or community

protection to large multiple-use areas that include

complex linkages of ecosystems and habitats (NSW

Government 2001).

The establishment of a representative system of

marine protected areas is widely regarded, both

nationally and internationally, as one of the most

effective mechanisms for protecting biodiversity

(ANZECC TFMPA 1998).

The National Representative System of Marine

Protected Areas is being developed by the federal

and state governments throughout Australia’s marine

jurisdiction. The primary goal in NSW is to establish a

CAR system of marine protected areas that includes a

full range of marine biodiversity at ecosystem, habitat

and species levels (NSW Government 2001).

The NSW Government has adopted the system

of marine and coastal bioregions as the basis for

establishing and managing the NSW representative

system of marine protected areas (EA 1998;

CoA 2006). The integrated marine and coastal

bioregionalisation of Australia (IMCRA) describes a

series of bioregions for oceanic, nearshore marine

and coastal waters (EA 1998; CoA 2006). There are

six bioregions in NSW waters (Figure 7.6).

Marine protected areas in NSW complement a range

of pollution reduction, catchment management and

fisheries management programs that also contribute

to marine conservation.

Types of marine protected areas

There are three types of marine protected areas in

NSW: marine parks, aquatic reserves and the marine

components of national parks and nature reserves

(NSW Government 2001).

Marine parks are zoned to conserve marine

biodiversity, maintain ecological processes and

provide for a range of sustainable uses, such as

recreational and commercial fishing, diving, boating,

snorkelling, diving and tourism. There are four types

of zones: sanctuary, habitat protection, general use

and special purpose zones.

National parks and nature reserves include about

46% of the NSW coastline. Many national parks and

nature reserves contain significant and extensive

areas of marine ecosystems and habitats.

Aquatic reserves are declared primarily to conserve

the biodiversity of fish and marine vegetation, and

typically support a variety of fishing and collecting

activities.

Extent of marine protected areas

An integrated system of marine protected areas is

being developed in NSW, including marine parks,

aquatic reserves, national parks and nature reserves,

to achieve the optimum conservation of biodiversity

and habitat protection (NSW Government 2001).

The state’s marine parks are managed by the Marine

Parks Authority. Six marine parks have been declared

and zoned for multiple uses: Cape Byron, Solitary

Islands, Lord Howe Island, Port Stephens–Great Lakes,

Jervis Bay and Batemans marine parks. This system of

marine parks covers approximately 345,100 ha (~34%)

of NSW state waters (Map 7.3). No additional marine

parks have been declared since 2006 but the zoning

plans for Batemans and Port Stephens–Great Lakes

commenced operation in 2007.

Zoning plans provide various levels of biodiversity

protection in marine parks by regulating activities

according to zones, regulating specific activities to

manage environmental impacts, and protecting

particular species.

In summary:

Sanctuary zones account for 12–27.5% of each

marine park and provide the highest level of

protection by prohibiting all forms of fishing and

collecting. Activities that do not harm plants,

animals and habitats are permitted, including

boating and diving.

Habitat protection zones account for 19–73% of

each marine park and conserve marine biodiversity

by protecting habitats and reducing high impact

activities. Recreational fishing and some forms of

commercial fishing are permitted.

General use zones account for up to 53% of each

marine park. A wide range of activities is permitted,

including commercial and recreational fishing,

provided that they are ecologically sustainable.

Special purpose zones account for up to 0.2% of

each marine park and are used when there are

special management needs, including protection

of Aboriginal and other cultural features, or for

marine facilities.

257

Zoning plans regulate some specific activities: for

example, there are restrictions on anchoring and

the use of vehicles and personal watercraft in some

areas. They may also provide additional protection

for species of particular significance and only some

species can be taken from habitat protection zones

while some species are protected throughout entire

marine parks.

Management under other legislation, such as

fisheries management arrangements, or protection of

threatened species under the Fisheries Management

Act 1994 and Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995,

also applies.

Total area of NSW waters included in the various

zones of marine parks of each bioregion is shown

in Figure 7.6.

Twelve aquatic reserves cover around 2000 ha of NSW

waters. Ten of these are located in the Hawkesbury

Shelf bioregion around Sydney and there is one on

the north coast and one on the south coast.

Coastal areas are currently protected in 62 national

parks and nature reserves, covering more than 10%

of NSW estuary waters. These parks include ocean

coastlines, estuarine waters, shoreline and wetlands,

coastal lakes, intertidal ocean beaches and rocky

shores, and ocean islands. Some areas of national

parks and nature reserves overlap marine parks (such

as Myall Lakes) or aquatic reserves (for example,

Barrenjoey Head and Towra Point).

Coastal areas that are reserved in national parks and

nature reserves are located throughout all marine

and coastal bioregions along the coast of NSW, from

the Tweed estuary in northern NSW to Nadgee Lake

in southern NSW. They range from large parks with a

variety of oceanic and estuarine marine ecosystems,

habitats and species (such as Eurobodalla and Myall

Lakes national parks) to small parks with particular

marine and coastal features (Corrie Island, John

Gould, Montague Island and Tweed Estuary

nature reserves).

7.3


Figure 7.6: Areas of marine park zones by bioregion in NSW waters

Sanctuary Habitat protection General use Special Total (all zones)

6%

9%27%7%6%

16%

23%73%14%19%

11%

15%16%15%

33%

47%

100%

37%40%

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

Tweed-Moreton Manning Shelf

Lord HoweProvince

HawkesburyShelf

Batemans Shelf

Twofold Shelf

Total(all regions)

Are

a (h

a)

Source: Marine Parks Authority data 2009

Notes: Due to rounding effects the summed totals for individual zones within a region may not equal the total

percentage for the region.

Special zones are small and are only found in the Tweed-Moreton (0.05%), Manning Shelf (0.1%) and

Batemans Shelf (0.2%) bioregions.

Biodiversity


Pressures

Threats to values in terrestrial reserves

Weeds, pest animals and altered fire regimes are

identified as the three most common threats to

reserve values (Table 7.8). Although weeds are a

threat in more parks than either pest animals or fire,

the estimated area affected is less, possibly due to the

localised nature of many weed incursions.

Pest animals affect the greatest area of parks. Many

pest animal species are widespread and can travel

long distances, creating a greater potential for

damage over wide areas. Wildfires are sporadic

and vary greatly in impact as a result of intensity,

frequency, season and fire history. However, the

potential severity of the threat of fire is greater than

either pests or weeds, and affects a greater area of the

parks system at the highest level of threat described

in Table 7.8 (severe).

Climate change

Climate change is likely to exacerbate the impacts of

stresses on biodiversity caused by introduced species

and altered fire regimes. Changes in the make-up of

reserves due to losses and gains of both native and

exotic plant and animal species are an inevitable

consequence of climate change. The objectives

of future reserve management need to shift from

preventing ecological change to managing change

to minimise biodiversity loss (CSIRO 2008).

Threats to conservation on

private land

The pressures on private land conservation are

much the same as those in the formal reserve

system. In addition, the predominant land use will

generally be a form of production, which is rarely

completely compatible with purely conservation

objectives. Unusually harsh climatic conditions, such

as sustained drought, may periodically exacerbate the

incompatibilities and highlight the pressures arising

from competing land management needs on

private land.

Threats to marine protected areas

The key threats to the values of marine protected

areas are largely the same as the key threats to

marine biodiversity and the marine environment.

They include resource use, invasive species, pollution

from marine and land-based sources, and climate

change (MBDWG 2008).

Resource use

Resource use includes activities such as fishing,

aquaculture, mariculture, dredging and spoil

dumping, exploration and extraction of minerals,

oil and gas, shipping and tourism. These can affect

biodiversity both directly (such as by altering habitats)

and indirectly (for example, by changing food webs).

Marine protected areas are intended to conserve

marine biodiversity and maintain ecological processes

while providing for the sustainable use of resources.

Activities that are conducted within marine protected

areas are managed to ensure the sustainability of

the activities and that they do not threaten their

values. Some resource-use activities are restricted to

particular zones or may be prohibited throughout

marine protected areas.

Table 7.8: Extent and severity of most commonly reported threats to terrestrial park values

Type of

threat

Number of parks

identifying

this threat

(total parks: 759)

Estimated

proportion*

of parks affected

(%)

Estimated

extent of all threats

(any level of threat)**

(ha)

Estimated

extent of

severe threat**

(ha)

Area of park

system effectively

managing threat***

(%)

Weeds 580 17.9 1,177,367 110,955 90

Pests 470 35.9 2,356,613 163,674 95

Fire 343 26.6 1,747,297 174,130 94

Source: DECC State of the Parks data 2007

Notes: * Calculated by taking the median point from categorised area data (for example, localised (<5%), scattered (5–15%),

widespread (15–50%) and throughout a park (>50%))

** Level of threat includes mild, moderate, high and severe. Severe threat is defined as one that is likely to lead to a loss of

reserve values in the foreseeable future if the threat continues at current levels

*** Effective management is defined as meeting the precautionary principle, that is, that impacts on values are negligible,

diminishing, or not increasing

259

Climate change

Climate change is expected to affect marine life in

south-eastern Australian waters due to the combined

effects of changes to climate and oceanographic

factors, such as currents. The general effects of

climate change are expected to include changes in

the distribution and abundance of species (such as

distributions shifting to the south along the NSW

coast), changes in the timing of life cycle events (for

example, spawning migrations occurring earlier),

changes in physiology, morphology and behaviour

(such as rates of reproduction and development) and

impact on biological communities due to differential

effects on individual species (Hobday et al. 2007).

Establishing CAR systems of protected areas is an

integral part of the most effective response to the

threat of climate change (Hobday et al. 2007; Dunlop

& Brown 2008).

Responses

Terrestrial reserve system

The NSW Government is committed to

building on the reserve system in line with the

principles of comprehensiveness, adequacy and

representativeness. NSW already maintains a

substantial network of terrestrial conservation

reserves in which much of the state’s biodiversity is

represented and recent additions have substantially

enhanced the coverage of the reserve network.

National Parks Establishment Plan

Despite ongoing additions the reserve network is not

yet complete. The NSW National Parks Establishment

Plan 2008 identifies long-term objectives, and

establishes priorities for building the terrestrial reserve

system in each biogeographic region of NSW (DECC

2008b). It recognises that this will be part of a long-

term mission that may take up to 50 years to achieve.

The broad priorities described by the plan are:

establishment of new reserves in many parts

of far western and central western NSW, where

reservation currently protects less than 5% of

the landscape

building up existing reserves on the western slopes

and tablelands

fine-tuning of existing reserve boundaries along

the coast and coastal ranges, where nearly 30% of

the landscape is presently protected.

Plans of management

Under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 a

plan of management must be prepared for each

terrestrial park and reserve. These plans lead to better

understanding of the natural and cultural features

that must be protected and how to best manage

them. As at June 2009, 270 plans were adopted

covering 380 parks and reserves. In total, more than

4.8 million hectares are now covered by a plan of

management, representing almost 73% of the

reserve system.

State of the Parks

Through the State of the Parks program, the

condition of parks is monitored and the management

of pressures on protected areas evaluated in order

to find better ways to manage these areas more

effectively. A State of the Parks survey was undertaken

in 2007, and the data compiled is being used to

support planning and management decisions on a

range of issues.

Healthy Parks Healthy People

Contact with nature and the availability of

recreational opportunities can reduce the stresses

of urban living and enhance community cohesion,

health and wellbeing. NSW has a strong history of

providing a range of recreational opportunities in its

parks and reserves that allow residents and visitors to

appreciate and learn about the state’s unique natural

environment and cultural heritage.

A target under Priority E8 of State Plan 2006: A new

direction for NSW (NSW Government 2006) which

relates to people’s use of parks, sporting and

recreational facilities and participation in the arts and

cultural activities, is: ‘Increase the number of visits

to State Government parks and reserves by 20% by

2016’. A review of State Plan 2006 commenced in

August 2009 and this may adjust some of the plan’s

priorities and targets.

Healthy Parks Healthy People is a program to improve

the accessibility of parks and reserves, foster an

appreciation of their benefits and optimise access to

recreational opportunities. New visitation plans are

being developed to achieve the State Plan target.

Currently, the parks system caters to over 38 million

visits each year.

7.3


Biodiversity


Taskforce on Tourism and National Parks

in NSW

The NSW Taskforce on Tourism and National Parks

was established to provide advice on opportunities

to enhance sustainable ecotourism in the public

reserve system, compatible with the objectives of

conservation (DECC 2008c).

Private land conservation

Outside the reserve system, the NSW Government

is working with landholders, CMAs and other

government agencies to establish a range of

conservation agreements over private and other

public lands which contain important natural

and cultural heritage values (DECC 2008b). Non-

government organisations such as NCT, BHA

and AWC are now making increasingly valuable

contributions to conservation.

Since 2004, the variety and flexibility of the

mechanisms available to support conservation on

private land has been significantly expanded and

refined. Such measures are increasingly targeted to

provide greater connectivity across whole landscapes

and complement the reserve system by protecting

natural values that are under-represented, as well

as providing buffers and corridors to enhance the

network of reserves.

Great Eastern Ranges Initiative

The Great Eastern Ranges Initiative is a program

designed to strengthen the resilience of natural

systems in adapting to future environmental threats,

such as climate change. To achieve this objective

the aims of the program are to maintain, improve

and reconnect ‘islands’ of natural vegetation

along the great eastern ranges which extend for

2800 kilometres from the Australian Alps north of

Melbourne to the Atherton Tablelands north-west of

Cairns. Communities, agencies and governments in

NSW, Victoria, Queensland and the Australian Capital

Territory are all involved in this project. The NSW

Government is providing more than $7 million over

three years to implement the initiative in the state.

Conservation covenants: perpetual lease

conversion program

The conversion of Crown leases to freehold under the

Crown Lands (Continued Tenures) Act 1989 presents

a unique opportunity to conserve biodiversity by

placing covenants on property titles during the

conversion process. Approximately 650,000 ha of

freehold land title will be covenanted to provide

additional levels of protection of existing biodiversity

values. As at 3 August 2009, about 137,000 ha had

been conserved in this way. The NSW Government

has provided $13 million over four years under the

City and Country Environment Restoration Program

to purchase a select number of leases with high

conservation value for inclusion in the public

reserve system.

Marine protected areas

The NSW Government is committed to building a

network of marine protected areas that protects a

cross-section of marine biodiversity in NSW in line

with CAR principles.

Zoning plans are used as the framework to deliver

effective multiple use management of marine parks.

Since the last SoE report, the commencement of

zoning plans for the Batemans and Port Stephens–

Great Lakes marine parks has substantially enhanced

the management of the system of marine protected

areas. The current focus of improvement is to

refine the day-to-day management of the existing

marine parks.

Under the provisions of the Marine Parks Act 1997,

zoning plans must be reviewed after their first five

years of operation and every 10 years thereafter.

Reviews are now being conducted for the first two

parks established, Jervis Bay and Solitary Islands.

Future directionsThe ongoing commitment to building a

representative terrestrial reserve system in NSW

and establishing a representative system of marine

protected areas should be maintained.

The building of a fully representative terrestrial

reserve system that meets CAR objectives is a long-

term goal that may take several decades to achieve.

The NSW National Parks Establishment Plan 2008

(DECC 2008b) recognises this and provides directions

for development over the next 10 years.

The main priorities for further development of the

terrestrial reserve system are under-represented

ecosystems and habitats, rivers and wetlands in

western NSW, critical landscape corridors, lands

within important water catchments and culturally

significant places.

Conservation on private and other public land will

play an increasingly important role in supplementing

261

the public reserve system by expanding the range

and extent of the natural values that are protected.

Measures that encourage further conservation on

private land should be supported and new initiatives

that facilitate conservation should continue to be

explored and refined.

A range of mechanisms that provide habitat

protection and improve the state of native

vegetation have been developed, including PVPs

and BioBanking. Land management practices that

maintain or enhance habitat values on private land

and improve connectivity across landscapes should

be encouraged and actively promoted.

The growing influence of climate change will require

greater flexibility and an adjustment to the objectives

of park management in future, from managing to

prevent ecological change at present to managing

adaptive change in ecosystems to minimise the loss

of biodiversity and natural values.

A comprehensive and well-structured network of

reserves, supplemented by strategically located and

focused conservation measures on private land, will

provide the most effective protection to mitigate

against the effects of climate change.

Efforts to promote greater use and increased public

awareness and appreciation of parks, reserves

and protected areas will play an important role in

maintaining support for reservation.

Improved coordination and integration of

management of the coastal reserves in the terrestrial

reserve system and marine protected areas is

desirable to optimise outcomes across all marine and

coastal ecosystems.

Zoning plans provide for multiple use management

of all marine parks and enable a range of sustainable

uses to occur in conjunction with the objectives

of biodiversity conservation. The management of

the marine protected area system is undergoing

continuous improvement, and it is anticipated that

zoning plan reviews will commence for Lord Howe

Island Marine Park late in 2009 and Cape Byron

Marine Park in 2011.

7.3


Biodiversity


7.4 Invasive species

Invasive species remain one of the greatest threats to biodiversity

in New South Wales and one of the most intractable. Over half of

all listed key threatening processes relate to invasive species, and

pests and weeds have been identified as a threat to over 70% of all

threatened species.

The main vertebrate pests found in NSW are now widespread across the state. Predation by foxes and cats is implicated in the decline or extinction of numerous small- to medium-sized animals. Introduced herbivores, particularly rabbits and feral goats, have an impact on native species and ecosystems through overgrazing of native vegetation, land degradation and competition with native herbivores.

To date around 1650 exotic plant species have become established in NSW and more than 300 of these have been described as significant environmental weeds.

New invasive species, particularly weeds, continue to arrive and become established. Combining prevention, early detection and rapid eradication is the most cost-effective way to minimise the impacts of these new arrivals.

Complete eradication is seldom feasible once an invasive species becomes widely established, so control must then focus on protecting assets where the environmental benefits of control will be greatest.

There is no effective basis to estimate the full impact of invasive species upon the environment.

NSW indicators


New invasive species Unknown ✓✓

Emerging invasive species Unknown ✓

Widespread invasive species Unknown ✓


263

IntroductionHistorically, introduced species have contributed

significantly to the decline and extinction of native

species in NSW, with foxes and cats, in particular,

implicated in the extinction of numerous small- to

medium-sized ground-dwelling mammals (NPWS

2001). It is also well-established that human

disturbance has greatly accelerated the invasion rate

of introduced species (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006;

Coutts-Smith et al. 2007).

Statewide monitoring programs have recently been

established, so for the first time it is possible to report

on the distribution and abundance of new and

emerging pests and weeds, and widespread pest

species. Many invasive species are broadly established

across NSW and most areas now contain a range of

weed and pest animal species.

Little is known about the magnitude of the collective

impacts of invasive species, either on biodiversity or

the whole environment. Some recent advances have

been made in our understanding of the impacts of

invasive species, specifically on threatened species

(Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006; DEC 2006a; Coutts-

Smith et al. 2007; NLMG 2009). It is clear, however,

that the scale of the task of controlling the impacts

of widespread invasive species vastly exceeds the

resources available, and that complete eradication of

established species is rarely achievable.

Status and trends

Extent of the issue

Invasive species place a substantial burden on the

Australian economy. Invasive weeds have been

estimated to cost about $4 billion per year in lost

production, control costs and other impacts (McLeod

2004), while the cost of pest animals to the Australian

economy is over $1 billion annually (DPI 2008a). Pest

animal control alone exceeds $60 million annually

in Australia (NLWRA 2008). In NSW weeds account

for $600 million per annum in lost production and

control costs.

Large numbers of invasive species are widely

established and most areas of the state contain

a range of weeds and pest animals. Around 3000

introduced weed species have established self-

sustaining populations in Australia. Over 1650 of

these have naturalised in NSW, and more than 300

have been recognised as significant environmental

weeds (Downey et al. 2009, unpublished data).

More than 650 species of land-based animals have

also been introduced to Australia since 1788 and, of

these, 73 have established wild populations (NLWRA

2008). However, not all of these species are regarded

as a threat to biodiversity. Aquatic pest species

make up around a quarter of all freshwater fish

species in NSW rivers and over 200 species of marine

organisms have been introduced into Australian

waters (DPI 2008a). It is not presently known how

many invertebrate species have been introduced into

Australia (Coutts-Smith et al. 2007).

7.4


Table 7.9: Main introduced animal species with an impact on listed threatened species

Carnivores Herbivores Fish Other

Feral cats Feral goats Gambusia Honey bees

Red foxes Feral rabbits European carp Grass skinks*

Feral pigs Feral pigs Redfin perch Feral pigeons

Wild dogs Feral deer Goldfish Buff banded rail*

Black rats Wild horses Tench** Introduced worms

Brown rats Weatherloach Black ants*

House mice Rainbow trout

Cane toads Brown trout

Masked owls*** Banded grunter****

Blackbirds

Song thrushes

Source: Coutts-Smith et al. 2007

Notes: Introduced species are species found outside their normal range and include both exotic species and translocated natives.

* Mainland NSW species that have translocated to Lord Howe Island where they are a threat to endemic native species

** While tench was identified as a threat to a number of threatened species at the time of their listing, it has not been

recorded in NSW for over a decade.

*** Native species that is itself listed as threatened on the mainland but has been translocated to Lord Howe Island where it

has a become a threat to endemic species

**** Native species translocated to other rivers in NSW

Biodiversity


Distribution of pest animals in NSW

For management purposes invasive species are

described as widespread, emerging or new, and

each of these categories is managed differently.

A widespread species is any invasive species that

is firmly established within a region. An emerging

species is any invasive species that has newly

established and is expanding its range. A new species

is any invasive species that has not been recorded

previously in NSW, but has the potential to invade.

Thirty pest animal species have been identified

as posing a threat to at least one endangered or

vulnerable species in NSW (Coutts-Smith et al. 2007).

Foxes, feral cats and wild dogs are the carnivores with

the greatest impact on biodiversity. The herbivores of

greatest concern are rabbits, feral goats and feral pigs,

while in aquatic environments European carp and

gambusia are the most significant pests (Table 7.9)

Widespread species

The distribution and abundance of seven widespread

pest animals – foxes, feral cats, feral goats, rabbits,

feral pigs, wild dogs and carp – have been surveyed

and Map 7.5 presents the overall results. The map

shows that these pest animals are broadly and

relatively evenly distributed across the whole state

and that no part of NSW is unaffected by the main

pest animal species. The heaviest concentrations of

pest animal species are in some parts of the north-

west of the state.

Map 7.5: Distribution and abundance across NSW of widespread pest animals with a high impact

Notes: The distribution and abundance index scores were determined by combining the frequency and abundance of each

species recorded in each grid cell.

265

New and emerging species

The distribution and abundance of five new and

emerging pest animals of concern – camels, horses,

donkeys, deer and cane toads – have been surveyed

and Map 7.6 presents the overall results. These

animals are scattered across the state with the

greatest numbers along the coastal slopes and plains.

Deer have the widest distribution of the species

surveyed and are thought to be expanding into

forested areas that have remained relatively free

of pest animals.

Distribution of environmental weeds

in NSW

Invasive weeds may be exotic or translocated

native species, but those that have the greatest

environmental impact are predominantly introduced

species. Weeds threaten biodiversity both directly

through competition and indirectly through their

impacts on ecosystem structure and function.

Under the Australian Weeds Strategy, 20 introduced

plants are identified as Weeds of National Significance

because of their invasiveness, potential for spread,

and economic and environmental impacts. A number

of these are widespread and include alligator weed,

bitou bush, blackberry, bridal creeper, Chilean

needle grass, lantana, salvinia, serrated tussock and

some species of willow. A number have restricted

distribution, for example Athel pine, boneseed,

7.4


Map 7.6: Distribution and abundance across NSW of new and emerging pest animal species



Biodiversity


cabomba, hymenachne, mesquite and parkinsonia,

while occasional parthenium weed incursions from

Queensland have been eradicated.

A recent analysis of 1650 weed species in NSW found

that more than 300 are likely to have significant

impacts on biodiversity (Downey et al. 2009,

unpublished data). Table 7.10 contains a list of the 20

most commonly identified environmental weeds in

NSW, identified in terms of the number of threatened

species that are impacted by them.

A number of weeds have also been identified as

collective threats based on functional groupings:

these include exotic grasses, vines and scramblers,

legumes and aquatic weeds. While they do not figure

strongly in the listings of individual weeds, the first

two have a significant effect collectively (see Figure

7.7). The significance of aquatic weeds may have

been underestimated in this analysis (Coutts-Smith

& Downey 2006).

Table 7.10: Most commonly identified weed species posing a threat to biodiversity in NSW

Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name

Lantana Lantana camara Paspalum Paspalum dilatatum

Bitou bush and boneseed Chrysanthemoides

monilifera

Wandering jew Tradescantia fluminensis

Blackberry Rubus fruticosus agg. Maderia vine Anredera cordifolia

Kikuyu Pennisetum clandestinum Coolatai grass Hyparrhenia hirta

Scotch broom Cytisus scoparius Prickly pear Opuntia spp.

Crofton weed Ageratina adenophora Moth vine Araujia sericiflora

Camphor laurel Cinnamomum camphora Groundsel bush Baccharis halimifolia

Small-leaved privet Ligustrum sinense Japanese honeysuckle Lonicera japonica

Mistflower Ageratina riparia African boxthorn Lycium ferocissimum

African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula African olive; common olive Olea europaea

Source: Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006; DECCW data 2009

Table 7.11: Number of weeds in each catchment management authority region in NSW

CMA region

Number of weed

species present Total flora

Contribution of

weeds to total

flora (%)

Number of weeds

that impact

threatened

species

Sydney Metropolitan 758 2,356 32 101

Hawkesbury–Nepean 733 3,012 24 98

Northern Rivers 627 3,282 19 100

Hunter/Central Rivers 580 2,893 20 96

Southern Rivers 577 2,907 20 98

Murrumbidgee 531 2,159 25 67

Central West 502 2,197 23 59

Namoi 475 1,917 25 72

Lachlan 447 1,781 25 54

Murray 439 1,641 27 55

Border Rivers–Gwydir 427 2,029 21 63

Western 242 1,463 17 29

Lower Murray–Darling 187 896 21 25

NSW total 1,386 6,634 21 127

Source: Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006

267

Widespread species

There are so many widespread weeds in NSW

that it is not practical to map their distribution

and abundance. A coarse pattern of distribution is

available by looking at the number of weeds and

the number of threats aggregated by catchment

management authority (CMA) region (Table 7.11).

The Sydney region has the highest number of weeds

(758) and the highest number of threatening species

(101), while the lowest number of weeds (187) and

threatening species (25) is in the Lower Murray–

Darling region. Numbers are highest near the coast

and in high rainfall areas, and decline from east to

west (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006).

Despite some variation, no part of the state is

unaffected by weeds that threaten biodiversity.

Weeds now make up more than 20% of the flora

of all regions of NSW.

New and emerging species

Map 7.7 shows the spatial distribution of new and

emerging invasive weed species.

The weed abundance index used in Map 7.7 is based

on the species listed as noxious weeds (classes 1,

2, 3 and 5), either within a local government area

(LGA) or across the whole of NSW. The system of

listing weeds as noxious is a mechanism intended

specifically to prevent their spread (see Responses) so

these listings correspond well with the categories of

new and expanding weeds. Broadly, there are greater

concentrations of these weeds in eastern coastal

regions, around major urban centres and in higher

rainfall areas. Most new weed incursions are garden

escapes (Groves & Hosking 1998).

7.4


Map 7.7: Distribution of new and emerging weeds in NSW



Biodiversity


Distribution of aquatic pests

The NSW Government is collecting baseline data

on new, emerging and widespread introduced

freshwater fish species from 470 sampling sites.

This will deliver improved information for the next

SoE report. So far, 411 sites have been sampled,

with 40% of all fish recorded at these sites

introduced fish species. Table 7.12 provides some

detail about the abundance of individual introduced

fish species recorded.

Table 7.12: Introduced fish at sampling sites

Fish species (non-native)

% of sites

where present

Common carp 56.5

Mosquitofish 47.9

Goldfish 33.7

Rainbow trout 10.8

Redfin perch 9.4

Brown trout 8.3

Eel tailed catfish

(translocated native species)

3.3

Oriental weatherloach 1.5

Climbing galaxias

(translocated native species)

0.3

Platy 0.2

Source: DPI data 2008

Since 2006, the platy (Xipophorus maculates), a

fish species native to Mexico, was the only newly

introduced fish species recorded in NSW rivers.

More than 200 exotic species have been introduced

into Australia’s marine environment. Of those found

in NSW, very few are listed on the schedule of marine

pests to be targeted in Australia. Most of these

have limited distributions and are not considered a

serious threat to biodiversity in NSW. These include

several species of toxic dinoflagellates and several

species of invertebrates. The European shore crab has

been recorded in 12 estuaries or coastal lakes, from

Batemans Bay south to the Wonboyn River, while the

European fanworm and New Zealand screw shell are

both restricted to Twofold Bay (DPI 2008b).

The aquarium weed caulerpa (Caulerpa taxifolia) is the

most significant threat to the marine environment

as it spreads easily from small fragments and can

quickly colonise seagrass beds. An invasive strain of

caulerpa was first recorded in NSW coastal waters in

April 2000. It has since spread to 14 estuaries, with

new infestations in Batemans Bay, Durras Lake, the

Hawkesbury River and Lake Wallangoot since SoE

2006 (DEC 2006b), while its elimination from Lake

Macquarie has recently been confirmed.

Environmental impacts of

invasive species

Impacts on threatened species

Collectively, weeds and pest animals have been

identified as a threat to approximately 70% of the

threatened species listed under the Threatened

Species Conservation Act 1995 (TSC Act) and the

Fisheries Management Act 1994 (FM Act). Invasion by

exotic species has an impact on the second highest

number of threatened species (after land clearing)

(Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006). The level of impact

of selected key pest and weed threats to threatened

species is illustrated in Figure 7.7.

Individually, widespread pest animals, such as feral

cats and foxes, have a greater impact than individual

weed species. However, collectively, the number of

weeds is much greater and their combined impact

is broader than the impact of pest animals. Weeds

have a negative impact on 45% of threatened

species, populations and ecological communities

in NSW, while pest animals directly threaten 40% of

them (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006; Coutts-Smith

et al. 2007).

Listings of invasive species as key

threatening processes

The magnitude of the impacts of pest and weed

species is reflected in the listing of a relatively large

number of invasive species as key threatening

processes (KTPs) under both state and federal

legislation. Eighteen of the 33 listed KTPs in NSW deal

with the impacts of weed and pest animal species.

Pest animals listed as KTPs include rabbits, foxes,

feral cats, ship rats, feral pigs, feral goats, deer, cane

toads, gambusia and four invertebrates (feral honey

bees, fire ants, yellow crazy ants and large earth

bumblebees). Weed species listed as KTPs include

lantana, bitou bush and Scotch broom, while vines

and scramblers are listed collectively, as are exotic

perennial grasses.

269

Broader environmental impacts

The total impact of introduced species on biodiversity

or the environment as a whole is difficult to quantify.

Most of the information available on the impacts of

invasive species on biodiversity concerns impacts

specifically on threatened species, not on all flora

and fauna (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006). Even this

is descriptive only of the extent of impacts and is not

in any way indicative of their magnitude.

The broader impacts of invasive species upon the

environment and ecosystem health are substantial,

but remain largely unquantified. These impacts

include soil degradation, landscape and habitat

disturbance, decline in vegetation condition, and

changes to watercourses and water quality.

PressuresInvasive species, which are the subject of this issue,

are themselves a pressure on the environment.

Therefore the discussion that follows relates

specifically to risk factors that exacerbate the impacts

of invasive species.

Habitat disturbance

Disturbed and nutrient-enriched ecosystems are at

greatest risk of incursion by invasive species. This

applies to both physical disturbances and imbalances

in the natural biota (Lake & Leishman 2004). Invasive

species are generally unaffected by the constraints

that operate in intact natural systems and are able to

rapidly exploit disturbed areas, where natural systems

are under stress.

Greater mobility and trade

Greater mobility and the globalisation of international

trade have significantly increased the movement

of people and goods across Australia’s borders in

recent years. This increases the risk of accidental

introductions, particularly of diseases and insect

and other invertebrate pests. The ballast water

and hull fouling of cargo ships are well-known

pathways for the incursion of many pests into the

marine environment.

The nursery trade is responsible for introducing many

new plant species into Australia and many have

escaped from gardens to become weeds. Sixty-five

per cent of the weed species in NSW that pose a risk

to threatened species were introduced as ornamental

plants (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006) and some are

still available for sale in NSW. The aquarium industry

is responsible for introducing a number of fish and

7.4


Figure 7.7: Numbers of NSW species, populations and ecological communities threatened by selected terrestrial invasive species

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Feral cats

Foxes Lantana Feral goats

Rabbits Exotic perennial

grasses

Feral pigs

Bitou bush and

boneseed

Exotic vines and

scramblers

Cane toads

Terrestrial invasive species

Num

ber o

f lis

ted

entit

ies

impa

cted

Source: Modified form Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006

Notes: The threatened species, populations and ecological communities are those listed under the TSC Act.

The invasive species selected are generally those listed as key threatening processes.

Data was compiled by aggregating the threats affecting each threatened species, identified at the time of listing, across all

threatened species.

Biodiversity


aquatic plant species that have been released into

the wild and flourished. Illegal international trade in

a variety of exotic species is a further pathway for

unplanned introductions.

Changes in distribution

Many invasive species are yet to reach their

distribution limits. For example, weed species such as

orange hawkweed, boneseed, olives, cabomba and

some exotic vines occupy only a small part of their

potential range. Even widespread species, such as

lantana, bitou bush, blackberry and Coolatai grass,

have the potential to spread further. Pest animal

species such as cane toads are continuing to spread

southwards and westwards from the far north coast,

while a national program is under way to eradicate

red fire ants before they spread into NSW.

Climate change

Limited data is available on the potential impacts of

climate change on invasive species in the future (DPI

2008a). It is likely that the impact of invasive species

will increase as a result of climate change. Invasive

species are generally well adapted as colonisers of

disturbed ecosystems and will probably cope better

with changes in environmental conditions, such as

increased temperatures and changes in rainfall and

fire regimes that are likely to result from climate

change. Species movements and contractions

of both native and exotic species due to climate

change are likely to differentially favour invasive

species. The Weeds and Climate Change program is

a collaborative research program to understand the

interaction between climate change and invasive

species, with preliminary results of this research now

becoming available.

Lack of information

Information on the distribution and abundance of

invasive species is patchy and largely subjective in

nature. A framework has been established through

the New South Wales Invasive Species Plan 2008–2015

(DPI 2008a) and the Natural Resource Management

Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting (MER) Strategy.

In many cases there is a lack of standardised

procedures and databases to collect and maintain

consistent information at the statewide level.

Other than the impacts on threatened species,

there is no basis to record or estimate the impacts

of invasive species on the environment. This lack

of information limits the ability to identify priorities

and manage the impacts of invasive species on

biodiversity and reduce the threats they pose to

the environment as a whole. The lack of information

about the impacts of invasive species upon systems

and processes at the landscape level is a significant

risk in effectively managing adaptation to

climate change.

ResponsesTarget 4 under Priority E4 of State Plan 2006: A new

direction for NSW (NSW Government 2006) is: ‘By 2015

there is a reduction in the impact of invasive species’.

The MER Strategy is being implemented to monitor

progress towards all E4 targets. A review of State Plan

2006 commenced in August 2009 and this may adjust

some of the plan’s priorities and targets.

Legislation

A variety of laws, policies and programs are

administered by a range of government agencies to

manage invasive species in NSW. The most important

legislation relating to invasive species management

are the Noxious Weeds Act 1993, Rural Lands Protection

Act 1998, Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995

(TSC Act), Fisheries Management Act 1994 (FM Act),

Game and Feral Animal Control Act 2002 and the

Commonwealth Quarantine Act 1908.

Invasive Species Plan

The response of the NSW Government to invasive

species impacts is set out in the NSW Invasive Species

Plan 2008–2015 (DPI 2008a). The plan describes a

range of strategies to control or reduce the impacts

of invasive species that are most effective at different

stages in the cycle of incursion and establishment of

an invasive species (Figure 7.8).

The four main strategies identified are:

prevention, precautionary measures with the

objective of preventing the arrival of any new

species that are likely to become invasive and have

a significant impact

eradication, the detection and permanent removal

of any newly arrived invasive species that is likely to

have a significant impact before it can establish a

self-sustaining population

containment, restricting the spread of recently

established or emerging invasive species for

which there is no longer any realistic prospect

of eradication

protection, targeting control at the most severe

impacts of widespread invasive species to areas of

high conservation value (asset protection).

271

Management of invasive species

Management of new invasive species:

prevention and eradication

Prevention of initial incursions and the early detection

and rapid eradication of new incursions are the most

cost-effective ways of managing invasive species,

as eradication is seldom feasible once an invasive

species has become established. This is the primary

focus of the Australian Biosecurity System for Primary

Production and the Environment (AusBIOSEC).

The system is being enhanced through a whole-

of-government project, which was established in

October 2005. The aim is to bring together, under

an overarching national framework, biosecurity

activities being undertaken by federal, state and

territory governments, industry, landholders and

other key stakeholders in primary production and

the environment.

The NSW New Weed Incursion Plan 2009–2015 (DPI

2009b) has recently been developed to address

the first two objectives of the NSW Invasive Species

Plan 2008–2015 (DPI 2008a) as it relates to weeds.

This plan will help coordinate the surveillance

and identification of weeds and weed pathways,

risk assessment of species and implementation of

effective barriers to prevent their establishment.

The plan will also outline how responses to weed

incursions will be coordinated, implemented,

monitored and reported.

There are few management programs targeting

invertebrates, apart from those which deal with

regular outbreaks of plague locusts. However, one

of the most successful programs has been the

apparent eradication of an incursion of yellow crazy

ants detected in 2004 at Goodwood Island, near the

mouth of the Clarence River. Following a collaborative

campaign of regular treatment and surveillance of the

infested area during 2004 and 2005, no yellow crazy

ants have been observed on the island since 2005.

Management of emerging invasive species:

containment

Containment is the main focus of strategies for

managing emerging invasive species. Once an

invasive species becomes established and starts to

expand in range, the main objective shifts to limiting

its spread. Containment zones have been established

for several Weeds of National Significance including

bitou bush (on the south coast and far north coast)

and lantana (south coast). The objective of weed

management in these zones is complete eradication

of the weed species.

Noxious weeds are listed in the schedules of

the Noxious Weeds Act 1993. Weeds that are

declared noxious have the potential to cause

significant environmental or economic impacts,

can be controlled by reasonable means and, most

importantly, still have the potential to spread

within an area, or to other areas. Most listings apply

regionally to LGAs, although some species are listed

for the whole state.

7.4


Figure 7.8: Strategy for managing new, emerging and widespread weeds in NSW

Weed management

Asset protection

Containment

Eradication

Prevention

Invasion point Time

Area invaded

Source: DPI 2009a

Biodiversity


When a weed becomes so widespread that

eradication or containment is no longer feasible,

its declaration as a noxious weed may be repealed,

as it no longer meets the criteria for listing. Some

widespread weeds are not listed in areas where they

are abundant, but may be listed in neighbouring

areas where their distribution is limited, though there

is the potential for further spread.

Table 7.13 describes the five classes of noxious weeds

listed in NSW, either statewide or regionally, and

the number of species currently listed in each class,

anywhere in the state.

Management of widespread invasive species:

asset protection

While prevention and eradication of new threats

and the containment of emerging threats are more

cost-effective control strategies, many invasive

species are already widely established in NSW and

are responsible for the majority of environmental

impacts. No matter what resources are deployed, it

is virtually impossible to eradicate, or achieve long-

term and lasting landscape-level control, of any

invasive species that has become widespread. The

rare exception is where a suitable biological control

has been identified (as for prickly pear, water hyacinth

and, to a lesser extent, rabbits).

Table 7.13: Numbers and types of noxious weeds listed in NSW

Control class Definition Objectives of management Number listed*

Class 1: State

Prohibited Weeds

Plants that pose a potentially

serious threat to primary

production or the environment

and are not present in the state

or are present only to a limited

extent

Prevent introduction and

establishment

27

Class 2: Regionally

Prohibited Weeds

Plants that pose a potentially

serious threat to primary

production or the environment

of a region to which the order

applies and are not present in the

region or are present only to a

limited extent

Prevent introduction and

establishment

11

Class 3: Regionally

Controlled Weeds

Plants that pose a serious threat

to primary production or the

environment of an area to which

the order applies, are not widely

distributed in the area and are

likely to spread in the area or to

another area

Reduce extent and impact 43

Class 4: Locally

Controlled Weeds

Plants that pose a threat

to primary production, the

environment or human health, are

widely distributed in an area to

which the order applies and are

likely to spread in the area or to

another area

Minimise negative impact

on community, economy

or environment

96

Class 5: Restricted

Plants

Plants that are likely, by their

sale or the sale of their seeds or

movement within the state or an

area of the state, to spread in the

state or outside the state

Prevent introduction into

NSW, spread within NSW

or from NSW to another

jurisdiction

36


Notes: Apart from Class 1 which is statewide only, weeds are counted in a class if they are listed in that class anywhere in the state,

either regionally or statewide. Some species will appear in more than one class as they may be listed under different classes

in different regions.

* The numbers given reflect the minimum value as sometimes an entire genus is listed which contains a number of

unspecified species

273

The control of widespread species must therefore

be strategically targeted to reduce their impact on

priority assets (native species, populations, regional

ecosystems and ecological communities). This

requires the prioritisation of both the entities most at

risk and the most effective sites for control, to identify

where the benefits are expected to be greatest based

on the likelihood of recovery of biodiversity.

Threat abatement plans (TAPs) for invasive species

are based on the principles described above and

are covered in greater detail in Biodiversity 7.2. TAPs

have been implemented for foxes, gambusia and

bitou bush, and are being developed for lantana

and feral goats. An important component of all

TAPs for invasive species is monitoring programs to

measure the response of priority threatened species

in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of controls.

Results from the fox TAP have demonstrated positive

outcomes for some species, such as the improved

breeding success of little terns.

However, with more than 300 weed species

considered to have an impact on biodiversity, it is

not practical to develop single-species TAPs for each

species. Therefore, an asset-protection approach is

now being developed to apply to all widespread

weeds at a regional scale.

Management of aquatic pests

The FM Act lists species that are restricted for import

(live) into NSW without a permit. The species listed

have been identified as posing a significant threat to

wildlife, ecosystems, human health or the aquaculture

industry. The list is divided into two classes: noxious

fish that pose such a significant threat to the

environment or production that destruction orders

are in place (eight species and one genus), and other

noxious species that may only be imported into

NSW with a permit (19 species, 14 genera and nine

families). Noxious species are not permitted to be

kept privately and must be destroyed.

Future directionsWith the growth in global travel and trade, it is

inevitable that new and potentially invasive species

will continue to be introduced into NSW, either

deliberately or accidentally. A key challenge is to

prevent new incursions or contain and eradicate

emerging species quickly to avoid further additions to

the current array of widespread invasive species.

Measures to more effectively identify species that are

potentially invasive and prevent their introduction by

the agricultural, horticultural and aquarium industries

and the wider community, reinforced by a greater

awareness of environmental impacts among these

sectors, would assist in reducing future incursions.

The prevention and eradication of new threats

must be complemented by an increasing focus

on managing widespread invasive species to

protect assets (native species, populations, regional

ecosystems and ecological communities) at locations

where the benefits of control will be greatest. The

TAPs for foxes and bitou bush are good models of

how this prioritisation process is working.

To demonstrate the effectiveness of control

programs, it is important to monitor the response

of both the invasive species and the native species

affected by them, to confirm that invasive species are

a limiting factor in the success of conservation and

recovery programs.

In order to provide broadscale control of widespread

invasive species that is both effective and affordable,

further research is essential, particularly on biological

controls.

Measures that afford some control over the

introduction of marine species from overseas via

ballast water are now in place, but hull fouling is less

well controlled.

Climate change will produce shifts in the distribution

of both introduced and native species. A better

understanding of the interactions between climate

change, natural systems and invasive species will

assist in managing the adaptation of biodiversity

to changes in climate. Future priorities for invasive

species management will need to be sufficiently

flexible to mitigate the effects that climate change

may have on invasive species incursions, spread

and impacts.

Better information on the distribution and spread of

invasive species, and better systems for collecting

and maintaining data that is available statewide in a

consistent and standardised way would significantly

improve knowledge and management of invasive

species. This will assist all facets of management

including improving detection, identifying priorities,

directing controls, monitoring effectiveness and

reporting outcomes, as well as promoting better

understanding of the issues.

7.4


Biodiversity


7.5 Fire

Fire is a significant and ongoing threat to human settlement

and ecosystem integrity. An understanding of the role of fire

regimes in ecological systems is increasingly being factored into

decision-making.

Altered fire regimes since settlement (either too much or too little fire, or fire of too high or too low an intensity) can have major detrimental effects on the structure of most ecosystems and the populations of many endangered species.

Fire is a natural part of the Australian landscape. Getting the right balance between preserving natural ecosystems and the need to ensure community safety and the protection of assets is the key to achieving appropriate fire management.

One of the principal tools for fire management is hazard reduction burning, but the optimal level of burning is still a matter of debate in the scientific and public arenas. Over the past three years about 110,000 hectares of hazard reduction activity per year have been conducted in New South Wales.

Arson is likely to be responsible for over half of all wildfires, and increased community awareness and vigilance has an important role to play in fire prevention.

NSW indicators

A key component of long-term monitoring of the effects of fire on ecological systems is matching fire history

to vegetation. The Rural Fire Service (RFS) is compiling fire history data across NSW, in conjunction with land

management agencies. While there are still some limitations because of the nature of historical data collection,

data accuracy is being significantly improved as it is now being collected on an annual, coordinated basis.

Indicators will be able to be measured once a statewide vegetation layer becomes available.

IntroductionFire has been present on the Australian continent

for millions of years and is a key factor in plant

and animal population dynamics in most NSW

ecological communities. Many Australian animals

and plants have evolved not only to survive, but

also to benefit from the effects of fire. A substantial

proportion of NSW flora depends on fire to assist in

reproductive processes.

In Australia, fire has been managed since the earliest

human presence. Although the fire regimes practised

by Aboriginal people before settlement are not

fully understood by the scientific community, it is

evident that the pattern of fire in the landscape has

changed over the past 200 years (Williams et al. 2001).

The introduction of property ownership by private

individuals and the need to protect stock and assets

has altered fire regimes and therefore the ecology

across a variety of landscapes.

275

Status and trends

Incidence of fire

Bushfires possess immense destructive force and may

result in substantial social costs, including the loss of

human lives, buildings, infrastructure and livestock.

In extreme cases, such as the Canberra bushfires of

2003 and the Victorian bushfires of 2009, they are

natural disasters that claim many human lives, inflict

broad destruction on assets across the landscape, and

severely disrupt essential services. The effects of fires

in NSW are conventionally reported in terms of their

extent and social impacts and costs.

The incidence of fire varies greatly each year

(Table 7.14). The number of fires is closely linked

to prevailing weather patterns. Fire bans may be

declared by the Minister for Emergency Services

for any part of NSW. This is likely when hot, dry and

windy conditions occur or are predicted for areas

containing dry vegetation where the potential for

fire to spread is high. The number of statewide fire

bans is indicative of the extent of fire danger weather

conditions across NSW during a fire season.

The primary factors determining the severity and

extent of bushfires are wind speed, temperature,

relative humidity and dryness of the fuel. Other

contributing factors include the fuel type, fine fuel

load, the physical structure of vegetation and the

terrain in which the fire is burning. The effectiveness

of fire suppression actions also determines the

extent and severity of running fires.

Fire ecology

The impact of bushfires is commonly reported in

terms of areas burnt and lives and assets lost, but this

is an insufficient basis to determine the ecological

effects of fires, which depend on fire intensity,

season and previous fire history. Understanding the

ecological outcomes of fire is further impeded by a

poor knowledge of the response of animals to fire.

Ecological communities are dynamic systems where

fire is just one of the natural disturbances that bring

change. Fires shape the structure, composition and

function of most plant communities, creating specific

habitats required by a range of species. Differing

patterns of fire history will differentially favour some

species and associations, and suppress others, leading

to variability in the landscape.

However, if fires occur too frequently, even fire-

tolerant species may become locally extinct when

their life cycles are interrupted by, for example, a

subsequent fire killing adults and juveniles before

they reach reproductive age. Conversely, the

exclusion of fire may not provide an opportunity for

the regeneration of fire-dependent species, such as

those that require fire for germination of seed, also

leading to local extinctions. Broad changes in fire

patterns may also result in habitat transformation,

ranging from structural vegetation changes through

to a shift from one vegetation type to another, or

decreasing habitat resilience to invasive species.

7.5

7.5 Fire

Table 7.14: Bushfires and damage between 2002–03 and 2007–08

Fire season No. of fires*

Statewide

fire bans

(days)

No. of s.44

declarations

in a fire

season**

Days between

first and last

s.44 declaration

in a fire

season**

Lives lost

as a direct result

of fire

2002–03 5,642 13 61 151 3

2003–04 1,764 0 10 31 0

2004–05 2,659 1 20 16 0

2005–06 2,865 5 38 150 2

2006–07 3,361 0 36 151 2

2007–08 2,271 0 7 75 0

Source: RFS data 2008

Notes: * Derived by adding the number of fires from the four RFS regions. Any fire that occurred across the boundary of two

regions will be counted twice

** Section 44 declarations apply to fires where the RFS Commissioner controls operations

Biodiversity


Altered fire regimes have been described as a

threat to over 80% of the state’s vegetation classes

(see Biodiversity 6.1). High-frequency fire has been

identified as a significant cause of biodiversity loss in

NSW and is listed as a key threatening process under

the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995.

The interval between fires is a critical factor in

the capacity of individual species to survive and

reproduce (Bradstock & Kenny 2003). Minimum fire

intervals have therefore been developed for the

maintenance of biodiversity. These allow sufficient

time between fires for species to complete crucial

stages of their life cycles essential for regeneration,

such as plants being able to reach an age where

they are capable of producing adequate seed.

Table 7.15 presents minimum fire intervals for a

range of vegetation formations, Also included in

Table 7.15 are the maximum fire intervals for a

number of vegetation formations which serve as

a general guide to their longer term requirements

for fire to enable renewal of vegetation before

senescence. The greatest biodiversity is maintained by

varying the length of inter-fire intervals spatially and

temporally within the specified range between the

minimum and maximum intervals (Kenny et al. 2003).

Table 7.15: Fire intervals for vegetation formations

Vegetation formation*

Minimum fire interval

where biodiversity

management is the

focus (years)

Minimum fire

interval where fire

management is the

focus (years)**

Maximum fire

interval (years)

Rainforests No fire No fire No fire

Alpine complex No fire No fire No fire

Estuarine and saline wetlands No fire No fire No fire

Grasslands 3 2 10

Grassy woodlands 8 5 40

Dry sclerophyll forests

(shrub/grass subformation)

8 5 50

Dry sclerophyll forests

(shrubby subformation)

10 7 50

Semi-arid woodlands

(shrub/grass subformation)

9 6 40

Semi-arid woodlands


15 10 40

Arid shrublands

(chenopod subformation)

No fire No fire No fire

Arid shrublands

(acacia subformation)

15 10 40

Forested and freshwater wetlands

(excluding montane bogs and

fens, coastal freshwater lagoons

and montane lakes which have

no tolerance of fire)

10 7 35

Heathlands 10 7 30

Wet sclerophyll forests

(grassy subformation)

15 10 60

Wet sclerophyll forests


30 25 60

Source: DEC data 2005

Notes: * Vegetation formations are as described in Keith 2004

** These intervals are absolute minimums with respect to maintaining biodiversity as they provide little or no buffer for

adequate seed production

277

7.5

7.5 Fire

Refining the frequency of burning appropriate for

various vegetation formations in NSW is likely to

remain the subject of scientific investigation for some

time, in part due to the diverse array of species and

communities and the length of time required to

assess the long-term impacts of fire. This is also true

with respect to gaining a landscape understanding of

the ecological effects of changes in fire intensity and

the season of burning.

Fire management

Fire management strategies

The emphasis of fire management should be on

hazard reduction and minimising risk (Ellis et al. 2004).

The primary objective of fire management

by all agencies is to protect human life and property,

with biodiversity conservation an important, but

secondary, consideration. Asset protection zones

provide for reduced fuel loads adjacent to houses

and other assets. The most common method of

reducing fuel in these zones is by mechanical means.

To achieve fire management objectives (specifically

in the strategic fire advantage zones identified in

bush fire risk management plans) some areas require

fuel loads to be reduced more frequently than is

required by the minimum intervals for biodiversity

described previously. Reduced minimum intervals

have been developed for areas where strategic fire

advantage zones have been identified. These intervals

are absolute minimums with respect to maintaining

biodiversity as they provide little or no buffer for

adequate seed production.

Biodiversity requirements can often be incorporated

into fire management practices. However,

compromises that result in suboptimal outcomes for

biodiversity conservation may be required at times

(DEC 2005) particularly in asset protection zones.

Appropriate assessment is undertaken on a case-by-

case basis in these circumstances.

Hazard reduction

Hazard reduction burning to reduce fuel loads

outside the peak fire season is a key fire management

tool practised widely across the state. This is

complemented by other key measures, such as

mechanical works to maintain setbacks around

strategic assets, firebreaks and fire trails. The annual

levels of hazard reduction burning and total areas of

hazard reduction management are described in Table

7.16. These figures appear to be relatively stable with

hazard reduction activities carried out on around

110,000 ha per year for the period reported.

Ecological burns

Although some managed burns fulfil both hazard

reduction and ecological roles, there is limited

information available on fires conducted solely for

ecological purposes, such as implementing burns to

avoid breaching the maximum fire interval. However,

the NSW Government is adopting the approach of

identifying underburnt and overburnt vegetation

types based on both fire history records and the

fire thresholds identified in Table 7.15. The work of

collecting data across NSW is still in development,

although an example is provided in the Ben Boyd

National Park and Bellbird Creek Nature Reserve Fire

Management Strategy which is available as a series

of maps in poster form depicting vegetation, fire

management zones, fire history, fire potential and

burning interval thresholds for vegetation.

Table 7.16: Area of hazard reduction management by tenure

Year

Hazard

reduction

methods*

Land tenure**

Local

government

authority

(ha)

NSW

parks

(ha)

Private

land

(ha)

State

forest

(ha)

Other

(ha)

Total

(ha)

2005–06 Burning only 838 29,070 3,155 38,008 790 71,861

All methods 31,387 32,026 3,647 38,008 2,674 107,742

2006–07 Burning only 177 23,718 8,498 43,715 1,905 78,013

All methods 25,495 23,840 8,892 43,716 2,295 104,238

2007–08 Burning only 1,163 48,497 13,958 30,719 3,861 98,198

All methods 10,464 49,514 21,656 30,719 12,203 124,556

Source: RFS annual reports, such as RFS 2008

Notes: * All methods includes burning and mechanical works

** Areas of hazard reduction do not include grazing land

Biodiversity


PressuresFire, which is the subject of this issue, is itself a

pressure on the environment. Therefore the

discussion that follows in this section relates

specifically to risk factors that exacerbate the

threat of fire.

Causes of fire

Data from the 2002–03 to 2004–05 fire seasons

indicates that the incidence of fire was markedly

higher in densely populated areas along the

NSW coast compared with larger but less densely

populated areas elsewhere. There appears to be a

strong relationship between the incidence of fire

and population density.

Data on the causes of fire from both the RFS and NSW

National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) indicates

that most fires are due to human intervention rather

than natural processes. Such fires may result from

arson, accidental ignition or escapes from prescribed

burn-offs, with arson being the most common cause.

Using RFS data, investigations by the Australian

Institute of Criminology into the causes of 466

fires between 2001 and 2004 found that 64% were

deliberately lit and the proportion did not vary greatly

in subsequent fire seasons. Data from NPWS supports

this general pattern, with almost half of the fires

started in national parks during 2003–04 attributed

to arson, although this proportion has dropped in

the latest data available (Table 7.17).

Fire and climate change

The incidence of wildfire is influenced by fire-weather

risk, which is expected to rise as a result of climate

change (Hennessy et al. 2006). A recent study projects

the likely increase in fire-weather risk across regions

of south-eastern Australia (Lucas et al. 2007). The

frequency of days with ‘extreme’ ratings on the Forest

Fire Danger Index is predicted to generally increase

by 5–25% for the low climate change scenarios and

15–65% for the high climate change scenarios by

2020. By 2050, the increases are generally 10–50%

for the low scenarios and 100–300% for the high

scenarios. In addition, ‘fire danger’ seasons are

predicted to become longer and start earlier in the

year, but there is still some uncertainty as to whether

the number of days when it is safe to conduct hazard

reduction burning will decrease, or whether the

window of suitable days will shift to earlier and later

in the year than at present.

Responses

Fire protection and management

Under the Rural Fires Act 1997 (RF Act), the RFS is

responsible for the prevention, mitigation and

suppression of bushfires within rural fire districts.

All functions performed by the RFS are required

to be consistent with the principles of biodiversity

conservation and ecological integrity stipulated by

the Protection of the Environment Administration

Act 1991.

The RF Act provides for the establishment of the

NSW Bush Fire Coordinating Committee (BFCC) and

district Bush Fire Management Committees (BFMCs)

which are required to prepare and adopt bushfire

risk management plans and operations coordination

plans for each rural fire district. The risk management

plans identify assets at risk from wildfire, including

environmental assets, and specify a range of

strategies and actions appropriate for the protection

of these assets and the agencies responsible

for implementing them. These include hazard

reduction, property planning, community education,

preparedness and ignition management strategies.

Operations coordination plans establish guidelines for

coordinated firefighting and contain environmentally

based restrictions. Operations maps also include

provision for the consideration of environmental

assets during firefighting operations.

The Bush Fire Environmental Assessment Code

2006 provides a framework for the environmental

assessment and approval of bushfire hazard

Table 7.17: Causes of investigated bushfires in NSW

Land tenure Period Deliberate Accidential Natural Burn-off Unknown Total

RFS 2001–04 298 68 51 36 13 466

RFS 2005–08 450 30 75 73 92 720

National parks 2003–04 126 13 48 33 43 263

National parks 2006–08 189 79 295 52 197 812

Sources: AIC 2005a; AIC 2005b; DEC 2005; DECC data 2008

279

reduction. Environmental assessments consider the

impacts of prescribed burning and mechanical works

on natural values, including vegetation, threatened

species and heritage items, as well as their effects

on soil stability, air and water quality. Minimum fire

intervals (see Table 7.15) and threatened species

guidelines are a critical component of environmental

assessments. Outcomes of these assessments are

used by the RFS and some other authorities to issue

conditional bushfire hazard reduction certificates that

provide approval for conducting these activities.

Integrating bushfire protection into the planning

system through the Planning for Bush Fire Protection

framework will ensure safer developments in

bushfire-prone areas. A key approach is the

consideration during the planning phase of setbacks

around dwellings to provide protection from

bushfires. Proposed developments may be resited

if the environmental impacts of these setbacks are

likely to be significant. Higher building construction

standards may also be adopted to offset the distance

required for setbacks.

Community education and prevention

The FireWise program provides community-based

support for at-risk groups and is a key component

of the hazard management program. The RFS is

also establishing the AIDER Program to assist infirm,

disabled and elderly residents living in bushfire-prone

areas to undertake fuel reduction and to support

these residents in living safely and confidently in

the community.

The Hotspot Project is a new program involving

agencies and non-government organisations to

assist landholders develop and implement fire

management plans for their properties. Although the

primary focus of these programs is on protection of

life and property, all the elements of the programs

take environmental issues into consideration when

they are developed.

A range of measures has been implemented to

reduce the rate of arson in NSW. In response to the

2001 Christmas bushfires, the Crimes Amendment

(Bushfires) Act 2002 was passed, adding the new

offence of lighting bushfires to the Crimes Act 1900.

While some strategies, such as educational programs

for school students and the thorough screening

of volunteer firefighters, are designed to prevent

the crime, others focus on developing better

investigative techniques so that more arsonists will

be apprehended.

Knowledge and information

The Bushfire Risk Information Management System

(BRIMS) is maintained by fire authorities and public

land managers. BRIMS provides a vital resource for

the storage of data on fires across the state. Long-

term data on where fires start and how they spread

will be invaluable for determining fire management

strategies, the allocation of firefighting resources,

and the prevention of arson and accidental

ignitions. Collated data on prescribed burns will also

provide insight into the effect of fire history both

operationally and from an environmental impact

perspective. Only six years of data has been included

to date so the full potential of the database is yet to

be realised.

The NSW Government has funded the Centre for

Environmental Risk Management of Bushfires at the

University of Wollongong to conduct research into

bushfire management issues. It also supports work

being done by other research institutions such as the

Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre (CRC).

Future directionsThe incidence of high fire-risk days – and

consequently the frequency of wildfire – is expected

to rise due to climate change. The number of days

when it is safe to conduct hazard reduction burning

may be reduced or shift to earlier and later in the

year. This creates the need for a flexible approach to

the implementation of bushfire hazard reduction.

A recent innovation is the introduction of seasonal

work crews to assist rural fire brigades with hazard

reduction preparation. The extra assistance will allow

fire brigades to concentrate on conducting more

burns safely and effectively, thereby saving time and

capitalising on windows of suitable weather.

Fire management strategies will increasingly be based

on better knowledge of fire behaviour and ecology,

and better techniques for fire suppression. This will

help to counteract, to some extent, the effects of

climate change.

Fire patterns have generally been approached

as a natural response by fire to unnatural fire

management regimes. Evidence is now emerging

that, particularly near more populated areas, the

pattern of fire is largely not of natural causes.

The incidence of arson and knowledge of the

behavioural patterns of arsonists is being increasingly

incorporated into fire management strategies.

7.5

7.5 Fire

Biodiversity


It is imperative to support new and ongoing research

into all aspects of fire behaviour, management and

suppression, as well as fire ecology, building design,

property management and community resilience

to enhance our capacity for living with fire.

It is recognised that there is scope for better

maintenance and use of the data and information

that is collected about fire, and more could be

collected. Alignment of the data held by agencies

is improving, resulting in greater consistency of

the figures reported. Information is also improving,

leading to more sophisticated analyses of wildfire

patterns, effects and environmental impacts, and

particularly the use of decision-support and related

applications for fighting fires and managing hazards.

281

7.6 Fisheries

Commercial wild fish landings and the overall numbers of anglers

are relatively stable in New South Wales. Some species are

overfished, prompting further refinement of harvesting controls.

Over 100 key species of finfish and shellfish are harvested in NSW. Where it has been possible to determine the status of these stocks, most have been classified as fully fished, indicating that harvesting is probably sustainable, but that there should be no significant expansion of commercial or recreational catches. Three species are considered overfished, prompting a review of management arrangements for those species. Fifty key species have an uncertain or undefined exploitation status, although this number has steadily declined since 2001–02.

Fisheries management addresses impacts of fishing on the target stocks as well as broader environmental impacts, such as effects on bycatch species. All major commercial fisheries in NSW have now been subject to a full environmental impact assessment. Recreational fisheries are more complex to assess, so approaches other than environmental assessment are required. The recent review and subsequent strengthening of bag and size limits for harvested species is one such approach.

NSW indicators


Status of key fish stocks Stabilising ✓✓

Impacts of aquatic harvesting

(commercial and recreational)

Stabilising ✓


7.6

7.6 Fisheries

IntroductionWild harvest fisheries include species taken by

both the commercial and recreational sectors from

NSW estuaries, bays, beaches and ocean waters.

Commercial fishing also occurs outside the three

nautical mile territorial waters under the Offshore

Constitutional Settlement between NSW and the

Commonwealth government where some species

and fishing methods are managed by the state.

Fish populations can exhibit substantial natural

variability in population size, structure, condition

and spatial extent. The difficulty in directly observing

fish populations makes it a significant challenge to

assess and manage stocks. Continuing improvements

in the management and regulation of commercial

and recreational fisheries, as well as ongoing

marine habitat protection, will help to ensure the

sustainability of fisheries resources.

Biodiversity


Status and trends

Fish stocks

Fish stocks that are shared between the commercial

and recreational sectors (such as mulloway) can

be most efficiently assessed using information

that is primarily from the commercial sector, as

representative data from the recreational sector is

more expensive to obtain. Assessment of fisheries

resources has been identified as a priority in

the development of management strategies for

commercial fisheries and environmental assessments.

Key harvested species in NSW are monitored

on an ongoing basis using a range of methods,

including an analysis of catch and ‘effort’ data, and

approaches which analyse the length and age-

composition of catches. Historical records show

that the stocks of some species remain stable,

despite significant harvesting, usually because of

individuals’ rapid growth, high fecundity and early

maturity. Other species, such as sharks and rays,

are prone to overfishing because of low growth

rates, low fecundity and late maturity. There are also

considerable challenges identifying certain species of

fish, particularly when they are similar in appearance

to related species (as is the case with many species

of shark). Table 7.18 shows the status of various

fish stocks in NSW that were determined using a

standardised approach (DPI 2006). Detailed reporting

on stock status for all key species is available from the

Status of Fisheries Resources in NSW 2006/07 (Scandol

et al. 2008).

Freshwater fish and fisheries

The status of freshwater fish is traditionally assessed

on an ‘assemblage’ basis rather than a ‘species’ basis.

Thus, ‘fish assemblages’ is an indicator used to assess

the overall condition of riverine ecosystems under the

Monitoring Evaluation and Reporting Strategy (also

see Water 6.2). Data is collected from all NSW river

systems using standardised electro-fishing techniques

supplemented by small bait traps on a three-year

rolling program. This data is used to calculate metrics

on ‘expectedness’ (that is, relative to expected pre-

settlement assemblages) and ‘nativeness’ (that is, the

relative abundance of native to alien species). The

data could also be used, however, to examine trends

in the abundances of particular species through time

or in particular parts of the state. Such analyses are

not currently done on a routine basis. No freshwater

commercial fisheries have operated since 2001, with

the exception of those which harvest European carp

and yabbies.

Pressures

Commercial fisheries catch

NSW has several thousand fish species and several

hundred are harvested regularly by commercial

fishers. Most of the commercial catch is derived from

the state’s marine waters (75% in 2007–08), with

smaller proportions harvested from estuarine waters

(25%) and very minor quantities from inland waters

(<1%). Figure 7.9 illustrates the trend in the total

commercial catch of finfish, crustaceans and molluscs

since 1997–98, after catch reporting became more

systematic. Overall landings for all species have been

relatively stable since 1998–99, varying between

15,000 and 18,000 tonnes per annum.

For marine ecosystems, reef fish have been proposed

as potential indicators of overall condition (see also

Water 6.5). Reef fish data comes from commercial

catch statistics (catch per unit effort) from the ocean

trap fishery as this fishery effectively targets offshore

rocky reef habitats. Catches from this fishery of 24

species over the last 10 years were considered.

Averaged across all species, catch rates have

remained stable over this time.

Figure 7.9: NSW commercial fisheries landings, 1997–98 to 2007–08

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

1997

–98

1998

–99

1999

–00

2000

–01

2001

–02

2002

–03

2003

–04

2004

–05

2005

–06

2006

–07

2007

–08

Land

ings

(ton

nes/

year

)

Finfish Crustaceans Molluscs


Notes: Figures for 2007–08 are preliminary.

283

7.6

7.6 Fisheries

Table 7.18: Status of various NSW fish stocks

Species

Exploitation status

2006–07*

Commercial catch trend

2004–05 to 2007–08**

Abundance trend

2004–05 to 2007–08**

Marine and estuarine finfish species

Yellowfin bream Fully fished Stable Stable

Dusky flathead Fully fished Increasing Stable

Sand whiting Fully fished Stable Stable

Luderick Moderately fished Stable Stable

River eels Some catchments fully

fished

Stable Increasing

Sea mullet Fully fished Stable Stable

Yellowtail scad Fully fished Stable Increasing

Blue mackerel Moderately fished Decreasing No data

Snapper Growth overfished Stable Increasing

Yellowtail kingfish Growth overfished Stable Stable

Blue-eye trevalla Moderately fished Stable Stable

Gemfish Overfished Stable Stable

Silver trevally Growth overfished Decreasing Stable

Eastern sea garfish Overfished Decreasing Stable

Leatherjackets Fully fished Stable Stable

Mulloway Overfished Stable Stable

Marine and estuarine shellfish species

Abalone Fully fished or affected

by parasite perkensis

Quota dependent Decreasing

Eastern rock lobster Fully fished Quota dependent Increasing

Eastern king prawn Growth overfished Stable Increasing

School prawns Growth overfished Increasing Increasing

Spanner crabs Fully fished Stable Stable

Bugs Fully fished Decreasing Decreasing

Blue swimmer crabs Fully fished Stable Decreasing


Notes: Exploitation status is reviewed each year by DII fishery scientists and managers who consider a very broad range of

information, including estimates of fish mortality, patterns in length composition, commercial catch and effort data, and

any information available from the recreational fishery (DPI 2006). The quota-managed lobster and abalone fisheries are

assessed using an alternative process.

* Exploitation status:

Moderately fished: the stock is likely being fished at a level that may allow for a limited increase in the commercial or

recreational catch

Fully fished: catches are likely to be sustainable, but there is little scope for increases in either the recreational or

commercial catch

Growth overfished: fish are being harvested at a size smaller than the biological and economic optimum. Although

growth overfishing can be sustainable, additional monitoring and assessment is required

Overfished: current fishing levels are unlikely to be sustainable and yield would be higher in the long term if the fishing

pressure was reduced until the population recovered

Undefined: there is currently little information about the status of this stock which would enable a credible determination

of stock status to be made

** Catch or abundance trend: a qualitative indication about the relative trend in commercial catch or abundance.

Abundance is inferred from catch corrected for effort (or catch per unit effort) from passive fishing gear, such as

fish traps

Biodiversity


Measuring overall commercial fishing effort in NSW

is not straightforward because around 30 different

catch methods are regularly used and they are not

readily comparable. As a surrogate for total fishing

effort, the number of commercial catch returns

can be used as an effort indicator. Figure 7.10

shows a steady decrease in reported returns from

commercial fishing since 1997–98. This decrease is

a result of the implementation of marine parks and

recreational fishing havens and subsequent buyouts

of commercial effort. Recently, there has also been a

reduction in fishing effort due to high fuel and low

product prices. There has, therefore, been an increase

in the average catch per return, but this is most

likely the result of fewer active fishers rather than an

increased abundance of fish.

Recreational fisheries catch

Estimates from a national survey of recreational

fishing in 2000–01 indicate that NSW recreational

fishers catch around 13 million fish each year, as well

as 17 million prawns, crabs and lobsters, and 2 million

bait fish (Henry & Lyle 2003). The total recreational

harvest is estimated to be about 40% of the estuarine

commercial harvest, and around 20% of the oceanic

commercial harvest, but the share of the resource

varied greatly among species. Several common

estuarine fish species (bream, dusky flathead and

whiting) were harvested in greater numbers by

recreational than commercial fishers. Undersize fish

discarded by recreational fishers experience variable

mortality rates depending on the species caught and

how they are handled during capture.

Estimating the recreational catch in NSW is difficult

and expensive due to the large number of anglers

involved, the complexity of the activity and the lack

of adequate information on anglers to conduct

cost-effective surveys. Extensive onsite surveys were

completed in the Greater Sydney region from 2007

to 2009, with anglers being interviewed about their

fishing activity rather than self-reporting.

There are no effective indicators for recreational

catch in NSW because of likely changes in the avidity

of anglers and their efficiency. There are numerous

drivers for change in recreational fishing, including

recreational fishing havens, shifting demography

(including ‘sea-changers’) and the introduction of

better fishing gear (particularly soft plastic lures).

All of these changes will put upward pressure on

recreational catches. An informative time-series for

angling is the number of receipts issued for one-

Figure 7.10: NSW commercial fishery monthly catch returns, 1997–98 to 2007–08

1997

–98

1998

–99

1999

–00

2000

–01

2001

–02

2002

–03

2003

–04

2004

–05

2005

–06

2006

–07

2007

–08

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

Num

ber o

f cat

ch re

turn

s


Notes: Figures for 2007–08 are preliminary.

Figure 7.11: Receipts issued for one- and three-year recreational fishing fees in NSW, 2001–02 to 2007–08

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

Rece

ipts

issu

ed

One year fee Three year fee

2001

–02

2002

–03

2003

–04

2004

–05

2005

–06

2006

–07

2007

–08


285

and three-year recreational fishing licence fees

(Figure 7.11). One- and three-year licence fees are

paid by the more avid recreational fishers who are

likely to harvest most of the catch. Anglers who only

fish occasionally pay a lower fee for a licence for a

short period. Although the trend in Figure 7.11 is

relatively stable for three-year licence fees, the figure

provides limited insight into possible changes of the

overall recreational harvest.

Shark Meshing (Bather Protection)

Program

The NSW Shark Meshing (Bather Protection) Program

has operated in the Sydney region (Newcastle,

Central Coast, Sydney North, Sydney South and

Illawarra) since 1937. The program has been effective

in reducing fatal shark attacks at major metropolitan

beaches, with only one fatality at a netted beach

since the SMP began.

While reducing the risk of shark attack, shark

meshing is also listed as a key threatening process in

recognition of its impact on threatened species. Nets

150 metres long and 6 m high with 50–60 cm mesh

size are set from September to April each year. Data

on the incidental catch as a result of the program

since 1950 shows there has been a large reduction

in the number of sharks caught each year. Between

1990–91 and 2007–08, catches as a result of the

program have averaged approximately six sharks per

month in the Sydney region (DPI 2009c). Non-shark

species caught in the nets and released when still

alive include rays, which make up the majority of

the bycatch, and the occasional dolphin, turtle and

seal. More than half the rays entangled in the nets

are released alive, with seals and turtles also more

resilient to entanglement and being released alive.

Responses

Fish stock status

Improving the understanding of the status of fish

stocks requires an ongoing commitment to the

collection of better information, collaboration with

other research and management agencies, and

development of more effective assessment methods.

Strategies in place include:

introduction of new logbooks for commercial

fisheries from July 2009 to record better

information on catch, effort and fishing

methods used

surveys of the recreational fishery to gain an

understanding of the size and number of fish

caught by anglers, such as the exercise completed

in the Greater Sydney region from 2007 to 2009

introduction of guides for hard-to-identify

species, such as the shark identification guide for

commercial fishers (DPI 2008c)

continued investment in the development and

application of risk-based assessment methods that

are highly applicable to species caught in smaller

quantities (Astles et al. 2006)

implementation of scientific decision-making

processes to determine stock status using a

complex mixture of information from NSW and

elsewhere (DPI 2006).

When it has been determined that a species is

overfished, there is a requirement for a recovery

program. A recovery program for eastern sea garfish

was implemented in 2005. The recovery of gemfish

is primarily a federal responsibility as the Southern

and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery is the

dominant source of fishing mortality of this species.

A recovery program is not required for species

that are determined as ‘growth overfished’ if the

combination of the existing harvest strategy and

life history characteristics of the species provides

sufficient protection for the stock from the effects

of fishing.

Harvesting

A range of responses is used to manage commercial

and recreational fisheries in NSW. Measures that

directly limit the impact of fishing activities include:

regulation of commercial fishing operations

through licence, gear and species restrictions

application of catch quotas to control harvest

rates (sharks, rock lobster, abalone and red sea

urchins only)

bag and boat limits for recreational fishers

byproduct catch limits

temporal and spatial closures

application of minimum legal lengths to protect

immature fish and, less commonly, maximum legal

sizes to protect spawning stocks

improvement of the selectivity of both commercial

and recreational fishing gear to minimise bycatch

improvement in the handling practices for

commercially discarded or recreationally released

fish to improve survival.

7.6

7.6 Fisheries

Biodiversity


Management through broad frameworks to protect

fish populations and habitats is available using

approaches that include:

fishery management strategies, environmental

assessments, reviews of environmental factors and

ecological risk assessments

implementation of share management plans

and other strategies to improve the viability of

commercial fisheries.

The NSW Government is involved in projects to

reduce bycatch in commercial and recreational

fisheries. These projects have been successful in

minimising the waste of resources in a number of

fisheries and can reduce the bycatch of some

species by 90%, while having limited impact on

the catch of target species. Research into minimising

the mortality of line-caught fish discarded by

recreational fishers is being undertaken (see Butcher

et al. 2008 for guidelines).

A general recreational fishing licence fee, introduced

in 2001, has generated funds to buy out commercial

fishing businesses and establish 30 recreational

fishing havens. Overall, about $18 million has

been spent buying back around 250 commercial

fishing operations. Marine park buyouts have also

contributed considerably to the reduction in the

number of fishing businesses in NSW.

Removal of commercial fishing from Lake Macquarie

and Tuross Lake has seen an improvement for

recreational fishing in those areas (Steffe et al.

2005). Recreational fishing havens are expected to

mitigate conflict over access for recreational and

commercial fishing.

Bag and size limits for recreational fishing have

been reviewed and strengthened following public

consultation in 2005. Daily bag and possession limits

are currently applied to more than 80 finfish and

shellfish species.

Aquaculture has the potential to reduce

pressure on the demand for wild fish stocks, but

inappropriate and unregulated development also

poses environmental risks. The Department of

Industry and Investment (DII) is encouraging the

responsible development of aquaculture through

use of sustainable aquaculture strategies which

are enacted under State Environmental Planning

Policy 62 – Sustainable Aquaculture. The NSW oyster

industry and the draft NSW Land Based Sustainable

Aquaculture Strategy (DPI 2009d) outline best-practice

management in relation to species, site, design and

operational activities. The strategy also provides a

simplified whole-of-government approval process for

the development of an aquaculture farm.

DII has also developed the Hatchery Quality

Assurance Scheme to comply with the Freshwater

Fish Stocking Fishery Management Strategy. Twelve

industry and government hatcheries in NSW are

accredited under the scheme, which provides

freshwater fish for restocking into NSW waterways.

The scheme promotes best practice and focuses on

ensuring fingerlings are healthy and meet genetic

standards for restocking programs.

Shark meshing

The Shark Meshing (Bather Protection) Program

has recently been reviewed and a Report into the

NSW Shark Meshing (Bather Protection) Program was

produced (DPI 2009c). This report has informed the

development of the Joint Management Agreement

and Management Plan under the state’s fisheries

management legislation.

Future directionsThere has been significant reform to ensure the

long-term sustainability and viability of the NSW

commercial fishing industry and stabilise the harvest

of living aquatic resources. Importantly, issues such as

bycatch reduction are now fundamental components

of fisheries management strategies. However, it will

take some time to measure the statewide benefits to

fish stocks.

Recreational fishing is regulated differently from

commercial fishing because, in most cases, the

activities vary substantially. Additional restrictions on

bag and size limits have been imposed on anglers

and these will be tightened if stocks are determined

to be overfished or subject to other significant risks.

DII also has an extensive recreational fishing advisory

campaign, including the Fishcare Volunteer Program

and a statewide primary schools education program,

to promote responsible and sustainable fishing.

The stresses on fisheries resources are likely to

increase in the long term because of improvements

in the technologies used to locate and harvest fish as

well as population growth and other demographic

changes. Coastal and estuarine developments also

have the potential to degrade fish habitat, including

the habitat required by juvenile fish. Fishing is

considered to be a potential pressure on the overall

condition of riverine, estuarine and marine aquatic

systems (see Water 6.2; Water 6.5; Water 6.6).

287

There is a high demand for locally produced

seafood and some restaurants and retailers are now

identifying the location and method used to harvest

the fish they sell. This trend is likely to continue as

the seafood industry looks for ways to add value to

their product. Efforts to assist commercial operators

to adjust their fishing practices should continue in

order to meet national and international standards to

minimise impacts on fish stocks, bycatch species and

aquatic habitats.

The Fisheries Management Act 1994 gives authority for

the conservation of fish stocks and habitats regardless

as to whether the impacts are being caused by

commercial fisheries, recreational fisheries or other

activities. Programs operate to monitor and assess

the state of key fish stocks, and recovery programs

are required once species have been determined to

be overfished. These recovery programs require more

stringent regulations on harvesting and more robust

monitoring and assessment.

Growth in aquaculture can reduce the pressures

on some fish stocks but must be managed carefully

to prevent or minimise their own impacts on

the environment.

7.6

7.6 Fisheries

Biodiversity


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